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what does ky stand for in cayman islands

. ky is the Internet country code top - level domain (ccTLD) for the Cayman Islands. Registration was limited to residents and registered companies in the Cayman Islands with a local address, but this restriction was removed in September 2015. The Cayman Islands also has the international three letter code, CYM, and has won a bid to be awarded the. cym domain in a future expansion of the top level domain space.

['india']

kí ni ky dúró fún ní erékùṣù cayman

Yes

['.ky ni amioro orile-ede lori Internet fun top-level domain (ccTLD) fun Cayman Islands.']

['.ky ni amioro orile-ede lori Internet fun top-level domain fun Cayman Islands.']

['P1']

.ky .ky ni amioro orile-ede lori ayelujara fun akata ipele to ga julo fun awon Erekusu Cayman.

.ky Introduced 1995 TLD type Country code top-level domain Status Active Registry Information and Communications Technology Authority Sponsor Information and Communications Technology Authority Intended use Entities connected with the Cayman Islands Actual use Gets some use in Cayman Islands Registration restrictions None after 2015, anyone can register a domain. Structure Registrations are made directly at second level, or at third level beneath several second-level names Documents Policies Dispute policies UDRP Registry Website Registry site .ky is the Internet country code top-level domain ( ccTLD ) for the Cayman Islands . Registration was limited to residents and registered companies in the Cayman Islands with a local address, but this restriction was removed in September 2015. The Cayman Islands also has the international three letter code , CYM, and has won a bid to be awarded the .cym domain in a future expansion of the top level domain space. In January 2015 the Cayman Islands ICTA announced a partnership with Uniregistry for the operation of the .ky name extension. Uniregistry became the first ICANN accredited registrar to retail .ky names on March 2, 2015. Contents 1 Second level domains 2 References 3 See also 4 External links Second level domains [ edit ] Registrations are permitted directly at the second level, or at the third level beneath these names: com.ky org.ky net.ky edu.ky (restricted to educational institutions) gov.ky (restricted to governmental entities) References [ edit ] See also [ edit ] Cayman Islands portal Internet in the Cayman Islands Internet in the United Kingdom .uk External links [ edit ] IANA .ky whois information .ky domain registration website Uniregistry

train

what is the name of the first nigerian president

The President of the Federal Republic of Nigeria is the head of state and head of the national executive of Nigeria. The President of Nigeria is also the commander - in - chief of the Nigerian Armed Forces. The President is elected in national elections which take place every four years. The first President of Nigeria was Nnamdi Azikiwe, who took office on October 1, 1963. The current President, Muhammadu Buhari, took office on May 29, 2015 as the 15th President of the Federal Republic of Nigeria.

['buenos aires']

kí ni orúkọ ààrẹ nàìjíríà àkọ́kọ́

Yes

['Nnamdi Azikiwe ti o je Gomina Agba nigbana di Aare, ipo to je fun ayeye, nigbati ti Abubakar Tafawa Balewa si di ipo Alakoso Agba mu.']

['Nnamdi Azikiwe ni Aare']

['P2']

Ààr? il?? Nàìjíríà Ààr? Oríl??-èdè Olómìnira Ìj?ba Àpap?? il?? Nàìjíríà tàbì Ààr? il?? Nàìjíríà lásán ni olórí oríl??-èdè àti olórí ìj?ba Oríl??-èdè Olómìnira Ìj?ba Àpap?? il?? Nàìjíríà.[1] Ààr? il?? Nàìjíríà náà tún ni Alá?? pátápátá àw?n ológun Nàìjíríà. Àw?n ará Nàìjíríà ún dìbò yan ààr? fún ?dún m??rin. Àw?n ipò ààr?, àw?n agbára, àti àw?n oyè olórí oríl??-èdè àti olórí ìj?ba j?? dídàp?? sí ipò ààr? láb?? Òfin-Ibágbép?? il?? Nàìjíríà odún 1979. Ààr? l??w??l??w??, Bola Tinubu, b?? sí orí àga ní 29, osu? karu?n, o?du?n 2023, g??g??bí ààr? 16k Oríl??-èdè Olómìnira Ìj?ba Àpap?? il?? Nàìjíríà.[2] Itan Nigbati Naijiria di ile apapo oselu olominira ni odun 1963 larin Awon Orile-ede Ajoni, o diwo mo ona ijoba igbimo asofin ti o jogun lat'owo ile Britani. Nnamdi Azikiwe ti o je Gomina Agba nigbana di Aare,[3] ipo to je fun ayeye, nigbati ti Abubakar Tafawa Balewa si di ipo Alakoso Agba mu.[3] Àkój? àw?n Olórí Ìj?ba Ológun àti Ààr? Oríl??-èdè Nàìjíríà Láti ?dún 1963-1966

President of the Federal Republic of Nigeria Seal of the President Presidential Standard Incumbent Muhammadu Buhari since May 29, 2015 Executive Branch of the federal government Style Mr. President His Excellency Member of Federal Executive Council National Security Council Residence Aso Rock Presidential Villa Seat Abuja , F.C.T. Appointer Popular vote Term length Four years renewable once Constituting instrument Constitution of Nigeria Formation October 1, 1963 ; 54 years ago ( 1963-10-01 ) First holder Nnamdi Azikiwe October 1, 1963 Deputy Vice President of Nigeria Salary ₦ 14,000,000 ($70,351) annually Website www .statehouse .gov .ng Former standard of the President Flag of the President as Commander in Chief of the Nigerian Armed Forces Nigeria This article is part of a series on the politics and government of Nigeria Constitution [show] Human rights Government [show] President ( list ) Muhammadu Buhari Vice President Yemi Osinbajo Cabinet Federal Parastatals National Assembly [show] Senate House of Representatives Judiciary [show] Supreme Court Subdivisions [show] States State governors Local Government Areas Elections [show] Recent elections Presidential: 2011 2015 2019 Parliamentary: 2011 2015 2019 Political parties Foreign relations [show] Minister of Foreign Affairs Diplomatic missions of Nigeria to Nigeria Passport Visa requirements Other countries Atlas v t e The President of the Federal Republic of Nigeria is the head of state and head of the national executive of Nigeria . The President of Nigeria is also the commander-in-chief of the Nigerian Armed Forces . The President is elected in national elections which take place every four years. The first President of Nigeria was Nnamdi Azikiwe , who took office on October 1, 1963. The current President, Muhammadu Buhari , took office on May 29, 2015 as the 15th President of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. Contents [ hide ] 1 History 2 Functions of the President of Nigeria 3 Eligibility 4 Oath of office 5 See also 6 References History [ edit ] On October 1, 1960, Nigeria gained independence from Britain. An all-Nigerian Executive Council was headed by a Prime Minister, Alhaji Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa . On November 16, 1960, Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe , became the first Governor-General of a Federation of three Regions of the North, East and West, with Lagos as the Federal Capital. Each of the Regions was headed by a Premier with a Governor as Ceremonial Head. On October 1, 1963, Nigeria became a Federal Republic and severed whatever ties were left with the British monarchy , but remained a member in the Commonwealth of Nations . The Governor-General's position was, therefore, replaced with that of President. In January 1966, a group of army officers, led by Major Chukwuma Nzeogwu , overthrew the central and regional governments, killed the prime minister, and tried to take control of the government in a failed coup d'état. Nzeogwu was countered, captured and imprisoned by General Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi. General Aguiyi-Ironsi was named Military Head of State. In July 1966, a group of northern army officers revolted against the government, killed General Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi, and appointed the army chief of staff, General Yakubu Gowon as the head of the new military government. In 1975, General Yakubu Gowon was deposed and General Murtala Mohammed was the Head of the Federal Military Government of Nigeria until his assassination in 1976. In 1976, General Olusegun Obasanjo was made head of state in a meeting of the Supreme Military Council, keeping the chain of command established by Murtala Muhammed in place. In 1979, Nigeria adopted a federal presidential constitution, with provision for an executive President as head of government, and a National Assembly , comprising a Senate and House of Representatives . In October 1979, after more than 13 years of military rule, Nigeria returned to democratic rule. The National Party of Nigeria emerged victorious in the presidential election and Alhaji Shehu Shagari was elected President. On December 31, 1983, the military overthrew the Second Republic. Major General Muhammadu Buhari emerged as the Chairman of the Supreme Military Council (SMC), the new Head of State. In August 1985, General Buhari's government was peacefully overthrown by Army Chief of Staff, Major General Ibrahim Babangida . Babangida became the President and Chairman of the Armed Forces Ruling Council . In August 1993, General Babangida stepped down and chose an interim government to replace him. Ernest Shonekan was named as interim president. General Sani Abacha seized power from Shonekan in November 1993 and became the President and Chairman of the Provisional Ruling Council. On 8 June 1998, General Abacha died at the presidential villa in the Nigerian capital, Abuja. Major General Abdulsalami Abubakar became the new President and Chairman of the Provisional Ruling Council. In May 1999, Major General Abdulsalami Abubakar stepped down, and the former military head of state, Olusegun Obasanjo , became the newly elected civilian president. Obasanjo served two terms in office. In May 2007, Alhaji Umaru Yar'Adua was sworn in as President of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, the 13th head of state of Nigeria. Yar'Adua died on 5 May 2010 in the Presidential villa, in Abuja , Nigeria. On 6 May 2010, the Vice President Goodluck Jonathan was sworn in as President of the Federal Republic of Nigeria and the 14th head of state. On 29 May 2015, Muhammadu Buhari was sworn in as President of the Federal Republic of Nigeria and the 15th head of state after winning the general election. Functions of the President of Nigeria [ edit ] The President has the powers entrusted by the Constitution and legislation, including those necessary to perform the functions of Head of State and Head of the national executive. The President is responsible for: Assenting to and signing Bills Referring a Bill back to the National Assembly for reconsideration of the Bill's constitutionality Referring a Bill to the Supreme Court for a decision on the Bill's constitutionality Summoning the National Assembly or Parliament to an extraordinary sitting to conduct special business Making any appointments that the Constitution or legislation requires the President to make, other than as head of the national executive Appointing commissions of inquiry Appointing the Supreme Court Justices of Nigeria on the recommendation of the National Judicial Council of Nigeria and subject to confirmation by the Senate Calling a national referendum in terms of an Act of Parliament Receiving and recognising foreign diplomatic and consular representatives Appointing ambassadors, plenipotentiaries, and diplomatic and consular representatives and other federal officers with the advice and consent of a majority of the Senate Pardoning or reprieving offenders and remitting any fines, penalties or forfeitures Conferring honours Eligibility [ edit ] Chapter VI, Part I, Section 131 of the constitution states that a person may be qualified for election of the office of the President if: he is a citizen of Nigeria by birth; he has attained the age of thirty five years; he is a member of a political party and is sponsored by that political party; he has been educated up to at least School Certificate level or its equivalent. A person who meets the above qualifications is still disqualified from holding the office of the President if: he has voluntarily acquired the citizenship of a country other than Nigeria or, except in such cases as may be prescribed by the National Assembly , he has made a declaration of allegiance to such other country; he has been elected to such office at any two previous elections; under the law in any part of Nigeria, he is adjudged to be a lunatic or otherwise declared to be of unsound mind; he is under a sentence of death imposed by any competent court of law or tribunal in Nigeria or a sentence of imprisonment or fine for any offence involving dishonesty or fraud or for any other offence, imposed on him by any court or tribunal or substituted by a competent authority for any other sentence imposed on him by such a court of tribunal; within a period of less than ten years before the date of the election to the office of President he has been convicted and sentenced for an offence involving dishonesty or he has been found guilty of the contravention of the Code of Conduct; he is an undischarged bankrupt, having been adjudged or otherwise declared bankrupt under any law in force in Nigeria or any other country; being a person employed in the civil or public service of the Federation or of any State, he has not resigned, withdrawn or retired from the employment at least thirty days before the date of the election; or he is a member of any secret society; he has been indicted for embezzlement or fraud by a Judicial Commission of Inquiry or an Administrative Panel of Inquiry or a Tribunal set up under the Tribunals of Inquiry Act, a Tribunals of Inquiry law or any other law by the federal or state government which indictment has been accepted by the federal or state government respectively; he has presented a forged certificate to the Independent National Electoral Commission . Oath of office [ edit ] The Constitution of Nigeria specifies an oath of office for the President of the federation. The oath is administered by the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Nigeria or the person for the time being appointed to exercise the functions of that office: I do solemnly swear/affirm that I will be faithful and bear true allegiance to the Federal Republic of Nigeria; that as President of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, I will discharge my duties to the best of my ability, faithfully and in accordance with the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria and the law, and always in the interest of the sovereignty, integrity, solidarity, well-being and prosperity of the Federal Republic of Nigeria; that I will strive to preserve the Fundamental Objectives and Directive Principles of State Policy contained in the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria; that I will not allow my personal interest to influence my official conduct or my official decisions; that I will to the best of my ability preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria; that I will abide by the Code of Conduct contained in the Fifth Schedule to the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria; that in all circumstances, I will do right to all manner of people, according to law, without fear or favour, affection or ill-will; that I will not directly or indirectly communicate or reveal to any person any matter which shall be brought under my consideration or shall become known to me as President of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, except as may be required for the due discharge of my duties as President; and that I will devote myself to the service and well-being of the people of Nigeria. So help me God. See also [ edit ] Nigeria portal Politics portal List of Governors-General of Nigeria List of heads of state of Nigeria List of heads of government of Nigeria References [ edit ]

train

what is the name of the first president of nigeria

The President of the Federal Republic of Nigeria is the head of state and head of the national executive of Nigeria. The President of Nigeria is also the commander - in - chief of the Nigerian Armed Forces. The President is elected in national elections which take place every four years. The first President of Nigeria was Nnamdi Azikiwe, who took office on 1 October 1963. The current President, Muhammadu Buhari, took office on 29 May 2015 as the 15th President of the Federal Republic of Nigeria.

['buenos aires']

kí ni orúkọ ààrẹ àkọ́kọ́ ní nàìjíríà

Yes

['Nnamdi Azikiwe ti o je Gomina Agba nigbana di Aare, ipo to je fun ayeye, nigbati ti Abubakar Tafawa Balewa si di ipo Alakoso Agba mu.']

