diff --git a/apps/example/src/errors/cargoErrorHandler.ts b/apps/example/src/errors/cargoErrorHandler.ts
index ec142ea7..97e6498c 100644
--- a/apps/example/src/errors/cargoErrorHandler.ts
+++ b/apps/example/src/errors/cargoErrorHandler.ts
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ import { Request, Response, NextFunction } from 'express'
 setCargoErrorHandler((err: CargoValidationError, req: Request, res: Response, next: NextFunction) => {
     res.status(422).json({
         code: 'VALIDATION_ERROR',
-        message: '입력값이 올바르지 않습니다.',
+        message: 'The provided input is invalid.',
         details: err.errors.map(e => ({
             name: e.name,
             message: e.message,
diff --git a/packages/express-cargo/src/enum.ts b/packages/express-cargo/src/enum.ts
index b13585a0..a600f71a 100644
--- a/packages/express-cargo/src/enum.ts
+++ b/packages/express-cargo/src/enum.ts
@@ -31,11 +31,11 @@ export function Enum<T>(enumObj: any, message?: cargoErrorMessage): TypedPropert
         const enumValues = enumKeys.map(k => enumObj[k as keyof typeof enumObj])
         const validInputs = [...enumKeys, ...enumValues]
 
-        // 1. enum 타입 정보 저장
+        // 1. Store the enum type information
         fieldMeta.setEnumType(enumObj)
         fieldMeta.pushAppliedDecorator({ name: Enum.name, category: 'type-helper', args: [enumObj, message] })
 
-        // 2. enum validator 추가
+        // 2. Add the enum validator
         fieldMeta.addValidator(
             new ValidatorRule(
                 propertyKey,
@@ -45,21 +45,21 @@ export function Enum<T>(enumObj: any, message?: cargoErrorMessage): TypedPropert
             ),
         )
 
-        // 3. enum transformer 추가
+        // 3. Add the enum transformer
         const transformer = (value: any): any => {
             if (value === null || value === undefined) return value
 
             const enumKeys = Object.keys(enumObj).filter(k => isNaN(Number(k)))
 
-            // 1. 입력값이 enum 키('ADMIN') 인 경우
+            // 1. When the input is an enum key (e.g. 'ADMIN')
             if (typeof value === 'string' && enumKeys.includes(value)) {
                 return enumObj[value as keyof typeof enumObj]
             }
 
-            // 비교를 위해 숫자형 문자열을 숫자로 변환
+            // Convert a numeric string to a number for comparison
             const comparableValue = typeof value === 'string' && !isNaN(Number(value)) ? Number(value) : value
 
-            // 2. 입력값이 enum 값(예: 0 또는 'admin')인 경우
+            // 2. When the input is an enum value (e.g. 0 or 'admin')
             for (const key of enumKeys) {
                 if (enumObj[key as keyof typeof enumObj] === comparableValue) {
                     return comparableValue
@@ -70,7 +70,7 @@ export function Enum<T>(enumObj: any, message?: cargoErrorMessage): TypedPropert
         }
         fieldMeta.setTransformer(transformer)
 
-        // 메타데이터 저장
+        // Store the metadata
         classMeta.setFieldMetadata(propertyKey, fieldMeta)
     }
 }
diff --git a/packages/express-cargo/tests/binding/requestBinding.test.ts b/packages/express-cargo/tests/binding/requestBinding.test.ts
index b26e519b..85d8942e 100644
--- a/packages/express-cargo/tests/binding/requestBinding.test.ts
+++ b/packages/express-cargo/tests/binding/requestBinding.test.ts
@@ -34,7 +34,7 @@ class RequiredRequestDTO {
 }
 
 describe('request binding', () => {
-    it('request transformer로 값 바인딩', () => {
+    it('binds values via request transformer', () => {
         const middleware = bindingCargo(RequestDTO)
 
         const req = makeMockReq({
@@ -53,7 +53,7 @@ describe('request binding', () => {
         expect(dto.optionalField).toBeNull()
     })
 
-    it('validator 실패 시 CargoValidationError 발생', () => {
+    it('throws CargoValidationError when a validator fails', () => {
         const middleware = bindingCargo(RequestDTO)
 
         const req = makeMockReq({
@@ -69,7 +69,7 @@ describe('request binding', () => {
         expect(err.errors).toEqual(expect.arrayContaining([expect.objectContaining({ message: expect.stringContaining('score') })]))
     })
 