['Nnamdi Azikiwe ni Aare']

['P2']

Ààr? il?? Nàìjíríà Ààr? Oríl??-èdè Olómìnira Ìj?ba Àpap?? il?? Nàìjíríà tàbì Ààr? il?? Nàìjíríà lásán ni olórí oríl??-èdè àti olórí ìj?ba Oríl??-èdè Olómìnira Ìj?ba Àpap?? il?? Nàìjíríà.[1] Ààr? il?? Nàìjíríà náà tún ni Alá?? pátápátá àw?n ológun Nàìjíríà. Àw?n ará Nàìjíríà ún dìbò yan ààr? fún ?dún m??rin. Àw?n ipò ààr?, àw?n agbára, àti àw?n oyè olórí oríl??-èdè àti olórí ìj?ba j?? dídàp?? sí ipò ààr? láb?? Òfin-Ibágbép?? il?? Nàìjíríà odún 1979. Ààr? l??w??l??w??, Bola Tinubu, b?? sí orí àga ní 29, osu? karu?n, o?du?n 2023, g??g??bí ààr? 16k Oríl??-èdè Olómìnira Ìj?ba Àpap?? il?? Nàìjíríà.[2] Itan Nigbati Naijiria di ile apapo oselu olominira ni odun 1963 larin Awon Orile-ede Ajoni, o diwo mo ona ijoba igbimo asofin ti o jogun lat'owo ile Britani. Nnamdi Azikiwe ti o je Gomina Agba nigbana di Aare,[3] ipo to je fun ayeye, nigbati ti Abubakar Tafawa Balewa si di ipo Alakoso Agba mu.[3] Àkój? àw?n Olórí Ìj?ba Ológun àti Ààr? Oríl??-èdè Nàìjíríà Láti ?dún 1963-1966

President of the Federal Republic of Nigeria Seal of the President Presidential Standard Incumbent Muhammadu Buhari since May 29, 2015 Executive Branch of the federal government Style Mr. President His Excellency Member of Federal Executive Council National Security Council Residence Aso Rock Presidential Villa Seat Abuja , F.C.T. Appointer Popular vote Term length Four years renewable once Constituting instrument Constitution of Nigeria Formation October 1, 1963 ; 54 years ago ( 1963-10-01 ) First holder Nnamdi Azikiwe October 1, 1963 Deputy Vice President of Nigeria Salary ₦ 14,000,000 ($70,351) annually Website www .statehouse .gov .ng Former standard of the President Flag of the President as Commander in Chief of the Nigerian Armed Forces Nigeria This article is part of a series on the politics and government of Nigeria Constitution [show] Human rights Government [show] President ( list ) Muhammadu Buhari Vice President Yemi Osinbajo Cabinet Federal Parastatals National Assembly [show] Senate House of Representatives Judiciary [show] Supreme Court Subdivisions [show] States State governors Local Government Areas Elections [show] Recent elections Presidential: 2011 2015 2019 Parliamentary: 2011 2015 2019 Political parties Foreign relations [show] Minister of Foreign Affairs Diplomatic missions of Nigeria to Nigeria Passport Visa requirements Other countries Atlas v t e The President of the Federal Republic of Nigeria is the head of state and head of the national executive of Nigeria . The President of Nigeria is also the commander-in-chief of the Nigerian Armed Forces . The President is elected in national elections which take place every four years. The first President of Nigeria was Nnamdi Azikiwe , who took office on 1 October 1963. The current President, Muhammadu Buhari , took office on 29 May 2015 as the 15th President of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. Contents [ hide ] 1 History 2 Functions of the President of Nigeria 3 Eligibility 4 Oath of office 5 See also 6 References History [ edit ] On October 1, 1960, Nigeria gained independence from Britain. An all-Nigerian Executive Council was headed by a Prime Minister, Alhaji Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa . On November 16, 1960, Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe , became the first Governor-General of a Federation of three Regions of the North, East and West, with Lagos as the Federal Capital. Each of the Regions was headed by a Premier with a Governor as Ceremonial Head. On October 1, 1963, Nigeria became a Federal Republic and severed whatever ties were left with the British monarchy , but remained a member in the Commonwealth of Nations . The Governor-General's position was, therefore, replaced with that of President. In January 1966, a group of army officers, led by Major Chukwuma Nzeogwu , overthrew the central and regional governments, killed the prime minister, and tried to take control of the government in a failed coup d'état. Nzeogwu was countered, captured and imprisoned by General Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi. General Aguiyi-Ironsi was named Military Head of State. In July 1966, a group of northern army officers revolted against the government, killed General Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi, and appointed the army chief of staff, General Yakubu Gowon as the head of the new military government. In 1975, General Yakubu Gowon was deposed and General Murtala Mohammed was the Head of the Federal Military Government of Nigeria until his assassination in 1976. In 1976, General Olusegun Obasanjo was made head of state in a meeting of the Supreme Military Council, keeping the chain of command established by Murtala Muhammed in place. In 1979, Nigeria adopted a federal presidential constitution, with provision for an executive President as head of government, and a National Assembly , comprising a Senate and House of Representatives . In October 1979, after more than 13 years of military rule, Nigeria returned to democratic rule. The National Party of Nigeria emerged victorious in the presidential election and Alhaji Shehu Shagari was elected President. On December 31, 1983, the military overthrew the Second Republic. Major General Muhammadu Buhari emerged as the Chairman of the Supreme Military Council (SMC), the new Head of State. In August 1985, General Buhari's government was peacefully overthrown by Army Chief of Staff, Major General Ibrahim Babangida . Babangida became the President and Chairman of the Armed Forces Ruling Council . In August 1993, General Babangida stepped down and chose an interim government to replace him. Ernest Shonekan was named as interim president. General Sani Abacha seized power from Shonekan in November 1993 and became the President and Chairman of the Provisional Ruling Council. On 8 June 1998, General Abacha died at the presidential villa in the Nigerian capital, Abuja. Major General Abdulsalami Abubakar became the new President and Chairman of the Provisional Ruling Council. In May 1999, Major General Abdulsalami Abubakar stepped down, and the former military head of state, Olusegun Obasanjo , became the newly elected civilian president. Obasanjo served two terms in office. In May 2007, Alhaji Umaru Yar'Adua was sworn in as President of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, the 13th head of state of Nigeria. Yar'Adua died on 5 May 2010 in the Presidential villa, in Abuja , Nigeria. On 6 May 2010, the Vice President Goodluck Jonathan was sworn in as President of the Federal Republic of Nigeria and the 14th head of state. On 29 May 2015, Muhammadu Buhari was sworn in as President of the Federal Republic of Nigeria and the 15th head of state after winning the general election. Functions of the President of Nigeria [ edit ] The President has the powers entrusted by the Constitution and legislation, including those necessary to perform the functions of Head of State and Head of the national executive. The President is responsible for: Assenting to and signing Bills Referring a Bill back to the National Assembly for reconsideration of the Bill's constitutionality Referring a Bill to the Supreme Court for a decision on the Bill's constitutionality Summoning the National Assembly or Parliament to an extraordinary sitting to conduct special business Making any appointments that the Constitution or legislation requires the President to make, other than as head of the national executive Appointing commissions of inquiry Appointing the Supreme Court Justices of Nigeria on the recommendation of the National Judicial Council of Nigeria and subject to confirmation by the Senate Calling a national referendum in terms of an Act of Parliament Receiving and recognising foreign diplomatic and consular representatives Appointing ambassadors, plenipotentiaries, and diplomatic and consular representatives and other federal officers with the advice and consent of a majority of the Senate Pardoning or reprieving offenders and remitting any fines, penalties or forfeitures Conferring honours Eligibility [ edit ] Chapter VI, Part I, Section 131 of the constitution states that a person may be qualified for election of the office of the President if: he is a citizen of Nigeria by birth; he has attained the age of thirty five years; he is a member of a political party and is sponsored by that political party; he has been educated up to at least School Certificate level or its equivalent. A person who meets the above qualifications is still disqualified from holding the office of the President if: he has voluntarily acquired the citizenship of a country other than Nigeria or, except in such cases as may be prescribed by the National Assembly , he has made a declaration of allegiance to such other country; he has been elected to such office at any two previous elections; under the law in any part of Nigeria, he is adjudged to be a lunatic or otherwise declared to be of unsound mind; he is under a sentence of death imposed by any competent court of law or tribunal in Nigeria or a sentence of imprisonment or fine for any offence involving dishonesty or fraud or for any other offence, imposed on him by any court or tribunal or substituted by a competent authority for any other sentence imposed on him by such a court of tribunal; within a period of less than ten years before the date of the election to the office of President he has been convicted and sentenced for an offence involving dishonesty or he has been found guilty of the contravention of the Code of Conduct; he is an undischarged bankrupt, having been adjudged or otherwise declared bankrupt under any law in force in Nigeria or any other country; being a person employed in the civil or public service of the Federation or of any State, he has not resigned, withdrawn or retired from the employment at least thirty days before the date of the election; or he is a member of any secret society; he has been indicted for embezzlement or fraud by a Judicial Commission of Inquiry or an Administrative Panel of Inquiry or a Tribunal set up under the Tribunals of Inquiry Act, a Tribunals of Inquiry law or any other law by the federal or state government which indictment has been accepted by the federal or state government respectively; he has presented a forged certificate to the Independent National Electoral Commission . Oath of office [ edit ] The Constitution of Nigeria specifies an oath of office for the President of the federation. The oath is administered by the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Nigeria or the person for the time being appointed to exercise the functions of that office: I do solemnly swear/affirm that I will be faithful and bear true allegiance to the Federal Republic of Nigeria; that as President of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, I will discharge my duties to the best of my ability, faithfully and in accordance with the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria and the law, and always in the interest of the sovereignty, integrity, solidarity, well-being and prosperity of the Federal Republic of Nigeria; that I will strive to preserve the Fundamental Objectives and Directive Principles of State Policy contained in the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria; that I will not allow my personal interest to influence my official conduct or my official decisions; that I will to the best of my ability preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria; that I will abide by the Code of Conduct contained in the Fifth Schedule to the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria; that in all circumstances, I will do right to all manner of people, according to law, without fear or favour, affection or ill-will; that I will not directly or indirectly communicate or reveal to any person any matter which shall be brought under my consideration or shall become known to me as President of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, except as may be required for the due discharge of my duties as President; and that I will devote myself to the service and well-being of the people of Nigeria. So help me God. See also [ edit ] Nigeria portal Politics portal List of Governors-General of Nigeria List of heads of state of Nigeria List of heads of government of Nigeria References [ edit ]

train

which can be considered the real reasons for malnutrition

Undernourishment is most often due to not enough high - quality food being available to eat. This is often related to high food prices and poverty. A lack of breastfeeding may contribute, as may a number of infectious diseases such as : gastroenteritis, pneumonia, malaria, and measles, which increase nutrient requirements. There are two main types of undernutrition : protein - energy malnutrition and dietary deficiencies. Protein - energy malnutrition has two severe forms : marasmus (a lack of protein and calories) and kwashiorkor (a lack of just protein). Common micronutrient deficiencies include : a lack of iron, iodine, and vitamin A. During pregnancy, due to the body 's increased need, deficiencies may become more common. In some developing countries, overnutrition in the form of obesity is beginning to present within the same communities as undernutrition. Other causes of malnutrition include anorexia nervosa and bariatric surgery.

['the historical local appellation for the indus river', 'south asia']

àwọn nǹkan wo la lè kà sí ìdí gidi tó ń fa àìjẹunrekánú

Yes

["Aijẹ ounjẹ toyẹ maa n waye nitori airi ojulowo ounjẹ jẹ. Eyi ko sai somọ ọwọn gogo iye ounjẹ ati iṣẹ. Aisi ti ifun lọ́mú le dakun, bi awọn ọpọ awọn akoran arun bii: inu wiwu, arun ẹdọforo, ba ati eeyì ti o maa n ṣafikun awọn eroja ounjẹ . Awọn oriṣi aijẹun toyẹ to meji lowa: aijẹ ounjẹ toyẹ okun- puroteni ati alebu aijẹ ounjẹ to. Aijẹ ounjẹ toyẹ okun- puroteni ni awọn alebu meji: marasmus (aini puroteni ati kalori) ati kwashiorkor (aito puroteni nikan). Aini eroja ounjẹ toye ni: aini ayọnu, ayodini ati fitamini A. Lakoko oyun, ti o da lori ibeere-fun pupọ, awọn aito wa wọpọ si. Ni awọn ọkan awọn orilẹ-ede ti o n dagba ounjẹ ajẹju bii isanraju ti wa n pọ ni aarin awọn awujọ bii aijẹ ounjẹ to. Awọn okunfa aijẹun toyẹ to miiran ni iri ara-ẹni bi pe a sanra nigba ti a ru àti bṣẹ abẹ idin ounjẹ ti inu le gba kù Laarin awọn agba aijẹ ounjẹ to'yẹ wọpọ nitori okunfa afojuri, ero inu ati ibalopọ."]

['Aijẹ ounjẹ toyẹ maa n waye nitori airi ojulowo ounjẹ jẹ. ']

['P2']

Àìj??un-dáradára Àìj??un-dáradára tabi aij? ounj? t'oy? j? ipo ti o n waye lara jij? ounj? ti aw?n ounj? a?ara l'ore koto tabi ti o ti p?ju ti o si fa aw?n i?oro ilera.[1][2] Aw?n ounj? a?ara lore le j??: kalori, puroteni, kab?hidireti, aw?n fitamin tabi minira.[2] A saba maa n lo ni pataki lati t?kasi aij?un to dara to nibi ti kosi kalori, puroteni tabi aw?n eroja ounj?; sib?sib?, o tun p?lu ij?un ju.[3][4] Bi aij? eroja ounj? to ba waye boya ni iloyun tabi ?aaju ?m? ?dun meji o le jasi aw?n i?oro aileyipada p?lu idagba ifojuri ati ?p?l?.[2] Aij? ohun a?ara lore to ti o gaju, ti a m?si ifebipa, leni aw?n aami ti o p?lu: ràrá, ara gbigb?, ailokun ti o to, ati ?s? wiwu ati ikùn.[2][3] Aw?n eniyan tun saba maa n ni aw?n akoran w?n si saba maa n tutù. Aw?n aami ti aisi eroja inu ounj? to dale iruf? eroja ounj? ti kosi nib?.[3] Aij? ounj? toy? maa n waye nitori airi ojulowo ounj? j?.[5] Eyi ko sai som? ?w?n gogo iye ounj? ati i??.[2][5] Aisi ti ifun l??mú le dakun, bi aw?n ?p? aw?n akoran arun bii: inu wiwu, arun ?d?foro, ba ati eeyì ti o maa n ?afikun aw?n eroja ounj? .[5] Aw?n ori?i aij?un toy? to meji lowa: aij? ounj? toy? okun- puroteni ati alebu aij? ounj? to.[4] Aij? ounj? toy? okun- puroteni ni aw?n alebu meji: marasmus (aini puroteni ati kalori) ati kwashiorkor (aito puroteni nikan).[3] Aini eroja ounj? toye ni: aini ay?nu, ayodini ati fitamini A.[3] Lakoko oyun, ti o da lori ibeere-fun pup?, aw?n aito wa w?p? si.[6] Ni aw?n ?kan aw?n oril?-ede ti o n dagba ounj? aj?ju bii isanraju ti wa n p? ni aarin aw?n awuj? bii aij? ounj? to.[7] Aw?n okunfa aij?un toy? to miiran ni iri ara-?ni bi pe a sanra nigba ti a ru àti b?? ab? idin ounj? ti inu le gba kù[8][9] Laarin aw?n agba aij? ounj? to'y? w?p? nitori okunfa afojuri, ero inu ati ibalop?.[10] Ipa lati mu gbooro ounj? j? lara aw?n ipo ti o ya iranw? idagba.[11] Ifun l?mu le din iye aij? ounj? to ati iku ninu aw?n ?m?de ku,[2] ati aw?n ipa lati mu gberu i?e b?? dagba p?.[12] Ninu aw?n ?m?de pipese ounj? p?lu ?mu-mimu laarin o?u m?fa ati ?dun meji mu abajade gberu.[12] ?ri gidi wa ti o kin l?hin pe eroja ounj? ti ?p? aw?n eroja ounj? lakoko oyun ati laarin aw?n ?m?de ni aw?n oril?-ede ti o n dagba.[12] Lati pese ounj? fun aw?n ti o nilo r? ju ni ipese ounj? ati ipese owo ki aw?n eniyan le ra ounj? laarin ?ja ilu l? geere.[11][13] Fifun aw?n eniyan lounj? nikan to.[11] Ibojuto aij? ounj? t'oy? ti o l'ewu laarin ile eniyan p?lu àw?n ounj? ìlo iwosan aarun ?ee?e l?p? igba.[12] Laarin aw?n ti o ni ewu aije ounj? toy? low? aw?n i?oro it?ju ilera miiran laarin ile-iwosan ni a b?w?lu.[12] Eyi nilo abojuto aito ?uga, im?lara ara, ara-gbigb?, ati ifun-lounj? di?di?.[12][14] Igbes? aw?n ogun a?odi si akoran ni a b?w?lu nitori akoran ti o p?.[14] Aw?n ilana it?ju ?j? pip? ni: imugbooro aw?n i?e agb?,[15] re dio?i kuim, imum?toto gbooroth, atiofifun aw?n obinrin ni agbara i??[11] Aw?n 925 mili?nu eniyan ti kori ounj? j? to ni agbaye ni o wa ni 2010, ?p? ti 80 mili?nu lati 1990.[16][17] Aw?n eniyan bili?nu ti a ka miiran ti koni fitamin ati eroja ounj? toy?.[11] Ni 2010 aij? ounj? toy? ti agbara puroteni ti ?okunfa aw?n iku bii 600,000 de 883,000 aw?n iku ni 1990.[18] Aw?n aito ounj? toy? aito ayodini ati arun aito ayodini, fa iku 84,000 miiran.[18] Airi ounj? toy? j? ni 2010 n okunfa 1.4% gbogbo ailera igbe-aye ti a sun.[11][19] Bi ida m?ta aw?n iku laarin aw?n ?m?de ni a gbagb? pe airi ounj? j? to lofa; sib?sib?, ako s? aw?n iku naa b??.[5] Ni 2010 a ?akoj? pe o ?okunfa bii 1.5 mili?nu aw?n iku aw?n obinrin ati ?m?de[20] aw?n kan til? s?pe iye naa le ju 3 mili?nu.[12] Ati afikun 165 mili?nu aw?n ?m?de ni aidagba bi-o-tiy? lara arun naa.[12] Airij? to w?p? ni aw?n oril?-ede ti o n dagba.[21]

train

a disease that can be transmitted through the air is spread by

An airborne disease is any disease that is caused by pathogens that can be transmitted through the air. Such diseases include many of considerable importance both in human and veterinary medicine. The relevant pathogens may be viruses, bacteria, or fungi, and they may be spread through breathing, talking, coughing, sneezing, raising of dust, spraying of liquids, toilet flushing or any activities which generates aerosol particles or droplets. Human airborne diseases do not include conditions caused by air pollution such as volatile organic compounds (VOCs), gasses and any airborne particles, though their study and prevention may help inform the science of airborne disease transmission.

['chromosomes', '500', 'cell']

àrùn tó lè tàn kálẹ̀ nípasẹ̀ afẹ́fẹ́

Yes

['Àwọn kòkòrò afàìsàn náà lè jẹ́ kòkòrò ààrùn-ẹ̀ràn, bakitéríà, tàbí fọ́nńgaì tí wọ́n lè ràn káàkiri nípa èémí, ọ̀rọ̀ sísọ, ikọ́ wúwú, èésín sí sín, pípo eruku, fífọ́n nǹkan olómi ká, tàbí ìṣe tó bá ń fa ẹ̀rún inú atẹ́gùn tàbí nǹkan tó lè fọ́nká nínú atẹ́gùn.', 'Àwọn ẹ̀rún kòkòrò àìsàn tí atẹ́gùn máa ń fọ́nká ló máa ń fa àwọn àrùn inú atẹ́gùn.']

['kromosomu je didameji ninu igbese itunda DNA, to si unpese fun ahamo kookan awon kromosomu pipe tikookan fun won.', 'Àwọn ẹ̀rún kòkòrò àìsàn tí atẹ́gùn máa ń fọ́nká ló máa ń fa àwọn àrùn inú atẹ́gùn.']

['P1', 'P4']

Àìsàn inú af??f?? Àìsàn inú af??f?? tàbí at??gùn j?? àìsàn kí àìsàn tí kòkòrò afàìsàn lè fà tí ??rún r?? nínú at??gùn lè ?àkóbá fún ?lòmíràn bí w??n bá mí í sínú.[2] Ògùn irú àìsàn báyìí ?e pàtàkì sí ènìyàn àti ?ranko. Àw?n kòkòrò afàìsàn náà lè j?? kòkòrò ààrùn-??ràn, bakitéríà, tàbí f??n?gaì tí w??n lè ràn káàkiri nípa èémí, ??r?? sís?, ik?? wúwú, èésín sí sín, pípo eruku, fíf??n n?kan olómi ká, tàbí ì?e tó bá ? fa ??rún inú at??gùn tàbí n?kan tó lè f??nká nínú at??gùn. Ní ??p?? ìgbà, àw?n ??rún àìsàn nínú at??gùn máa ? fa àrùn láti imú, ??fun, sinuses, àti ìfun, èyí ló máa ? fa ik??, ?gb?? ??fun àti àw?n àmìn àw?n àìsàn míì tó lè ???y? lág???? ara. Lára àw?n gbajúm?? àrùn inú af??f?? ni : ??ràn kòrónà, àrùn il?? gbígbóná, morbillivirus, àrùn il?? tútù, ik?? fée tàbí ik?? àwúgb?, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, kòkòrò influenza, kòkòrò enterovirus, kòkòrò norovirus, àti, adenovirus, èyí kò fi b???? w??p?? àti respiratory syncytial virus. Irúf?? àw?n àrùn ??ràn w??nyí nílò af??f?? àyíká àdáwà nígbà ìt??jú. Àgbéy??wò Àw?n ??rún kòkòrò àìsàn tí at??gùn máa ? f??nká ló máa ? fa àw?n àrùn inú at??gùn. Orísun w?n máa ? sáàbà máa wá láti ara omi ara alárùn ??ràn tàbí ?ranko, tàbí àw?n ìd??tí ohun èlò. Àw?n ??rún àìsàn tí w??n máa ? fa èyí ni w??n ? pè ní kòkòrò afàìsàn. W??n lè ràn ká nínú af??f??, eruku tàbí omi, tí w??n sì lè rìn jìnnà tàbí wà nínú af??f?? fún ìgbà píp??.Fún àp??r?, sínsín lè f??n àw?n ??rún àìsàn ká káàkiri inú ?k?? akérò kan.[3] Mímí sínú àw?n ??rún àìsàn máa ? sáàbà fa àìsàn ara wíwú, èyí sìn máa ? ?àkóbá àw?n ??yà èémí. Díd??tí af??f?? kò sí lára àw?n àìsàn inú af??f?? tí ó máa ? ?e ènìyàn, ?ùgb??n díd??tí af??f?? máa ? kópa pàtàkì nínú àw?n àìsàn inú af??f?? tí kò j? m?? ì?e ènìyàn bí i ik??-kéfe Àw?n ìd??tí af??f?? máa ? ?àkóbá fún ??fun ènìyàn nípa ?í?okùnfà ??p?? àìsàn inú af??f?? ti ara wíwú. [4] Àw?n àìsàn inú af??f?? náà lè ?àkóbá fún àw?n ?ranko. Fún àp??r?, Newcastle disease j?? àrùn àw?n ?y? tí ó máa ? ?e àw?n ?y? ??sìn káàkiri àgbáyé nípa ìd??tí inú af??f??. Ìkóràn Àw?n àrùn ??ràn máa ? jà kál?? nígbà tí alára dídá bá mí ??rún àìsàn sínú tàbí bí irú ??rún àìsàn b???? bá bà lé e lójú, l??nu, tàbí imú. Kò p??n dandan kí alára dídá ènìyàn ní ìfojúkojú p??lú aláàrùn kí ó tó lè kó àrùn w??nyí. Bí ojú ?j?? ?e rí, nígbà òjò tàbí ??rún, yálà ní ìta gbangba tàbí nínú ilé máa ? kópa pàtàkì nínú ìkóràn àw?n àìsàn inú af??f??. Àw?n n?kan mìíràn tí ó máa ? ?okùnfà ìtànkál?? ??rún àìsàn ni ìjì, òjò, àti ì?e àti ìm??tótó ènìyàn. L??yìn ìyàs??t?? ètò ojú-?j??, ìw??j?p?? àw?n ??rún-àìsàn f??n?gàá nínú af??f?? máa ? dínkù; l??yìn ?j?? dí??, àw?n ??rún-àìsàn w??nyí máa ? p??si ní ìl??po tó p?? sí i ju ìgbà tí ojú ?j?? bá dá geere. Eto ??r?? ajé òun àyíká máa ? kópa péréte nínú àjàkál?? àw?n àìsàn inú af??f??. Ní àw?n ìlú ?lá, rírànkál?? àw?n àìsàn inú af??f?? máa ? p?? púp?? ju ti àw?n abúlé àti àw?n ìlú kéréje l?. Títànkál?? aw?n ??rún-afàìsàn f??n?gàá máa ? w??p?? ni àw?n abúlé. Wíwà ní ìtòsí àw?n òdò ?lá lè ?okùnfà àjàkál?? àw?n àrùn inú af??f??. Àìmójútó ??r? amúlétutù dáadáa tí fa ìb??síl?? àrùn Legionella pneumophila. Àìsí ìmójútó tó péye fún àw?n irin??? ilé ìwòsàn ló máa ? fa àw?n àìsàn inú af??f?? tó j? m?? ilé-ìwòsàn Ìdènà Lára aw?n ??nà Láti dènà àìsàn inú af??f?? ni líl? àw?n ògùn-àj?sára àìsàn kan pàtó, wíw? ìbòjú àti yíyàgò fún ?nik??ni tí ó bá ti kó àrùn.[5] Níní àj??e p?? p??lú ènìyàn tàbí ?ranko tí ó bá láàrùn àìsàn inú af??f?? kò ní kí ènìyàn lárùn náà dandan, nítorí kíkó àrùn náà dá lórí bí àw?n èròjà ìlera ara ènìyàn bá ti lágbára tó àti bí mímí sínú àw?n ??rún afaìsan tí onít??ún mí sínú ?e p?? tó. Nígbà mìíràn, a lè lo àw?n ògùn antibiotics láti wo àìsàn inú af??f?? bí i àrùn tó ? mú è?dò?fóró wú.[6] ??p??l?p?? àw?n oním?? ètò ìlera tí dábàá pé ìm??tótó àti Ìjìnnà-síra-?ni ( èyí tí a tún m?? sí Ìjìnnà-síra-?ni láwùj?) j?? ??nà pàtàkì láti dènà ?e àdínkù rírànkál?? àìsàn inú af??f??. [7].[8] Kò ?eé ?e kí ènìyàn ?e àdínkù ìjàmbá àti kó àìsàn inú af??f??, ?ùgb??n ènìyàn lè dènà kíkó àrùn. Láti ?e àdínkù kíkó àrùn: Jìnnà sí àw?n àw?n tí w??n tí kó àrùn. W? ìbòjú ni gbogbo ìgbà tí ó bá f?? l? sí àwùj? àw?n ènìyàn púp??. Bo ?nu r?? nígbà tí ó bá ? wúk?? tàbí sín. Máa f? ?w?? r? dáadáa, ó kéré jù fún ì???jú- àáyá ogún lóòrèkóòrè. Y?ra fún fífi ?w?? pa ojú ara r? tàbí tí àw?n mìíràn láìf?w??.