-    it('optional 필드가 없으면 null 처리', () => {
+    it('sets an optional field to null when it is missing', () => {
         const middleware = bindingCargo(RequestDTO)
 
         const req = makeMockReq({
@@ -84,7 +84,7 @@ describe('request binding', () => {
         expect(dto.optionalField).toBeNull()
     })
 
-    it('optional request field가 없으면 validation을 건너뛴다', () => {
+    it('skips validation when an optional request field is missing', () => {
         const middleware = bindingCargo(RequestDTO)
 
         const req = makeMockReq({
@@ -100,21 +100,21 @@ describe('request binding', () => {
         expect(dto.optionalScore).toBeNull()
     })
 
-    it('Source 데코레이터와 @Request 를 함께 쓰면 B2 위반으로 거부된다', () => {
+    it('rejects combining a source decorator with @Request', () => {
         expect(() => bindingCargo(MixedBindingDTO)).toThrow(CargoSchemaError)
     })
 
-    it('bindingCargo 미들웨어 없이 getCargo를 호출하면 에러를 던진다', () => {
+    it('throws when getCargo is called without the bindingCargo middleware', () => {
         const req = makeMockReq()
         expect(() => getCargo<RequestDTO>(req)).toThrow(/bindingCargo/)
     })
 
-    it('_cargo가 null이어도 getCargo는 에러를 던진다', () => {
+    it('throws from getCargo even when _cargo is null', () => {
         const req = makeMockReq({ _cargo: null } as any)
         expect(() => getCargo<RequestDTO>(req)).toThrow(/bindingCargo/)
     })
 
-    it('required request field가 없으면 validator를 건너뛴다', () => {
+    it('skips validators when a required request field is missing', () => {
         const middleware = bindingCargo(RequiredRequestDTO)
 
         const req = makeMockReq({
diff --git a/packages/express-cargo/tests/binding/sourceBinding.test.ts b/packages/express-cargo/tests/binding/sourceBinding.test.ts
index ace3df5f..5c528ac8 100644
--- a/packages/express-cargo/tests/binding/sourceBinding.test.ts
+++ b/packages/express-cargo/tests/binding/sourceBinding.test.ts
@@ -13,7 +13,7 @@ class TestDTO {
 }
 
 describe('source decorator binding', () => {
-    it('요청 데이터가 정확히 바인딩되고 타입 캐스팅됨', () => {
+    it('binds request data accurately and casts types', () => {
         const middleware = bindingCargo(TestDTO)
 
         const req = makeMockReq({
@@ -35,11 +35,11 @@ describe('source decorator binding', () => {
         expect(dto.id).toBe(10)
         expect(dto.isAdmin).toBe(true)
         expect(dto.loginAt).toEqual(new Date('2025-09-20T17:00:00.000Z'))
-        expect(dto.nickname).toBeNull() // optional 처리
+        expect(dto.nickname).toBeNull() // optional handling
         expect(dto.score).toBe(5)
     })
 
-    it('validator 실패 시 CargoValidationError 발생', () => {
+    it('throws CargoValidationError when a validator fails', () => {
         const middleware = bindingCargo(TestDTO)
 
         const req = makeMockReq({
@@ -59,7 +59,7 @@ describe('source decorator binding', () => {
         expect(err.errors).toEqual(expect.arrayContaining([expect.objectContaining({ message: expect.stringContaining('score') })]))
     })
 
-    it('optional 필드가 없으면 null 처리', () => {
+    it('sets an optional field to null when it is missing', () => {
         const middleware = bindingCargo(TestDTO)
 
         const req = makeMockReq({
@@ -78,10 +78,10 @@ describe('source decorator binding', () => {
         expect(dto.nickname).toBeNull()
     })
 