Airborne diseases can be spread via respiratory droplets expelled from the mouth and nose. An airborne disease is any disease that is caused by pathogens that can be transmitted through the air. Such diseases include many of considerable importance both in human and veterinary medicine . The relevant pathogens may be viruses, bacteria, or fungi, and they may be spread through breathing, talking, coughing, sneezing, raising of dust, spraying of liquids, toilet flushing or any activities which generates aerosol particles or droplets. Human airborne diseases do not include conditions caused by air pollution such as volatile organic compounds (VOCs), gasses and any airborne particles, though their study and prevention may help inform the science of airborne disease transmission. [ citation needed ] Contents [ hide ] 1 Overview 2 Causes 3 Transmission 4 Prevention 5 See also 6 References Overview [ edit ] Airborne diseases include any that are caused via transmission through the air. Many airborne diseases are of great medical importance. The pathogens transmitted may be any kind of microbe, and they may be spread in aerosols, dust or liquids. The aerosols might be generated from sources of infection such as the bodily secretions of an infected animal or person, or biological wastes such as accumulate in lofts, caves, garbage and the like. Such infected aerosols may stay suspended in air currents long enough to travel for considerable distances, though the rate of infection decreases sharply with the distance between the source and the organism infected. Airborne pathogens or allergens often cause inflammation in the nose, throat, sinuses and the lungs. This is caused by the inhalation of these pathogens that affect a person's respiratory system or even the rest of the body. Sinus congestion, coughing and sore throats are examples of inflammation of the upper respiratory air way due to these airborne agents. Air pollution plays a significant role in airborne diseases which is linked to asthma . Pollutants are said to influence lung function by increasing air way inflammation. Many common infections can spread by airborne transmission at least in some cases, including: Anthrax (inhalational), Chickenpox , Influenza , Measles , Smallpox , Cryptococcosis , and Tuberculosis . Airborne diseases can also affect non-humans. For example, Newcastle disease is an avian disease that affects many types of domestic poultry worldwide which is transmitted via airborne contamination. Often, airborne pathogens or allergens cause inflammation in the nose, throat, sinuses, and the upper airway lungs. Upper airway inflammation causes coughing congestion, and sore throat. This is caused by the inhalation of these pathogens that affect a person's respiratory system or even the rest of the body. Sinus congestion, coughing and sore throats are examples of inflammation of the upper respiratory air way due to these airborne agents. Causes [ edit ] An airborne disease can be caused by exposure to a source: an infected patient or animal, by being transferred from the infected person or animal’s mouth, nose, cut, or needle puncture. People receive the disease through a portal of entry: mouth, nose, cut, or needle puncture. Transmission [ edit ] Airborne transmission of disease depends on several physical variables endemic to the infectious particle. Environmental factors influence the efficacy of airborne disease transmission; the most evident environmental conditions are temperature and relative humidity. The sum of all the factors that influence temperature and humidity, either meteorological (outdoor) or human (indoor), as well as other circumstances influencing the spread of the droplets containing the infectious particles, as winds, or human behavior, sum up the factors influencing the transmission of airborne diseases. Climate and living area. Rainfall (number of rainy days being more important than total precipitation ), mean of sunshine daily hours, latitude, altitude are characteristic agents to take in account when assessing the possibility of spread of any airborne infection. Furthermore, some infrequent or exceptional extreme events also influence the dissemination of airborne diseases, as tropical storms, hurricanes, typhoons, or monsoons. Climate conditions determine temperature, winds and relative humidity in any territory, either all year around or at isolated moments (days or weeks). Those are the main factors affecting the spread, duration and infectiousness of droplets containing infectious particles. For instance, influenza virus, is spread easily in northern countries (north hemisphere), because of climate conditions which favour the infectiousness of the virus but on the other hand, in those countries, lots of bacterial infections cannot spread outdoor most of the year, keeping in a latent stage. UV is harmful to both viruses and bacteria. UV incidence can determine the survival of the infectious particles, so that in those territories with a higher average of sunshine daily hours, and closer to the equator, some particles lose their infectious ability. Infectious particles show and increased survival in the presence of UV light at higher relative humidity levels. It is thought to be due to the protective effect of larger particle sizes, as evaporation would be less at these higher RH levels, showing a protective effect of a thicker water coat. After isolated events, as tropical storms, has been determined that firstly the quantity of fungal spores is decreased, but a few days later, an exponentially increased number of spores is found, compared to normal conditions. Socioeconomics and living conditions. They have a minor role in airborne diseases transmission, but they also have to be taken in consideration. Dwelling is an important aspect. In cities the spread of diseases is faster than in rural areas and outskirts. Normally, cities enclose quarters of buildings, in which the transmission of the viral and bacterial diseases among the neighborhoods is uncomplicated. However, suburban areas are generally more favourable for higher airborne fungal spores Nearness to large sources of water as rivers and lakes can be a cause of some outbreaks of airborne diseases, after changes in local watershed. Poor sewage systems are usually found in poor countries, especially in the rural areas, and can determine the proliferation of infectious bacteria, that once infecting animal or humans can be transmitted throughout the air. Working conditions, can also settle infectious airborne diseases. At indoor environments, temperature and relative humidity are mainly affected by HVAC systems (heating, ventilation and air conditioning). Inadequate ventilation is implicated in the airborne transmission of respiratory viruses. Poor maintenance or defects on those systems can foster the conditions for airborne infections. For instance, a poor maintenance of air conditioning systems, can lead to an outbreak of Legionella (mainly Legionella pneumophila), that will spread among the population of the building (workers), before the finding of the focal point. In hospitals, isolation of patients sick of infectious diseases has to be added as a factor, which is noticeable in poor regions, where lack of resources facilitates the spread of infectious diseases. [ citation needed ] Prevention [ edit ] Some ways to prevent airborne diseases include washing hands , using appropriate hand disinfection, getting regular immunizations against diseases believed to be locally present, wearing a respirator and limiting time spent in the presence of any patient likely to be a source of infection. Exposure to a patient or animal with an airborne disease does not guarantee receiving the disease. Because of the changes in host immunity and how much the host was exposed to the particles in the air makes a difference to how the disease affects the body. Antibiotics are not prescribed for patients to control viral infections. They may however be prescribed to a flu patient for instance, to control or prevent bacterial secondary infections . They also may be used in dealing with air-borne bacterial primary infections, such as pneumonic plague . Additionally the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has told consumers about vaccination and following careful hygiene and sanitation protocols for airborne disease prevention. Consumers also have access to preventive measures like UV Air purification devices that FDA and EPA-certified laboratory test data has verified as effective in inactivating a broad array of airborne infectious diseases. Many public health specialists recommend social distancing to reduce the transmission of airborne infections. See also [ edit ] Vector (epidemiology) Waterborne diseases Zoonosis References [ edit ]

train

when was the federal capital moved from lagos to abuja

Abuja (/ əˈbuːdʒə /) is the capital city of Nigeria located in the centre of the country within the Federal Capital Territory (FCT). It is a planned city and was built mainly in the 1980s, replacing the country 's most populous city of Lagos as the capital on 12 December 1991. Abuja 's geography is defined by Aso Rock, a 400 - metre (1,300 ft) monolith left by water erosion. The Presidential Complex, National Assembly, Supreme Court and much of the city extend to the south of the rock. Zuma Rock, a 792 - metre (2,598 ft) monolith, lies just north of the city on the road to Kaduna State.

['mons pubis']

ìgbà wo ni wọ́n gbé olú ìlú ìjọba àpapọ̀ láti ìlú èkó lọ sí abuja

No

['Àbújá dí olú-ìlú orílè-ede Nàìjíríà ní osù kéjìlá, odún 1991, àkọsílẹ̀ ètò ikaniyan ti ọdún 2006 sọ wípé Àbújá ní olùgbé 776,298']

['Àbújá dí olú-ìlú orílè-ede Nàìjíríà ní osù kéjìlá, odún 1991']

['P1']

Àbújá jẹ́ olú-Ìlú fún orílé-èdè Nàìjíríà . Ìlú yí ni ó jẹ́ àrin-gbùngbùn fún orílẹ̀-èdè Nàìjíríà , tí ilé ìjọba àpapọ̀ sì fìdí kalẹ̀ sí ní abẹ́ Aso Rock , Àpáta Agbára ni Àbújá . . Àbújá dí olú-ìlú orílè-ede Nàìjíríà ní osù kéjìlá, odún 1991, àkọsílẹ̀ ètò ikaniyan ti ọdún 2006 sọ wípé Àbújá ní olùgbé 776,298 Àwọn Ìtọ́kasí [ àtúnṣe | àtúnṣe àmìọ̀rọ̀ ]

Abuja ( / ə ˈ b uː dʒ ə / ) is the capital city of Nigeria located in the centre of the country within the Federal Capital Territory (FCT). It is a planned city and was built mainly in the 1980s, replacing the country's most populous city of Lagos as the capital on 12 December 1991. Abuja's geography is defined by Aso Rock , a 400-metre (1,300 ft) monolith left by water erosion . The Presidential Complex , National Assembly , Supreme Court and much of the city extend to the south of the rock. Zuma Rock , a 792-metre (2,598 ft) monolith, lies just north of the city on the road to Kaduna State . At the 2006 census, the city of Abuja had a population of 776,298, making it one of the ten most populous cities in Nigeria . According to the United Nations , Abuja grew by 139.7% between 2000 and 2010, making it the fastest growing city in the world. As of 2015 [update] , the city is still experiencing an annual growth of at least 35%, still retaining its position as the fastest-growing city on the African continent and one of the fastest-growing in the world. Abuja has witnessed a huge influx of people into the city; the growth has led to the emergence of satellite towns, such as Karu Urban Area , Suleja , Gwagwalada, Lugbe, Kuje and smaller settlements towards which the planned city is sprawling. The unofficial metropolitan area of Abuja has a population of well over three million, making it the fourth largest metropolitan area in Nigeria, surpassed only by Lagos , Kano and Ibadan . As at 2016, the metropolitan area of Abuja is estimated at 6 million persons, placing it behind only Lagos, as the most populous metro area. Major religious sites include the Nigerian National Mosque and the Nigerian National Christian Centre . The city is served by the Nnamdi Azikiwe International Airport . Abuja is known for being one of the few purpose-built capital cities in Africa, as well as being one of the wealthiest. Contents [ hide ] 1 History 2 Districts 2.1 Central Business District 2.2 Garki District 2.3 Wuse District 2.4 Maitama District 2.5 Asokoro District 2.6 Gwarinpa District 2.7 Durumi District 3 Climate 3.1 Vegetation 4 Skyline and landmarks 5 Universities in Abuja 6 International Schools in Abuja 7 Transportation 7.1 Airport 7.2 Rail 8 Parks and open areas 8.1 Bush Bars 9 Postal system 10 Twin towns – sister cities 11 See also 12 References 13 External links History [ edit ] Nigeria's National Assembly in Abuja "Abuja" was in the earlier 20th century the name of the nearby town now called Suleja . The indigenous inhabitants of Abuja are the Gbagyi (Gwari) as the major language, Bassa, Gwandara, Gade, Ganagana, Koro etc. In light of the ethnic and religious divisions of Nigeria , plans had been devised since Nigeria's independence to have its capital in a place deemed neutral to all major ethnic parties, and also in close proximity to all the regions of Nigeria. The location was eventually designated in the centre of the country in the early 1970s as it signified neutrality and national unity. Another impetus for Abuja came because of Lagos ' population boom that made that city overcrowded and conditions squalid. As Lagos was already undergoing rapid economic development, the Nigerian regime felt the need to expand the economy towards the inner part of the country, and hence decided to move its capital to Abuja. The logic used was similar to the way Brazil planned its capital, Brasília . Construction broke ground and was dedicated in the late 1970s but, due to economic and political instability, the initial stages of the city were not complete until the late 1980s. The master plan for Abuja and the Federal Capital Territory (FCT) was developed by International Planning Associates (IPA), a consortium of three American firms: Planning Research Corporation; Wallace, McHarg, Roberts and Todd ; and Archisystems, a division of the Hughes Organization. The master plan for Abuja defined the general structure and major design elements of the city that are visible in its current form. More detailed design of the central areas of the capital, particularly its monumental core, was accomplished by Kenzo Tange , a renowned Japanese architect, with his team of city planners at Kenzo Tange and Urtec company. Most countries relocated their embassies to Abuja, and many maintain their former embassies as consulates in Lagos , the commercial capital of Nigeria. Abuja is the headquarters of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and the regional headquarters of OPEC . Abuja and the FCT have experienced huge population growth; it has been reported that some areas around Abuja have been growing at 20% to 30% per year. Squatter settlements and towns have spread rapidly in and outside the city limits. Tens of thousands of people have been evicted since former FCT minister Nasir Ahmad el-Rufai started a demolition campaign in 2003. The FCT's ministers have been as follows: Mobolaji Ajose-Adeogun 1976–1979 John Jatau Kadiya, 1979–1982 Iro Abubakar Dan Musa, 1982–1983 Haliru Dantoro, 1983–1984 Mamman Jiya Vatsa , 1984–December 1985 Hamza Abdullahi , 1986–1989 Gado Nasko , 1989–1993 Jeremiah Timbut Useni , 1993–1998 Mamman Kontagora , 1998–1999 Ibrahim Bunu, 1999–2001 Mohammed Abba Gana , 2001–2003 Nasir Ahmad el-Rufai , 2003–May 2007 Aliyu Modibo , 2007–2008 Adamu Aliero , 2008–2010 Bala Abdulkadir Mohammed , 2010–2015 Mohammed Bello, 2015–Present Districts [ edit ] The Phase 1 area of the city is divided into ten districts known as cadastral zones. Central Cadastral Zone A00 Garki I District Cadastral Zone A01 Wuse 1 District Cadastral Zone A02 Garki II District Cadastral Zone A03 Asokoro Cadastral Zone A04 Maitama District Cadastral Zone A05 & A06 Wuse II Districts (Cadastral Zone A07 & Cadastral Zone A08) Guzape District Cadastral Zone A09 There are also sixteen districts in Phase 2. Kukwuaba Cadastral Zone B00 Gudu Cadastral Zone B01 Durumi Cadastral Zone B02 Wuye Cadastral Zone B03 Jabi Cadastral Zone B04 Utako Cadastral Zone B05 Mabuchi Cadastral Zone B06 Jahi Cadastral Zone B08 Kado Cadastral Zone B09 Dakibiyu Cadastral Zone B10 Kaura Cadastral Zone B11 Duboyi Cadastral Zone B12 Gaduwa Cadastral Zone B13 Dutse Cadastral Zone B14 Katampe Ext Cadastral Zone B19 There are eleven districts in Phase 3. Institution and Research Cadastral Zone C00 Karmo Cadastral Zone C01 Gwarinpa Cadastral Zone C02 Dape Cadastral Zone C04 Kafe Cadastral Zone C05 Nbora Cadastral Zone C06 Galadimawa Cadastral Zone C07 Dakwo Cadastral Zone C08 Lokogoma Cadastral Zone C09 Wumba Cadastral Zone C10 Idu Industrial Cadastral Zone C16 There are five suburban districts: Nyanya , Karu , Gwagwalada , Kubwa , and Jukwoyi . Along the Airport Road are clusters of satellite settlements , namely Lugbe , Chika , Kuchigworo and Pyakassa . Other satellite settlements are Idu (the main industrial zone ), Mpape , Karimu , Gwagwa , Dei-Dei (housing the International Livestock market and also International Building materials market). Central Business District [ edit ] National Christian Centre Abuja's Central District , also called Central Area, spans from the foot of Aso Rock , across the Three Arms Zone, to the southern base of the inner ring road. It is like the city's spinal cord, dividing it into the northern sector with Maitama and Wuse, and the southern sector with Garki and Asokoro. While each district has its own clearly demarcated commercial and residential sectors, the Central District is the city's principal Business Zone, where practically all parastatals and multinational corporations have their offices. An attractive area in the Central District is the region known as the Three Arms Zone , so called because it houses the administrative offices of the executive, legislative and judicial arms of the federal government. A few of the other sites worth seeing in the area are the federal secretariats alongside Shehu Shagari Way, Aso Hill, the Abuja Plant Nursery, Eagle Square (which has important historic significance, as it was in this grounds that the present democratic dispensation had its origin on 29 May 1999) and the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier across the road facing it. The National Mosque and National Church of Nigeria are opposite each other on either side of Independence Avenue. A well-known government office is the Ministry of Defense, colloquially nicknamed "Ship House". Garki District [ edit ] The Garki District is the area in the southwest corner of the city, having the Central District to the north and the Asokoro District to the east. The district is subdivided into units called "Areas". Garki uses a distinctive naming convention of "Area" to refer to parts of Garki. These are designated as Areas 1 to 11. Garki II is used to differentiate the area from Garki Area 2. Visitors may find this system confusing. Garki is presently the principal business district of Abuja. Numerous buildings of interest are in this area. Some of them include the General Post Office, Abuja International Conference Centre along the busy Herbert Maculay Way, Nicon Luxury Hotel (formally known as Abuja Sofitel Hotel and Le Meridian), Agura Hotel and Old Federal Secretariat Complex Buildings (Area 1). A new five-star hotel, Hawthorn Suites Abuja, is in Garki. Area 2 is mainly used for residential purposes, although a zoological garden as well as Garki Shopping Centre are in Area 2. Several banks and other commercial offices are located along Moshood Abiola Way in Area 7. The headquarters of the Nigerian Armed Forces – Army, Airforce and Navy – are all in the Garki District. The tallest building in this district is the Radio House, which houses the Federal Ministry of Information and Communications, the Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria (FRCN) and Voice of Nigeria (VON). The Nigerian Television Authority (NTA) stations and corporate headquarters are in Garki. The Federal Capital Development Authority (FCDA) which oversees and runs the Administration of the Federal Capital Territory has its offices in Garki. The Office of the Minister of the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja is in Area 10. Other places of note include the Arts and Culture Centre and The Nigerian Police Mobile Force headquarters in Area 10. The Abuja Municipal Area Council, which is the local government administration has its headquarters in Area 10. The new United States Embassy is in the Garki District. Wuse District [ edit ] Wuse District is the northwestern part of the city, with the Maitama District to its north and the Central District to its south. The District is numbered Zones 1–8. The Wuse Market is Abuja's principal market (Zone 5). The second most important post office in the city is here. This district houses the Sheraton Hotel and Towers (Zone 4), Ibro International hotel, the Foreign Affairs Ministry Headquarters (Zone 3) and Nigerian Customs Services Headquarters, Federal Civil Service Commission (Zone 3), Federal Road Safety Commission (FRSC), National Agency for Food and Drugs Administration (NAFDAC) (Zone 7), Wuse General Hospital, and the Nigerian Tourism Development Corporation. Just as Garki District has Garki II, Wuse has Wuse II. This is distinct from Wuse Zone 2. Maitama District [ edit ] Millennium Park in Maitama District Maitama District is to the north of the city, with the Wuse and Central Districts lying to its southwest and southeast respectively. This area is home to the top bracket sections of society and business, and has the reputation of being very exclusive and very expensive. Interesting buildings include the Transcorp Hilton Hotel , Nigerian Communications Commission Headquarters (NCC), National Universities Commission (NUC), Soil Conservation Complex, and Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC). The British High Commission is located along Aguiyi Ironsi Way, in Maitama. Also, the Maitama District Hospital is another notable building in Maitama. Maitama District is home to many of the European and Asian embassies. Asokoro District [ edit ] Asokoro District , the doyen of the districts, houses all of the state's lodges/guest houses. The ECOWAS secretariat is a focal point of interest. Asokoro is to the east of Garki District and south of Central District. It is one of the most exclusive districts of Abuja and houses virtually all of the federal cabinet ministers; in addition, the Presidential Palace (commonly referred to as the Aso Rock) is in Asokoro District. By virtue of this fact, Asokoro is the most secure area of the city. Gwarinpa District [ edit ] Gwarinpa is the last district in the Abuja Municipal Area Council. It is a 20-kilometre (12 mi) drive from the central district and contains the largest single housing estate in Nigeria, the Gwarinpa Housing Estate. The estate was built by the administration of General Sani Abacha and is the largest of its kind in Africa. It provides residence for the majority of the civil servants in federal ministries and government parastatals . The ECOWAS Court has an official quarters for the President and Members of the Court in Gwarinpa. Durumi District [ edit ] Durumi District is located southwest of Abuja and is bordered by Garki Districts I and II to the northeast. Its borders are the Oladipo Dia Road to the southwest, the Nnamdi Azikiwe Express Way to the northeast, and Ahmadu Bello Way to the southeast. The American International School of Abuja is located in the Durumi District. Climate [ edit ] Abuja under Köppen climate classification features a tropical wet and dry climate ( Köppen : Aw ). The FCT experiences three weather conditions annually. This includes a warm, humid rainy season and a blistering dry season . In between the two, there is a brief interlude of harmattan occasioned by the northeast trade wind, with the main feature of dust haze and dryness. The rainy season begins from April and ends in October, when daytime temperatures reach 28 °C (82.4 °F) to 30 °C (86.0 °F) and nighttime lows hover around 22 °C (71.6 °F) to 23 °C (73.4 °F). In the dry season, daytime temperatures can soar as high as 40 °C (104.0 °F) and nighttime temperatures can dip to 12 °C (53.6 °F). Even the chilliest nights can be followed by daytime temperatures well above 30 °C (86.0 °F). The high altitudes and undulating terrain of the FCT act as a moderating influence on the weather of the territory. Rainfall in the FCT reflects the territory's location on the windward side of the Jos Plateau and the zone of rising air masses with the city receiving frequent rainfall during the rainy season from April to October every year. [ hide ] Climate data for Abuja Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Average high °C (°F) 34.7 (94.5) 36.8 (98.2) 36.9 (98.4) 35.6 (96.1) 32.7 (90.9) 30.6 (87.1) 29.1 (84.4) 28.9 (84) 30.0 (86) 32.0 (89.6) 34.4 (93.9) 34.6 (94.3) 33.03 (91.45) Average low °C (°F) 20.4 (68.7) 25.5 (77.9) 24.3 (75.7) 24.7 (76.5) 19.5 (67.1) 18.3 (64.9) 21.9 (71.4) 17.7 (63.9) 17.5 (63.5) 21.4 (70.5) 15.7 (60.3) 15.5 (59.9) 20.2 (68.36) Average rainfall mm (inches) 1.7 (0.067) 5.4 (0.213) 11.3 (0.445) 62.8 (2.472) 134.1 (5.28) 164.2 (6.465) 217.5 (8.563) 262.7 (10.343) 253.4 (9.976) 103.2 (4.063) 3.7 (0.146) 1.2 (0.047) 1,221.2 (48.08) Average rainy days 0.1 0.2 1.3 4.2 9.4 12.3 14.0 16.2 15.9 8.0 0.3 0.1 82 Source: World Meteorological Organization. Vegetation [ edit ] The FCT falls within the Guinean forest-savanna mosaic zone of the West African sub-region. Patches of rain forest , however, occur in the Gwagwa plains, especially in the rugged terrain to the south southeastern parts of the territory, where a landscape of gullies and rough terrain is found. These areas of the Federal Capital Territory (FCT) form one of the few surviving occurrences of the mature forest vegetation in Nigeria. Skyline and landmarks [ edit ] Spectators at a football match held in the Abuja National Stadium The Abuja skyline is made up of mostly mid-range and a few tall buildings. Only recently have tall buildings begun to appear. Most of the buildings are modern, reflecting that it is a new city. Plans were made to build skyscrapers such as the Millennium Tower which is partly completed. This structure looms 170 metres (560 ft) above the city. The tower is part of a huge cultural development complex called the Nigeria National Complex including the Nigeria Cultural Centre, a 120,000 m 2 (1,300,000 sq ft) structure dedicated to the art and culture of Nigeria. The Cultural Centre and the Millennium Tower have been designed by the Italian architect Manfredi Nicoletti . Landmarks include the Millennium Tower , the Central Bank of Nigeria headquarters, the Nigerian Presidential Complex , the Ship House, the National Stadium , National Mosque , the National Church , Aso Rock and Zuma Rock . Abuja City Gate Zuma rock Abuja National Mosque Universities in Abuja [ edit ] African Institute of Science and Technology Baze University Nigerian Turkish Nile University University of Abuja Veritas University National Open University of Nigeria Nile University International Schools in Abuja [ edit ] Whiteplains British School , Jabi American International School of Abuja Nigerian-Turkish School Transportation [ edit ] Airport [ edit ] Nnamdi Azikiwe International Airport is the main airport serving Abuja and the surrounding capital region. It was named after Nigeria's first president, Nnamdi Azikiwe . The airport has international and domestic terminals. Rail [ edit ] Abuja is on the route of the planned Lagos–Kano Standard Gauge Railway , which has been completed between Abuja and Kaduna . Trains for Kaduna depart from the Idu Railway Station in Abuja. There is a motor park at the train station for passengers traveling to the city centre. A light rail system is now under construction, including a station at Idu . Parks and open areas [ edit ] Abuja is home to several parks and green areas with the largest one being Millennium Park . Millennium Park was designed by world-renowned architect Manfredi Nicoletti and was officially opened by the United Kingdom 's Elizabeth II in December 2003. Another open area park is located in Lifecamp Gwarimpa; near the residence of the Minister of the Federal Capital Territory. The park is located on a slightly raised hilltop which contains sport facilities like Basketball and Badminton courts another park is the city park, it is located in wuse 2 and is home to numerous outdoor and indoor attractions such as a 4D cinema, astro-turf, lawn tennis court, paintball arena and a variety of restaurants. Bush Bars [ edit ] Abuja has a variety of informal spaces known as "Bush Bars" that usually, though not always, include a covered area with tables and chairs where people can sit and have drinks (alcoholic and non-alcoholic) and sometimes there are snacks such as suya, grilled catfish, pounded yam, egusi soup and other small items available for purchase and they are located all over Abuja. Postal system [ edit ] Abuja is served by the Nigerian Postal Service which maintains postal codes, street names and zones. Postal codes and district names can also be found on geocodes.com. Twin towns – sister cities [ edit ] Toronto , Canada Buffalo , United States See also [ edit ] Nigeria portal References [ edit ] External links [ edit ] Media related to Abuja at Wikimedia Commons Abuja official website Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Abuja .

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what do the numbers in my ip address mean

An IP address serves two principal functions. It identifies the host, or more specifically its network interface, and it provides the location of the host in the network, and thus the capability of addressing that host. Its role has been characterized as follows : `` A name indicates what we seek. An address indicates where it is. A route indicates how to get there. ''

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kí ni àwọn nọ́ńbà tó wà nínú adirẹsi ip mi túmọ̀ sí

Yes

['Àwọn àdírẹ́ẹ̀sì IP ún jẹ́ kíkọ àti híhàn ní ọ̀nà tó ṣe é rí kà fún ọmọ ènìyàn, fún àpẹrẹ, gẹ́gẹ́ bí 172.16.254.1 nínú IPv4, àti 2001:db8:0:1234:0:567:8:1 nínú IPv6.', 'Àdírẹ́ẹ̀sì IP kan únṣe ìṣẹ́ mẹ́jì pàtàkì: ìṣe ìdámọ̀ ẹ̀rọ-agbàlejò tàbí ìfojúkojú ẹ̀rọ-àsopọ̀ àti ìṣe àdírẹ́ẹ̀sì ibùdó.']

['Àwọn àdírẹ́ẹ̀sì IP ún jẹ́ kíkọ àti híhàn ní ọ̀nà tó ṣe é rí kà fún ọmọ ènìyàn, fún àpẹrẹ, gẹ́gẹ́ bí 172.16.254.1 nínú IPv4, àti 2001:db8:0:1234:0:567:8:1 nínú IPv6.', 'Àdírẹ́ẹ̀sì IP kan únṣe ìṣẹ́ mẹ́jì pàtàkì: ìṣe ìdámọ̀ ẹ̀rọ-agbàlejò tàbí ìfojúkojú ẹ̀rọ-àsopọ̀ àti ìṣe àdírẹ́ẹ̀sì ibùdó.']

['P1', 'P3']

Àdír????sì IP Àdír????sì Prótókóòlù Íntán????tì (Àdír????sì IP) ni àl??m?? ìtò-n??mbà tí ó j?? yíyànsíl?? fún ??r? k????kan tó sop?? m?? ??r?-àsop?? k??mpútà kan tó únlo Prótókóòlù Íntán????tì fún ìbánis??r??.[1][2] Àdír????sì IP kan ún?e ì??? m??jì pàtàkì: ì?e ìdám?? ??r?-agbàlejò tàbí ìfojúkojú ??r?-àsop?? àti ì?e àdír????sì ibùdó. Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) ?e ìtum?? àdír????sì IP kan g??g?? bí n??mbà oní 32-bit.[2] Sùgb??n, nítorí bí Íntán????tì ?e ti tóbi tó àti ìdínkù àw?n àdír????sì IPv4 tó wà, ??nà tuntun mìíràn fún IP (IPv6), tó ún lo 128 bits fún àdír????sì IP, j?? ?í?e àj?hùnsí ní ?dún 1998.[3][4][5] Ìlò IPv6 ti b??r?? láti àrin ìgbà ?dún 2000. Àw?n àdír????sì IP ún j?? kík? àti híhàn ní ??nà tó ?e é rí kà fún ?m? ènìyàn, fún àp?r?, g??g?? bí 172.16.254.1 nínú IPv4, àti 2001:db8:0:1234:0:567:8:1 nínú IPv6. Ìtóbi ì???nà ìfikúnwájú fún àdír????sì j?? yíyànsíl?? nínú Àk?lé CIDR nípa sí?e ìfikúnl??yìn àdír????sì p??lú n??mbà àw?n bit pàtàkì, f.a., 192.168.1.15/24, tó j?? ìkannáà m?? subnet mask 255.255.255.0 tí w??n únlò látì ìb??r??. Ày?kà yìí tàbí apá r?? únf?? àtún?e sí. ? le f?? jù báyìí l? tàbí kí ? ?àtún?e r?? l??nà tí yíò mu kúnr??r??. ? ran Wikipedia l??w?? láti f???? jù báyìí l?.