-    it('targetClass가 Object인 경우(any 타입 등) 원본 객체 데이터를 보존함', () => {
+    it('preserves the raw object data when targetClass is Object (e.g. any type)', () => {
         class AnyDataDTO {
             @Body('data')
-            data!: any // Object로 리플렉션됨
+            data!: any // reflected as Object
         }
 
         const middleware = bindingCargo(AnyDataDTO)
@@ -94,11 +94,11 @@ describe('source decorator binding', () => {
 
         expect(next).toHaveBeenCalledWith()
         const dto = getCargo<AnyDataDTO>(req)!
-        // 빈 객체 {}가 아닌 원본 데이터와 일치해야 함
+        // should match the raw data, not an empty object {}
         expect(dto.data).toEqual(rawData)
     })
 
-    it('required source field가 없으면 validator를 건너뛴다', () => {
+    it('skips validators when a required source field is missing', () => {
         const middleware = bindingCargo(TestDTO)
 
         const req = makeMockReq({
diff --git a/packages/express-cargo/tests/binding/virtualBinding.test.ts b/packages/express-cargo/tests/binding/virtualBinding.test.ts
index 2efa7e89..a96db446 100644
--- a/packages/express-cargo/tests/binding/virtualBinding.test.ts
+++ b/packages/express-cargo/tests/binding/virtualBinding.test.ts
@@ -23,7 +23,7 @@ class RequiredVirtualDTO {
 }
 
 describe('virtual binding', () => {
-    it('virtual transformer가 정상 동작', () => {
+    it('runs the virtual transformer correctly', () => {
         const middleware = bindingCargo(VirtualDTO)
 
         const req = makeMockReq({
@@ -41,7 +41,7 @@ describe('virtual binding', () => {
         expect(dto.nameLength).toBe(11)
     })
 
-    it('validator 실패 시 CargoValidationError 발생', () => {
+    it('throws CargoValidationError when a validator fails', () => {
         const middleware = bindingCargo(VirtualDTO)
 
         const req = makeMockReq({
@@ -57,7 +57,7 @@ describe('virtual binding', () => {
         expect(err.errors).toEqual(expect.arrayContaining([expect.objectContaining({ message: expect.stringContaining('nameLength') })]))
     })
 
-    it('optional virtual field가 빈 문자열을 반환해도 optional 검증을 건너뛴다', () => {
+    it('skips optional validation even when an optional virtual field returns an empty string', () => {
         const middleware = bindingCargo(VirtualDTO)
 
         const req = makeMockReq({
@@ -73,7 +73,7 @@ describe('virtual binding', () => {
         expect(dto.optionalNameLength).toBeNull()
     })
 
-    it('required virtual field가 없으면 validator를 건너뛴다', () => {
+    it('skips validators when a required virtual field is missing', () => {
         const middleware = bindingCargo(RequiredVirtualDTO)
 
         const req = makeMockReq({
diff --git a/packages/express-cargo/tests/rules/dynamicValidation.test.ts b/packages/express-cargo/tests/rules/dynamicValidation.test.ts
index a93b4a2e..30841177 100644
--- a/packages/express-cargo/tests/rules/dynamicValidation.test.ts
+++ b/packages/express-cargo/tests/rules/dynamicValidation.test.ts
@@ -2,10 +2,10 @@ import { bindingCargo, Body, Query, Type, CargoSchemaError } from '../../src'
 import { makeMockReq, makeMockRes, makeNext } from '../binding/testUtils'
 
 describe('schema validation — dynamic runtime validation', () => {
-    it('런타임에 결정된 클래스가 규칙을 위반하면 CargoSchemaError 발생', () => {
+    it('throws CargoSchemaError when a class resolved at runtime violates the rules', () => {
         class InvalidDynamicDto {
             @Body()
-            @Query() // 중복 소스 규칙 위반
+            @Query() // violates the duplicate-source rule
             foo!: string
         }
 
@@ -17,7 +17,7 @@ describe('schema validation — dynamic runtime validation', () => {
 
         const middleware = bindingCargo(RootDto)
 
-        // InvalidDynamicDto를 사용하도록 요청
+        // request that resolves to InvalidDynamicDto
         const req = makeMockReq({
             body: {
                 data: { kind: 'invalid', foo: 'bar' },
@@ -28,16 +28,16 @@ describe('schema validation — dynamic runtime validation', () => {
 
         middleware(req, res, next)
 