For the Wikipedia user access level, see Wikipedia:User access levels#Unregistered users IP address configuration dialog in Microsoft Windows An Internet Protocol address ( IP address ) is a numerical label assigned to each device connected to a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication. An IP address serves two principal functions: host or network interface identification and location addressing . Version 4 of the Internet Protocol (IPv4) defines an IP address as a 32-bit number. However, because of the growth of the Internet and the depletion of available IPv4 addresses , a new version of IP ( IPv6 ), using 128 bits for the IP address, was developed in 1995, and standardized as RFC 2460 in 1998. IPv6 deployment has been ongoing since the mid-2000s. IP addresses are usually written and displayed in human-readable notations, such as 172.16.254.1 in IPv4, and 2001:db8:0:1234:0:567:8:1 in IPv6. The IP address space is managed globally by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA), and by five regional Internet registries (RIR) responsible in their designated territories for assignment to end users and local Internet registries , such as Internet service providers . IPv4 addresses have been distributed by IANA to the RIRs in blocks of approximately 16.8 million addresses each. Each ISP or private network administrator assigns an IP address to each device connected to its network. Such assignments may be on a static (fixed or permanent) or dynamic basis, depending on its software and practices. Contents [ hide ] 1 Function 2 IP versions 3 IPv4 addresses 3.1 Subnetting 3.2 Private addresses 4 IPv6 addresses 4.1 Private addresses 5 IP subnetworks 6 IP address assignment 6.1 Sticky dynamic IP address 6.2 Address autoconfiguration 6.3 Addressing conflicts 7 Routing 7.1 Unicast addressing 7.2 Broadcast addressing 7.3 Multicast addressing 7.4 Anycast addressing 8 Public address 9 Firewalling 10 Address translation 11 Diagnostic tools 12 See also 13 References 14 External links Function An IP address serves two principal functions. It identifies the host, or more specifically its network interface, and it provides the location of the host in the network, and thus the capability of addressing that host. Its role has been characterized as follows: "A name indicates what we seek. An address indicates where it is. A route indicates how to get there." The header of each IP packet contains the IP address of the sending host, and that of the destination host. A host may use geolocation software to deduce the geolocation of its communicating peer. IP versions Two versions of the Internet Protocol are in common use in the Internet today. The original version of the Internet Protocol for use in the Internet is Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4), first installed in 1983. The rapid exhaustion of IPv4 address space available for assignment to Internet service providers and end user organizations by the early 1990s, prompted the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) to explore new technologies to expand the addressing capability in the Internet. The result was a redesign of the Internet Protocol which became eventually known as Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) in 1995. IPv6 technology was in various testing stages until the mid-2000s, when commercial production deployment commenced. IANA's primary IPv4 address pool was exhausted on 3 February 2011, when the last five blocks were allocated to the five RIRs . APNIC was the first RIR to exhaust its regional pool on 15 April 2011, except for a small amount of address space reserved for the transition to IPv6, intended to be allocated in a restricted process. Individual ISPs still had unassigned pools of IP addresses, and could recycle addresses no longer needed by their subscribers. Today, these two versions of the Internet Protocol are in simultaneous use. Among other technical changes, each version defines the format of addresses differently. Because of the historical prevalence of IPv4, the generic term IP address typically still refers to the addresses defined by IPv4. The gap in version sequence between IPv4 and IPv6 resulted from the assignment of version 5 to the experimental Internet Stream Protocol in 1979, which however was never referred to as IPv5. IPv4 addresses Main article: IPv4 § Addressing Decomposition of an IPv4 address from dot-decimal notation to its binary value. An IP address in IPv4 is 32-bits in size, which limits the address space to 4 294 967 296 (2 32 ) IP addresses. Of this number, IPv4 reserves some addresses for special purposes such as private networks (~18 million addresses) or multicast addresses (~270 million addresses). IPv4 addresses are usually represented in dot-decimal notation , consisting of four decimal numbers, each ranging from 0 to 255, separated by dots, e.g., 172.16.254.1. Each part represents a group of 8 bits ( octet ) of the address. In some cases of technical writing, IPv4 addresses may be presented in various hexadecimal , octal , or binary representations. Subnetting In the early stages of development of the Internet Protocol, network administrators interpreted an IP address in two parts: network number portion and host number portion. The highest order octet (most significant eight bits) in an address was designated as the network number and the remaining bits were called the rest field or host identifier and were used for host numbering within a network. This early method soon proved inadequate as additional networks developed that were independent of the existing networks already designated by a network number. In 1981, the Internet addressing specification was revised with the introduction of classful network architecture. Classful network design allowed for a larger number of individual network assignments and fine-grained subnetwork design. The first three bits of the most significant octet of an IP address were defined as the class of the address. Three classes ( A , B , and C ) were defined for universal unicast addressing. Depending on the class derived, the network identification was based on octet boundary segments of the entire address. Each class used successively additional octets in the network identifier, thus reducing the possible number of hosts in the higher order classes ( B and C ). The following table gives an overview of this now obsolete system. Historical classful network architecture Class Leading bits Size of network number bit field Size of rest bit field Number of networks Addresses per network Start address End address A 0 8 24 128 (2 7 ) 16,777,216 (2 24 ) 0.0.0.0 127.255.255.255 B 10 16 16 16,384 (2 14 ) 65,536 (2 16 ) 128.0.0.0 191.255.255.255 C 110 24 8 2,097,152 (2 21 ) 256 (2 8 ) 192.0.0.0 223.255.255.255 Classful network design served its purpose in the startup stage of the Internet, but it lacked scalability in the face of the rapid expansion of the network in the 1990s. The class system of the address space was replaced with Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) in 1993. CIDR is based on variable-length subnet masking (VLSM) to allow allocation and routing based on arbitrary-length prefixes. Today, remnants of classful network concepts function only in a limited scope as the default configuration parameters of some network software and hardware components (e.g. netmask), and in the technical jargon used in network administrators' discussions. Private addresses Early network design, when global end-to-end connectivity was envisioned for communications with all Internet hosts, intended that IP addresses be uniquely assigned to a particular computer or device. However, it was found that this was not always necessary as private networks developed and public address space needed to be conserved. Computers not connected to the Internet, such as factory machines that communicate only with each other via TCP/IP, need not have globally unique IP addresses. Three non-overlapping ranges of IPv4 addresses for private networks were reserved in RFC 1918 . These addresses are not routed on the Internet and thus their use need not be coordinated with an IP address registry. Today, when needed, such private networks typically connect to the Internet through network address translation (NAT). IANA-reserved private IPv4 network ranges Start End No. of addresses 24-bit block (/8 prefix, 1 × A) 10.0.0.0 10.255.255.255 16 777 216 20-bit block (/12 prefix, 16 × B) 172.16.0.0 172.31.255.255 1 048 576 16-bit block (/16 prefix, 256 × C) 192.168.0.0 192.168.255.255 65 536 Any user may use any of the reserved blocks. Typically, a network administrator will divide a block into subnets ; for example, many home routers automatically use a default address range of 192.168.0.0 through 192.168.0.255 (192.168.0.0/24). IPv6 addresses Main article: IPv6 address Decomposition of an IPv6 address from hexadecimal representation to its binary value. In IPv6, the address size was increased from 32 bits in IPv4 to 128 bits or 16 octets , thus providing up to 2 128 (approximately 7038340299999999999♠ 3.403 × 10 38 ) addresses. This is deemed sufficient for the foreseeable future. The intent of the new design was not to provide just a sufficient quantity of addresses, but also redesign routing in the Internet by more efficient aggregation of subnetwork routing prefixes. This resulted in slower growth of routing tables in routers. The smallest possible individual allocation is a subnet for 2 64 hosts, which is the square of the size of the entire IPv4 Internet. At these levels, actual address utilization ratios will be small on any IPv6 network segment. The new design also provides the opportunity to separate the addressing infrastructure of a network segment, i.e. the local administration of the segment's available space, from the addressing prefix used to route traffic to and from external networks. IPv6 has facilities that automatically change the routing prefix of entire networks, should the global connectivity or the routing policy change, without requiring internal redesign or manual renumbering. The large number of IPv6 addresses allows large blocks to be assigned for specific purposes and, where appropriate, to be aggregated for efficient routing. With a large address space, there is no need to have complex address conservation methods as used in CIDR. All modern desktop and enterprise server operating systems include native support for the IPv6 protocol, but it is not yet widely deployed in other devices, such as residential networking routers, voice over IP (VoIP) and multimedia equipment, and network peripherals. Private addresses Just as IPv4 reserves addresses for private networks, blocks of addresses are set aside in IPv6. In IPv6, these are referred to as unique local addresses (ULA). RFC 4193 reserves the routing prefix fc00::/7 for this block which is divided into two /8 blocks with different implied policies. The addresses include a 40-bit pseudorandom number that minimizes the risk of address collisions if sites merge or packets are misrouted. Early practices used a different block for this purpose (fec0::), dubbed site-local addresses. However, the definition of what constituted sites remained unclear and the poorly defined addressing policy created ambiguities for routing. This address type was abandoned and must not be used in new systems. Addresses starting with fe80:, called link-local addresses, are assigned to interfaces for communication on the attached link. The addresses are automatically generated by the operating system for each network interface. This provides instant and automatic communication between all IPv6 host on a link. This feature is required in the lower layers of IPv6 network administration, such as for the Neighbor Discovery Protocol . Private address prefixes may not be routed on the public Internet. IP subnetworks IP networks may be divided into subnetworks in both IPv4 and IPv6 . For this purpose, an IP address is logically recognized as consisting of two parts: the network prefix and the host identifier , or interface identifier (IPv6). The subnet mask or the CIDR prefix determines how the IP address is divided into network and host parts. The term subnet mask is only used within IPv4. Both IP versions however use the CIDR concept and notation. In this, the IP address is followed by a slash and the number (in decimal) of bits used for the network part, also called the routing prefix . For example, an IPv4 address and its subnet mask may be 192.0.2.1 and 255.255.255.0, respectively. The CIDR notation for the same IP address and subnet is 192.0.2.1/24, because the first 24 bits of the IP address indicate the network and subnet. IP address assignment IP addresses are assigned to a host either dynamically at the time of booting, or permanently by fixed configuration of the host hardware or software. Persistent configuration is also known as using a static IP address . In contrast, when a computer's IP address is assigned newly each time it restarts, this is known as using a dynamic IP address . The configuration of a static IP address depends in detail on the software or hardware installed in the computer. Computers used for the network infrastructure, such as routers and mail servers, are typically configured with static addressing, Static addresses are also sometimes convenient for locating servers inside an enterprise. [ citation needed ] Dynamic IP addresses are assigned using methods such as Zeroconf for self-configuration, or by the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) from a network server. The address assigned with DHCP usually has an expiration period, after which the address may be assigned to another device, or to the originally associated host if it is still powered up. A network administrator may implement a DHCP method so that the same host always receives a specific address. DHCP is the most frequently used technology for assigning addresses. It avoids the administrative burden of assigning specific static addresses to each device on a network. It also allows devices to share the limited address space on a network if only some of them are online at a particular time. Typically, dynamic IP configuration is enabled by default in modern desk top operating systems. DHCP is not the only technology used to assign IP addresses dynamically. Dialup and some broadband networks use dynamic address features of the Point-to-Point Protocol . In the absence or failure of static or stateful (DHCP) address configurations, an operating system may assign an IP address to a network interface using state-less auto-configuration methods, such as Zeroconf. Sticky dynamic IP address A sticky dynamic IP address is an informal term used by cable and DSL Internet access subscribers to describe a dynamically assigned IP address which seldom changes. The addresses are usually assigned with DHCP. Since the modems are usually powered on for extended periods of time, the address leases are usually set to long periods and simply renewed. If a modem is turned off and powered up again before the next expiration of the address lease, it often receives the same IP address. Address autoconfiguration RFC 3330 defines an address block 169.254.0.0/16 for the special use in link-local addressing for IPv4 networks. In IPv6, every interface, whether using static or dynamic address assignments, also receives a local-link address automatically in the block fe80::/10. These addresses are only valid on the link, such as a local network segment or point-to-point connection, that a host is connected to. These addresses are not routable and like private addresses cannot be the source or destination of packets traversing the Internet. When the link-local IPv4 address block was reserved, no standards existed for mechanisms of address autoconfiguration. Filling the void, Microsoft created an implementation that is called Automatic Private IP Addressing ( APIPA ). APIPA has been deployed on millions of machines and has, thus, become a de facto standard in the industry. In RFC 3927 , the IETF defined a formal standard for this functionality, entitled Dynamic Configuration of IPv4 Link-Local Addresses . Addressing conflicts An IP address conflict occurs when two devices on the same local physical or wireless network claim to have the same IP address. A second assignment of an address generally stops the IP functionality of one or both of the devices. Many modern operating systems notify the administrator of IP address conflicts. If one of the devices is the gateway, the network will be crippled. When IP addresses are assigned by multiple people and systems with differing methods, any of them may be at fault. Routing IP addresses are classified into several classes of operational characteristics: unicast, multicast, anycast and broadcast addressing. Unicast addressing The most common concept of an IP address is in unicast addressing, available in both IPv4 and IPv6. It normally refers to a single sender or a single receiver, and can be used for both sending and receiving. Usually, a unicast address is associated with a single device or host, but a device or host may have more than one unicast address. Some individual PCs have several distinct unicast addresses, each for its own distinct purpose. Sending the same data to multiple unicast addresses requires the sender to send all the data many times over, once for each recipient. Broadcast addressing Main article: Broadcasting (computing) In IPv4 it is possible to send data to all possible destinations ("all-hosts broadcast"), which permits the sender to send the data only once, and all receivers receive a copy of it. In the IPv4 protocol, the address 255.255.255.255 is used for local broadcast. In addition, a directed (limited) broadcast can be made by combining the network prefix with a host suffix composed entirely of binary 1s. For example, the destination address used for a directed broadcast to devices on the 192.0.2.0/24 network is 192.0.2.255. IPv6 does not implement broadcast addressing and replaces it with multicast to the specially-defined all-nodes multicast address. Multicast addressing A multicast address is associated with a group of interested receivers. In IPv4, addresses 224.0.0.0 through 239.255.255.255 (the former Class D addresses) are designated as multicast addresses. IPv6 uses the address block with the prefix ff00::/8 for multicast applications. In either case, the sender sends a single datagram from its unicast address to the multicast group address and the intermediary routers take care of making copies and sending them to all receivers that have joined the corresponding multicast group. Anycast addressing Like broadcast and multicast, anycast is a one-to-many routing topology. However, the data stream is not transmitted to all receivers, just the one which the router decides is logically closest in the network. Anycast address is an inherent feature of only IPv6. In IPv4, anycast addressing implementations typically operate using the shortest-path metric of BGP routing and do not take into account congestion or other attributes of the path. Anycast methods are useful for global load balancing and are commonly used in distributed DNS systems. Public address A public IP address, in common parlance, is a globally routable unicast IP address, meaning that the address is not an address reserved for use in private networks , such as those reserved by RFC 1918 , or the various IPv6 address formats of local scope or site-local scope, for example for link-local addressing . Public IP addresses may be used for communication between hosts on the global Internet. Firewalling For security and privacy considerations, network administrators often desire to restrict public Internet traffic within their private networks. The source and destination IP addresses contained in the headers of each IP packet are a convenient means to discriminate traffic by IP address blocking or by selectively tailoring responses to external requests to internal servers. This is achieved with firewall software running on the networks gateway router. A database of IP addresses of permissible traffic may be maintained in blacklists or whitelists . Address translation Multiple client devices can appear to share an IP address, either because they are part of a shared hosting web server environment or because an IPv4 network address translator (NAT) or proxy server acts as an intermediary agent on behalf of the client, in which case the real originating IP address might be masked from the server receiving a request. A common practice is to have a NAT mask a large number of devices in a private network . Only the "outside" interface(s) of the NAT needs to have an Internet-routable address. Commonly, the NAT device maps TCP or UDP port numbers on the side of the larger, public network to individual private addresses on the masqueraded network. In residential networks, NAT functions are usually implemented in a residential gateway . In this scenario, the computers connected to the router have private IP addresses and the router has a public address on its external interface to communicate on the Internet. The internal computers appear to share one public IP address. Diagnostic tools Computer operating systems provide various diagnostic tools to examine their network interface and address configuration. Windows provides the command-line interface tools ipconfig and netsh and users of Unix-like systems can use ifconfig , netstat , route , lanstat , fstat , or iproute2 utilities to accomplish the task. See also Hostname IP address spoofing IP aliasing IP multicast IPv4 subnetting reference IPv6 subnetting reference List of assigned /8 IPv4 address blocks MAC address Ping (networking utility) Regional Internet Registry Subnet address Virtual IP address WHOIS References External links IP at DMOZ

train

what is the purpose of the ip address

An Internet Protocol address (IP address) is a numerical label assigned to each device connected to a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication. An IP address serves two principal functions : host or network interface identification and location addressing.

['flag of japan']

kí ni ète adirẹsi ip

Yes

['Àdírẹ́ẹ̀sì IP kan únṣe ìṣẹ́ mẹ́jì pàtàkì: ìṣe ìdámọ̀ ẹ̀rọ-agbàlejò tàbí ìfojúkojú ẹ̀rọ-àsopọ̀ àti ìṣe àdírẹ́ẹ̀sì ibùdó.']

['Àdírẹ́ẹ̀sì IP kan únṣe ìṣẹ́ mẹ́jì pàtàkì: ìṣe ìdámọ̀ ẹ̀rọ-agbàlejò tàbí ìfojúkojú ẹ̀rọ-àsopọ̀ àti ìṣe àdírẹ́ẹ̀sì ibùdó.']

['P1']

Àdír????sì IP Àdír????sì Prótókóòlù Íntán????tì (Àdír????sì IP) ni àl??m?? ìtò-n??mbà tí ó j?? yíyànsíl?? fún ??r? k????kan tó sop?? m?? ??r?-àsop?? k??mpútà kan tó únlo Prótókóòlù Íntán????tì fún ìbánis??r??.[1][2] Àdír????sì IP kan ún?e ì??? m??jì pàtàkì: ì?e ìdám?? ??r?-agbàlejò tàbí ìfojúkojú ??r?-àsop?? àti ì?e àdír????sì ibùdó. Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) ?e ìtum?? àdír????sì IP kan g??g?? bí n??mbà oní 32-bit.[2] Sùgb??n, nítorí bí Íntán????tì ?e ti tóbi tó àti ìdínkù àw?n àdír????sì IPv4 tó wà, ??nà tuntun mìíràn fún IP (IPv6), tó ún lo 128 bits fún àdír????sì IP, j?? ?í?e àj?hùnsí ní ?dún 1998.[3][4][5] Ìlò IPv6 ti b??r?? láti àrin ìgbà ?dún 2000. Àw?n àdír????sì IP ún j?? kík? àti híhàn ní ??nà tó ?e é rí kà fún ?m? ènìyàn, fún àp?r?, g??g?? bí 172.16.254.1 nínú IPv4, àti 2001:db8:0:1234:0:567:8:1 nínú IPv6. Ìtóbi ì???nà ìfikúnwájú fún àdír????sì j?? yíyànsíl?? nínú Àk?lé CIDR nípa sí?e ìfikúnl??yìn àdír????sì p??lú n??mbà àw?n bit pàtàkì, f.a., 192.168.1.15/24, tó j?? ìkannáà m?? subnet mask 255.255.255.0 tí w??n únlò látì ìb??r??. Ày?kà yìí tàbí apá r?? únf?? àtún?e sí. ? le f?? jù báyìí l? tàbí kí ? ?àtún?e r?? l??nà tí yíò mu kúnr??r??. ? ran Wikipedia l??w?? láti f???? jù báyìí l?.

For the Wikipedia user access level, see Wikipedia:User access levels#Unregistered users IP address configuration dialog in Microsoft Windows An Internet Protocol address ( IP address ) is a numerical label assigned to each device connected to a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication. An IP address serves two principal functions: host or network interface identification and location addressing . Version 4 of the Internet Protocol (IPv4) defines an IP address as a 32-bit number. However, because of the growth of the Internet and the depletion of available IPv4 addresses , a new version of IP ( IPv6 ), using 128 bits for the IP address, was developed in 1995, and standardized as RFC 2460 in 1998. IPv6 deployment has been ongoing since the mid-2000s. IP addresses are usually written and displayed in human-readable notations, such as 172.16.254.1 in IPv4, and 2001:db8:0:1234:0:567:8:1 in IPv6. The IP address space is managed globally by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA), and by five regional Internet registries (RIR) responsible in their designated territories for assignment to end users and local Internet registries , such as Internet service providers . IPv4 addresses have been distributed by IANA to the RIRs in blocks of approximately 16.8 million addresses each. Each ISP or private network administrator assigns an IP address to each device connected to its network. Such assignments may be on a static (fixed or permanent) or dynamic basis, depending on its software and practices. Contents [ hide ] 1 Function 2 IP versions 3 IPv4 addresses 3.1 Subnetting 3.2 Private addresses 4 IPv6 addresses 4.1 Private addresses 5 IP subnetworks 6 IP address assignment 6.1 Sticky dynamic IP address 6.2 Address autoconfiguration 6.3 Addressing conflicts 7 Routing 7.1 Unicast addressing 7.2 Broadcast addressing 7.3 Multicast addressing 7.4 Anycast addressing 8 Public address 9 Firewalling 10 Address translation 11 Diagnostic tools 12 See also 13 References 14 External links Function An IP address serves two principal functions. It identifies the host, or more specifically its network interface, and it provides the location of the host in the network, and thus the capability of addressing that host. Its role has been characterized as follows: "A name indicates what we seek. An address indicates where it is. A route indicates how to get there." The header of each IP packet contains the IP address of the sending host, and that of the destination host. A host may use geolocation software to deduce the geolocation of its communicating peer. IP versions Two versions of the Internet Protocol are in common use in the Internet today. The original version of the Internet Protocol for use in the Internet is Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4), first installed in 1983. The rapid exhaustion of IPv4 address space available for assignment to Internet service providers and end user organizations by the early 1990s, prompted the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) to explore new technologies to expand the addressing capability in the Internet. The result was a redesign of the Internet Protocol which became eventually known as Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) in 1995. IPv6 technology was in various testing stages until the mid-2000s, when commercial production deployment commenced. IANA's primary IPv4 address pool was exhausted on 3 February 2011, when the last five blocks were allocated to the five RIRs . APNIC was the first RIR to exhaust its regional pool on 15 April 2011, except for a small amount of address space reserved for the transition to IPv6, intended to be allocated in a restricted process. Individual ISPs still had unassigned pools of IP addresses, and could recycle addresses no longer needed by their subscribers. Today, these two versions of the Internet Protocol are in simultaneous use. Among other technical changes, each version defines the format of addresses differently. Because of the historical prevalence of IPv4, the generic term IP address typically still refers to the addresses defined by IPv4. The gap in version sequence between IPv4 and IPv6 resulted from the assignment of version 5 to the experimental Internet Stream Protocol in 1979, which however was never referred to as IPv5. IPv4 addresses Main article: IPv4 § Addressing Decomposition of an IPv4 address from dot-decimal notation to its binary value. An IP address in IPv4 is 32-bits in size, which limits the address space to 4 294 967 296 (2 32 ) IP addresses. Of this number, IPv4 reserves some addresses for special purposes such as private networks (~18 million addresses) or multicast addresses (~270 million addresses). IPv4 addresses are usually represented in dot-decimal notation , consisting of four decimal numbers, each ranging from 0 to 255, separated by dots, e.g., 172.16.254.1. Each part represents a group of 8 bits ( octet ) of the address. In some cases of technical writing, IPv4 addresses may be presented in various hexadecimal , octal , or binary representations. Subnetting In the early stages of development of the Internet Protocol, network administrators interpreted an IP address in two parts: network number portion and host number portion. The highest order octet (most significant eight bits) in an address was designated as the network number and the remaining bits were called the rest field or host identifier and were used for host numbering within a network. This early method soon proved inadequate as additional networks developed that were independent of the existing networks already designated by a network number. In 1981, the Internet addressing specification was revised with the introduction of classful network architecture. Classful network design allowed for a larger number of individual network assignments and fine-grained subnetwork design. The first three bits of the most significant octet of an IP address were defined as the class of the address. Three classes ( A , B , and C ) were defined for universal unicast addressing. Depending on the class derived, the network identification was based on octet boundary segments of the entire address. Each class used successively additional octets in the network identifier, thus reducing the possible number of hosts in the higher order classes ( B and C ). The following table gives an overview of this now obsolete system. Historical classful network architecture Class Leading bits Size of network number bit field Size of rest bit field Number of networks Addresses per network Start address End address A 0 8 24 128 (2 7 ) 16,777,216 (2 24 ) 0.0.0.0 127.255.255.255 B 10 16 16 16,384 (2 14 ) 65,536 (2 16 ) 128.0.0.0 191.255.255.255 C 110 24 8 2,097,152 (2 21 ) 256 (2 8 ) 192.0.0.0 223.255.255.255 Classful network design served its purpose in the startup stage of the Internet, but it lacked scalability in the face of the rapid expansion of the network in the 1990s. The class system of the address space was replaced with Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) in 1993. CIDR is based on variable-length subnet masking (VLSM) to allow allocation and routing based on arbitrary-length prefixes. Today, remnants of classful network concepts function only in a limited scope as the default configuration parameters of some network software and hardware components (e.g. netmask), and in the technical jargon used in network administrators' discussions. Private addresses Early network design, when global end-to-end connectivity was envisioned for communications with all Internet hosts, intended that IP addresses be uniquely assigned to a particular computer or device. However, it was found that this was not always necessary as private networks developed and public address space needed to be conserved. Computers not connected to the Internet, such as factory machines that communicate only with each other via TCP/IP, need not have globally unique IP addresses. Three non-overlapping ranges of IPv4 addresses for private networks were reserved in RFC 1918 . These addresses are not routed on the Internet and thus their use need not be coordinated with an IP address registry. Today, when needed, such private networks typically connect to the Internet through network address translation (NAT). IANA-reserved private IPv4 network ranges Start End No. of addresses 24-bit block (/8 prefix, 1 × A) 10.0.0.0 10.255.255.255 16 777 216 20-bit block (/12 prefix, 16 × B) 172.16.0.0 172.31.255.255 1 048 576 16-bit block (/16 prefix, 256 × C) 192.168.0.0 192.168.255.255 65 536 Any user may use any of the reserved blocks. Typically, a network administrator will divide a block into subnets ; for example, many home routers automatically use a default address range of 192.168.0.0 through 192.168.0.255 (192.168.0.0/24). IPv6 addresses Main article: IPv6 address Decomposition of an IPv6 address from hexadecimal representation to its binary value. In IPv6, the address size was increased from 32 bits in IPv4 to 128 bits or 16 octets , thus providing up to 2 128 (approximately 7038340299999999999♠ 3.403 × 10 38 ) addresses. This is deemed sufficient for the foreseeable future. The intent of the new design was not to provide just a sufficient quantity of addresses, but also redesign routing in the Internet by more efficient aggregation of subnetwork routing prefixes. This resulted in slower growth of routing tables in routers. The smallest possible individual allocation is a subnet for 2 64 hosts, which is the square of the size of the entire IPv4 Internet. At these levels, actual address utilization ratios will be small on any IPv6 network segment. The new design also provides the opportunity to separate the addressing infrastructure of a network segment, i.e. the local administration of the segment's available space, from the addressing prefix used to route traffic to and from external networks. IPv6 has facilities that automatically change the routing prefix of entire networks, should the global connectivity or the routing policy change, without requiring internal redesign or manual renumbering. The large number of IPv6 addresses allows large blocks to be assigned for specific purposes and, where appropriate, to be aggregated for efficient routing. With a large address space, there is no need to have complex address conservation methods as used in CIDR. All modern desktop and enterprise server operating systems include native support for the IPv6 protocol, but it is not yet widely deployed in other devices, such as residential networking routers, voice over IP (VoIP) and multimedia equipment, and network peripherals. Private addresses Just as IPv4 reserves addresses for private networks, blocks of addresses are set aside in IPv6. In IPv6, these are referred to as unique local addresses (ULA). RFC 4193 reserves the routing prefix fc00::/7 for this block which is divided into two /8 blocks with different implied policies. The addresses include a 40-bit pseudorandom number that minimizes the risk of address collisions if sites merge or packets are misrouted. Early practices used a different block for this purpose (fec0::), dubbed site-local addresses. However, the definition of what constituted sites remained unclear and the poorly defined addressing policy created ambiguities for routing. This address type was abandoned and must not be used in new systems. Addresses starting with fe80:, called link-local addresses, are assigned to interfaces for communication on the attached link. The addresses are automatically generated by the operating system for each network interface. This provides instant and automatic communication between all IPv6 host on a link. This feature is required in the lower layers of IPv6 network administration, such as for the Neighbor Discovery Protocol . Private address prefixes may not be routed on the public Internet. IP subnetworks IP networks may be divided into subnetworks in both IPv4 and IPv6 . For this purpose, an IP address is logically recognized as consisting of two parts: the network prefix and the host identifier , or interface identifier (IPv6). The subnet mask or the CIDR prefix determines how the IP address is divided into network and host parts. The term subnet mask is only used within IPv4. Both IP versions however use the CIDR concept and notation. In this, the IP address is followed by a slash and the number (in decimal) of bits used for the network part, also called the routing prefix . For example, an IPv4 address and its subnet mask may be 192.0.2.1 and 255.255.255.0, respectively. The CIDR notation for the same IP address and subnet is 192.0.2.1/24, because the first 24 bits of the IP address indicate the network and subnet. IP address assignment IP addresses are assigned to a host either dynamically at the time of booting, or permanently by fixed configuration of the host hardware or software. Persistent configuration is also known as using a static IP address . In contrast, when a computer's IP address is assigned newly each time it restarts, this is known as using a dynamic IP address . The configuration of a static IP address depends in detail on the software or hardware installed in the computer. Computers used for the network infrastructure, such as routers and mail servers, are typically configured with static addressing, Static addresses are also sometimes convenient for locating servers inside an enterprise. [ citation needed ] Dynamic IP addresses are assigned using methods such as Zeroconf for self-configuration, or by the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) from a network server. The address assigned with DHCP usually has an expiration period, after which the address may be assigned to another device, or to the originally associated host if it is still powered up. A network administrator may implement a DHCP method so that the same host always receives a specific address. DHCP is the most frequently used technology for assigning addresses. It avoids the administrative burden of assigning specific static addresses to each device on a network. It also allows devices to share the limited address space on a network if only some of them are online at a particular time. Typically, dynamic IP configuration is enabled by default in modern desk top operating systems. DHCP is not the only technology used to assign IP addresses dynamically. Dialup and some broadband networks use dynamic address features of the Point-to-Point Protocol . In the absence or failure of static or stateful (DHCP) address configurations, an operating system may assign an IP address to a network interface using state-less auto-configuration methods, such as Zeroconf. Sticky dynamic IP address A sticky dynamic IP address is an informal term used by cable and DSL Internet access subscribers to describe a dynamically assigned IP address which seldom changes. The addresses are usually assigned with DHCP. Since the modems are usually powered on for extended periods of time, the address leases are usually set to long periods and simply renewed. If a modem is turned off and powered up again before the next expiration of the address lease, it often receives the same IP address. Address autoconfiguration RFC 3330 defines an address block 169.254.0.0/16 for the special use in link-local addressing for IPv4 networks. In IPv6, every interface, whether using static or dynamic address assignments, also receives a local-link address automatically in the block fe80::/10. These addresses are only valid on the link, such as a local network segment or point-to-point connection, that a host is connected to. These addresses are not routable and like private addresses cannot be the source or destination of packets traversing the Internet. When the link-local IPv4 address block was reserved, no standards existed for mechanisms of address autoconfiguration. Filling the void, Microsoft created an implementation that is called Automatic Private IP Addressing ( APIPA ). APIPA has been deployed on millions of machines and has, thus, become a de facto standard in the industry. In RFC 3927 , the IETF defined a formal standard for this functionality, entitled Dynamic Configuration of IPv4 Link-Local Addresses . Addressing conflicts An IP address conflict occurs when two devices on the same local physical or wireless network claim to have the same IP address. A second assignment of an address generally stops the IP functionality of one or both of the devices. Many modern operating systems notify the administrator of IP address conflicts. If one of the devices is the gateway, the network will be crippled. When IP addresses are assigned by multiple people and systems with differing methods, any of them may be at fault. Routing IP addresses are classified into several classes of operational characteristics: unicast, multicast, anycast and broadcast addressing. Unicast addressing The most common concept of an IP address is in unicast addressing, available in both IPv4 and IPv6. It normally refers to a single sender or a single receiver, and can be used for both sending and receiving. Usually, a unicast address is associated with a single device or host, but a device or host may have more than one unicast address. Some individual PCs have several distinct unicast addresses, each for its own distinct purpose. Sending the same data to multiple unicast addresses requires the sender to send all the data many times over, once for each recipient. Broadcast addressing Main article: Broadcasting (computing) In IPv4 it is possible to send data to all possible destinations ("all-hosts broadcast"), which permits the sender to send the data only once, and all receivers receive a copy of it. In the IPv4 protocol, the address 255.255.255.255 is used for local broadcast. In addition, a directed (limited) broadcast can be made by combining the network prefix with a host suffix composed entirely of binary 1s. For example, the destination address used for a directed broadcast to devices on the 192.0.2.0/24 network is 192.0.2.255. IPv6 does not implement broadcast addressing and replaces it with multicast to the specially-defined all-nodes multicast address. Multicast addressing A multicast address is associated with a group of interested receivers. In IPv4, addresses 224.0.0.0 through 239.255.255.255 (the former Class D addresses) are designated as multicast addresses. IPv6 uses the address block with the prefix ff00::/8 for multicast applications. In either case, the sender sends a single datagram from its unicast address to the multicast group address and the intermediary routers take care of making copies and sending them to all receivers that have joined the corresponding multicast group. Anycast addressing Like broadcast and multicast, anycast is a one-to-many routing topology. However, the data stream is not transmitted to all receivers, just the one which the router decides is logically closest in the network. Anycast address is an inherent feature of only IPv6. In IPv4, anycast addressing implementations typically operate using the shortest-path metric of BGP routing and do not take into account congestion or other attributes of the path. Anycast methods are useful for global load balancing and are commonly used in distributed DNS systems. Public address A public IP address, in common parlance, is a globally routable unicast IP address, meaning that the address is not an address reserved for use in private networks , such as those reserved by RFC 1918 , or the various IPv6 address formats of local scope or site-local scope, for example for link-local addressing . Public IP addresses may be used for communication between hosts on the global Internet. Firewalling For security and privacy considerations, network administrators often desire to restrict public Internet traffic within their private networks. The source and destination IP addresses contained in the headers of each IP packet are a convenient means to discriminate traffic by IP address blocking or by selectively tailoring responses to external requests to internal servers. This is achieved with firewall software running on the networks gateway router. A database of IP addresses of permissible traffic may be maintained in blacklists or whitelists . Address translation Multiple client devices can appear to share an IP address, either because they are part of a shared hosting web server environment or because an IPv4 network address translator (NAT) or proxy server acts as an intermediary agent on behalf of the client, in which case the real originating IP address might be masked from the server receiving a request. A common practice is to have a NAT mask a large number of devices in a private network . Only the "outside" interface(s) of the NAT needs to have an Internet-routable address. Commonly, the NAT device maps TCP or UDP port numbers on the side of the larger, public network to individual private addresses on the masqueraded network. In residential networks, NAT functions are usually implemented in a residential gateway . In this scenario, the computers connected to the router have private IP addresses and the router has a public address on its external interface to communicate on the Internet. The internal computers appear to share one public IP address. Diagnostic tools Computer operating systems provide various diagnostic tools to examine their network interface and address configuration. Windows provides the command-line interface tools ipconfig and netsh and users of Unix-like systems can use ifconfig , netstat , route , lanstat , fstat , or iproute2 utilities to accomplish the task. See also Hostname IP address spoofing IP aliasing IP multicast IPv4 subnetting reference IPv6 subnetting reference List of assigned /8 IPv4 address blocks MAC address Ping (networking utility) Regional Internet Registry Subnet address Virtual IP address WHOIS References External links IP at DMOZ