-        // validateAnalysis가 에러를 던지고, middleware의 try-catch에서 잡혀 next(err)로 전달됨
+        // validateAnalysis throws, the middleware's try-catch catches it and forwards via next(err)
         const err = next.mock.calls[0][0]
         expect(err).toBeInstanceOf(CargoSchemaError)
         expect(err.message).toContain('InvalidDynamicDto')
         expect(err.message).toContain('foo')
     })
 
-    it('한 번 검증된 동적 클래스는 다음 요청에서 다시 검증하지 않음 (캐시 확인)', () => {
-        // 이 테스트는 기능적으로는 동일하지만, validateAnalysis 내부의 VALIDATED 캐시가 
-        // 오작동하지 않고 정상적으로 다음 바인딩을 허용하는지 확인하는 의미가 있음
+    it('does not re-validate a dynamic class that was already validated (cache check)', () => {
+        // functionally similar to the previous case, but verifies that the VALIDATED cache inside
+        // validateAnalysis does not misbehave and still allows the next binding to succeed
         class ValidDynamicDto {
             @Body()
             foo!: string
@@ -52,13 +52,13 @@ describe('schema validation — dynamic runtime validation', () => {
         const middleware = bindingCargo(RootDto)
         const res = makeMockRes()
 
-        // 첫 번째 요청: 검증 및 바인딩 성공
+        // first request: validation and binding succeed
         const req1 = makeMockReq({ body: { data: { foo: 'bar' } } })
         const next1 = makeNext()
         middleware(req1, res, next1)
         expect(next1).toHaveBeenCalledWith()
 
-        // 두 번째 요청: 캐시된 검증 결과 사용 및 바인딩 성공
+        // second request: uses the cached validation result and binding succeeds
         const req2 = makeMockReq({ body: { data: { foo: 'baz' } } })
         const next2 = makeNext()
         middleware(req2, res, next2)
diff --git a/packages/express-cargo/tests/rules/kindCategory.test.ts b/packages/express-cargo/tests/rules/kindCategory.test.ts
index bda08e6f..0e5a98cf 100644
--- a/packages/express-cargo/tests/rules/kindCategory.test.ts
+++ b/packages/express-cargo/tests/rules/kindCategory.test.ts
@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@ import { Body, Each, Header, List, Min, Optional, Params, Query, Request, Sessio
 import { expectViolation, validateCargoSchema } from './testUtils'
 
 describe('schema validation — kind category rules', () => {
-    it('두 Source 데코레이터 공존 시 거부', () => {
+    it('rejects two coexisting source decorators', () => {
         class MultipleSourcesDto {
             @Body()
             @Query()
@@ -12,7 +12,7 @@ describe('schema validation — kind category rules', () => {
         expectViolation(() => validateCargoSchema(MultipleSourcesDto), 'foo', 'pick a single source')
     })
 
-    it('Source + @Request 공존 시 거부', () => {
+    it('rejects a source decorator coexisting with @Request', () => {
         class SourceWithRequestDto {
             @Body()
             @Request(req => req.headers['x-foo'])
@@ -22,7 +22,7 @@ describe('schema validation — kind category rules', () => {
         expectViolation(() => validateCargoSchema(SourceWithRequestDto), 'foo', 'cannot be combined with @Request')
     })
 
-    it('Source + @Virtual 공존 시 거부', () => {
+    it('rejects a source decorator coexisting with @Virtual', () => {
         class SourceWithVirtualDto {
             @Body()
             @Virtual(obj => obj.bar)
@@ -32,7 +32,7 @@ describe('schema validation — kind category rules', () => {
         expectViolation(() => validateCargoSchema(SourceWithVirtualDto), 'foo', 'cannot be combined with @Virtual')
     })
 
-    it('@Request + @Virtual 공존 시 거부', () => {
+    it('rejects @Request coexisting with @Virtual', () => {
         class RequestWithVirtualDto {
             @Request(req => req.ip)
             @Virtual(obj => obj.bar)
@@ -42,7 +42,7 @@ describe('schema validation — kind category rules', () => {
         expectViolation(() => validateCargoSchema(RequestWithVirtualDto), 'foo', '@Request cannot be combined with @Virtual')
     })
 
-    it('top-level: kind 데코레이터 없는 필드 거부', () => {
+    it('top-level: rejects a field without a kind decorator', () => {
         class MissingKindDto {
             @Optional()
             foo!: string
@@ -51,7 +51,7 @@ describe('schema validation — kind category rules', () => {
         expectViolation(() => validateCargoSchema(MissingKindDto), 'foo', 'field must be decorated')
     })
 
-    it('nested: @Type 으로 참조된 클래스의 필드도 검증', () => {
+    it('nested: also validates fields of a class referenced via @Type', () => {
         class NestedDto {
             @Optional()
             foo!: string
@@ -65,7 +65,7 @@ describe('schema validation — kind category rules', () => {
         expectViolation(() => validateCargoSchema(OuterDto), 'foo', 'field must be decorated')
     })
 
-    it('nested via @List: 배열 요소 클래스의 필드도 검증', () => {
+    it('nested via @List: also validates fields of the array element class', () => {
         class ItemDto {
             @Optional()
             foo!: string
@@ -79,7 +79,7 @@ describe('schema validation — kind category rules', () => {
         expectViolation(() => validateCargoSchema(ListContainerDto), 'foo', 'field must be decorated')
     })
 
-    it('정상 케이스: 단일 Source 데코레이터는 통과', () => {
+    it('happy path: a single source decorator passes', () => {
         class HappyDto {
             @Body()
             foo!: string
@@ -91,7 +91,7 @@ describe('schema validation — kind category rules', () => {
         expect(() => validateCargoSchema(HappyDto)).not.toThrow()
     })
 
-    it('정상 케이스: 모든 종류의 kind 카테고리가 섞여 있어도 충돌만 없으면 통과', () => {
+    it('happy path: a mix of every kind category passes as long as there is no conflict', () => {
         class MixedHappyDto {
             @Body()
             a!: string
@@ -118,7 +118,7 @@ describe('schema validation — kind category rules', () => {
         expect(() => validateCargoSchema(MixedHappyDto)).not.toThrow()
     })
 
-    it('정상 케이스: @Each 가 validator 만 감싸는 경우 통과', () => {
+    it('happy path: passes when @Each wraps only validators', () => {
         class EachHappyDto {
             @Body()
             @Each(Min(0))
diff --git a/packages/express-cargo/tests/rules/primitiveSkip.test.ts b/packages/express-cargo/tests/rules/primitiveSkip.test.ts
index 52ec03ff..8b2e81c2 100644
--- a/packages/express-cargo/tests/rules/primitiveSkip.test.ts
+++ b/packages/express-cargo/tests/rules/primitiveSkip.test.ts
@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@ import { Body, List, Type } from '../../src'
 import { validateCargoSchema } from './testUtils'
 
 describe('schema validation — primitive constructor skip', () => {
-    it('@List(String)같은 프리미티브 element는 nested 검증 대상에서 제외', () => {
+    it('excludes primitive elements like @List(String) from nested validation', () => {
         class PrimitiveListDto {
             @Body()
             @List(String)
@@ -12,7 +12,7 @@ describe('schema validation — primitive constructor skip', () => {
         expect(() => validateCargoSchema(PrimitiveListDto)).not.toThrow()
     })
 
-    it('@List(Array) 처럼 Array가 elementType으로 들어가도 traversal이 그래도 종료된다', () => {
+    it('terminates traversal even when Array is the elementType, as in @List(Array)', () => {
         class ArrayElementDto {
             @Body()
             @List(Array)
@@ -22,7 +22,7 @@ describe('schema validation — primitive constructor skip', () => {
         expect(() => validateCargoSchema(ArrayElementDto)).not.toThrow()
     })
 
-    it('@Type(Object)처럼 Object가 typeFn으로 들어가도 traversal이 그래도 종료된다', () => {
+    it('terminates traversal even when Object is the typeFn, as in @Type(Object)', () => {
         class ObjectTypeDto {
             @Body()
             @Type(Object)
@@ -32,7 +32,7 @@ describe('schema validation — primitive constructor skip', () => {
         expect(() => validateCargoSchema(ObjectTypeDto)).not.toThrow()
     })
 
-    it('@List(Date)같은 Date도 nested 검증 대상에서 제외', () => {
+    it('excludes Date elements like @List(Date) from nested validation', () => {
         class DateListDto {
             @Body()
             @List(Date)