train

what is the purpose of a lesson plan

A lesson plan is a teacher 's detailed description of the course of instruction or `` learning trajectory '' for a lesson. A daily lesson plan is developed by a teacher to guide class learning. Details will vary depending on the preference of the teacher, subject being covered, and the needs of the students. There may be requirements mandated by the school system regarding the plan. A lesson plan is the teacher 's guide for running a particular lesson, and it includes the goal (what the students are supposed to learn), how the goal will be reached (the method, procedure) and a way of measuring how well the goal was reached (test, worksheet, homework etc.).

['the sun']

kí ni ète ètò ẹ̀kọ́

Yes

['Àgbékalẹ̀ Ẹ̀kọ́ ni ó dá lè ìfọ́sí wẹ́wẹ́ ìlapa èrò olùkọ tí ol ùkọ́ ti pèsè kalẹ̀ ní kíkùn lórí ìgbékalẹ̀ bí ẹ̀kọ́ yóò ṣe ye àwọn akẹ́kọ̀ọ́ nínú iyàrá ìkẹ́kọ́.']

['Àgbékalẹ̀ Ẹ̀kọ́ ni ó dá lè ìfọ́sí wẹ́wẹ́ ìlapa èrò olùkọ tí ol ùkọ́ ti pèsè kalẹ̀ ní kíkùn lórí ìgbékalẹ̀ bí ẹ̀kọ́ yóò ṣe ye àwọn akẹ́kọ̀ọ́ nínú iyàrá ìkẹ́kọ́.']

['P1']

Àgbékal?? ??k?? Àgbékal?? ??k?? ni ó dá lè ìf??sí w??w?? ìlapa èrò olùk? tí ol ùk?? ti pèsè kal?? ní kíkùn lórí ìgbékal?? bí ??k?? yóò ?e ye àw?n ak??k???? nínú iyàrá ìk??k??. ??w??, ojojúm?? ni olùk??? gb?d?? ma k? ìlapa èrò ??k?? fún àsìkò ìk??k?? k????kan ?áájú kí ó tó w? iyàrá ìk??k????. Èyí yóò mú kí ??k?? ó ye àw?n ak??k???? lásìkò ìdánil??k???? w?n.[1] Àgbékal?? ??k?? ma ? dá lè orí nkan m??ta. Àk??k?? ni: Kí ni àw?n ak??k???? ní láti m??? Èkejì: ??nà wo ni ??k?? yòó gbà yé àw?n ak??k???? tàbí m? ??k?? náà? ?k?ta ni: Báwo ni olùk?? yóò ?e ?e ìgbéléw??n àgb??yé àw?n ak??k????? Àgbékal?? ??k?? yí ni yóò ran olùk? l??w?? láti ?e à?ey?rí lórí ètò ìk??ni r?? gbogbo. A [2] Àp??r? Àgbékal?? ??k?? Nínú ??k?? èdè Yorùbá a ó ?e àgbékal?? ??k?? wa báyí : Orúk? Olùk?? : Músá Adégúnjú Orúk? Ilé-??k?? : Agóló High School I??? : Èdè Yorùbá Déétì : 12-01-2016 Àkókò : Ogójì Ì???jú Kókó I??? : À?à Ìs??rí I??? : À?à Ìkíni Ìwé Ìt??kasí : Ìwé ??k?? Èdè Yorùbá Titun Èròngbà : Olùk?? yóò k? èròngba ??k?? Ohun Èlò Àmú?e ye ni : Olùk? yóò k?? síb?? Ìm?? Àti??yìn wá: Olùk? yóò k? ohun tí ó y? kí àw?n ak??k???? ti m?? t??l?? Ìfáàrà : Olùk? yóò ?e Ìfáàrà ??k?? Ìgbés?? Kíní : Olùk?? yóò ?e ?àlàyé À?à Ìgbés?? Kejì : Olùk? yóò s? pàtàkì À?à Ìgbés?? K?ta : Olùk? yóò k?? nípa ìkíni Ìgbés?? K?rin: Olùk? yó sèyàt?? láàrín àw?n orí?i ìkíni tí ó wà Ìkádí : Ìbéèrè àti ìdáhùn Ìgbéléw??n : Olùk? yó bèrè àw?n Ìbéèrè bóyá ??k?? náà ye àw?n ak??k???? I??? Àmúrelé : Olùk? á fún w?n ní àmúrelé Nígbà tí Olùk? yóò bá fi ?e gbogbo ìw??n yí Ogójì ì???jú àt àb?? yóò ti re k?já. Àgbékal?? ??k?? gb??d?? wà ní ìbámu p??lú àlàkl?? ètò Síláb????sì àti K??ríkúl????mù.

A lesson plan is a teacher 's detailed description of the course of instruction or "learning trajectory" for a lesson . A daily lesson plan is developed by a teacher to guide class learning. Details will vary depending on the preference of the teacher, subject being covered, and the needs of the students . There may be requirements mandated by the school system regarding the plan. A lesson plan is the teacher's guide for running a particular lesson, and it includes the goal (what the students are supposed to learn), how the goal will be reached (the method, procedure) and a way of measuring how well the goal was reached ( test , worksheet, homework etc.). Contents [ hide ] 1 Development 1.1 A well-developed lesson plan 1.2 Setting objectives 1.3 Types of assignments 2 See also 3 References 4 Further reading Development [ edit ] While there are many formats for a lesson plan, most lesson plans contain some or all of these elements, typically in this order: Title of the lesson Time required to complete the lesson List of required materials List of objectives , which may be behavioral objectives (what the student can do at lesson completion) or knowledge objectives (what the student knows at lesson completion) The set (or lead-in, or bridge-in) that focuses students on the lesson's skills or concepts —these include showing pictures or models, asking leading questions, or reviewing previous lessons An instructional component that describes the sequence of events that make up the lesson, including the teacher's instructional input and, where appropriate, guided practice by students to consolidate new skills and ideas Independent practice that allows students to extend skills or knowledge on their own A summary , where the teacher wraps up the discussion and answers questions An evaluation component, a test for mastery of the instructed skills or concepts—such as a set of questions to answer or a set of instructions to follow A risk assessment where the lesson's risks and the steps taken to minimize them are documented An analysis component the teacher uses to reflect on the lesson itself—such as what worked and what needs improving A continuity component reviews and reflects on content from the previous lesson Lesson Plan Phases There are eight lesson plan phases that are design to provide many many opportunities for teachers to recognize and correct students' misconceptions while extending understanding for future lessons. Phase 1: Introduction Phase 2: Foundation Phase 3: Brain Activation Phase 4: Body of New Information Phase 5: Clarification Phase 6: Practice and Review Phase 7: Independent Practice Phase 8: Closure Herbartian Approach: John Fedrick Herbert (1776-1841) 1. Preparation/Instruction: It pertains to preparing and motivating children to the lesson content by linking it to the previous knowledge of the student, by arousing curiosity of the children and by making an appeal to their senses. This prepares the child's mind to receive new knowledge. "To know where the pupils are and where they should try to be are the two essentials of good teaching." Lessons may be started in the following manner: a. Two or three interesting but relevant questions b. Showing a picture/s, a chart or a model c. A situation Statement of Aim: Announcement of the focus of the lesson in a clear, concise statement such as "Today, we shall study the..." 2. Presentation/Development: The actual lesson commences here. This step should involve a good deal of activity on the part of the students. The teacher will take the aid of various devices, e.g., questions, illustrations, explanation, expositions, demonstration and sensory aids, etc. Information and knowledge can be given, explained, revealed or suggested. The following principles should be kept in mind. a. Principle of selection and division: This subject matter should be divided into different sections. The teacher should also decide as to how much he is to tell and how much the pupils are to find out for themselves. b. Principle of successive sequence: The teacher should ensure that the succeeding as well as preceding knowledge is clear to the students. c. Principle of absorption and integration: In the end separation of the parts must be followed by their combination to promote understanding of the whole. 3. Association comparison: It is always desirable that new ideas or knowledge be associated to daily life situations by citing suitable examples and by drawing comparisons with the related concepts. This step is important when we are establishing principles or generalizing definitions. 4. Generalizing: This concepts is concerned with the systematizing of the knowledge learned. Comparison and contrast lead to generalization. An effort should be made to ensure that students draw the conclusions themselves. It should result in student's own thinking, reflection and experience. 5. Application: It requires a good deal of mental activity to think and apply the principles learn to new situations. Knowledge, when it is put to use and verified, becomes clear and a part of the student's mental make-up. 6. Recapitulation: Last step of the lesson plan, the teacher tries to ascertain whether the students have understood or grasped the subject matter or not. This is used for assessing/evaluating the effectiveness of the lesson by asking students questions on the contents of the lesson or by giving short objectives to test the student's level of understanding; for example, to label different parts on a diagram, etc. A well-developed lesson plan [ edit ] A well-developed lesson plan reflects the interests and needs of students. It incorporates best practices for the educational field. The lesson plan correlates with the teacher's philosophy of education , which is what the teacher feels is the purpose of educating the students. Secondary English program lesson plans, for example, usually center around four topics. They are literary theme , elements of language and composition , literary history , and literary genre . A broad, thematic lesson plan is preferable, because it allows a teacher to create various research, writing, speaking, and reading assignments. It helps an instructor teach different literature genres and incorporate videotapes, films, and television programs. Also, it facilitates teaching literature and English together. Similarly, history lesson plans focus on content (historical accuracy and background information), analytic thinking, scaffolding , and the practicality of lesson structure and meeting of educational goals. School requirements and a teacher's personal tastes, in that order, determine the exact requirements for a lesson plan. Unit plans follow much the same format as a lesson plan, but cover an entire unit of work, which may span several days or weeks. Modern constructivist teaching styles may not require individual lesson plans. The unit plan may include specific objectives and timelines, but lesson plans can be more fluid as they adapt to student needs and learning styles . Unit Planning is the proper selection of learning activities which presents a complete picture. Unit planning is a systematic arrangement of subject matter. Samford "A unit plan is one which involves a series of learning experiences that are linked to achieve the aims composed by methodology and contents". Dictionary of Education:"A unit is an organization of various activities, experiences and types of learning around a central problem or purpose developed cooperatively by a group of pupils under a teacher leadership involving planning, execution of plans and evaluation of results". Criteria of a good Unit Plan 1. Needs, capabilities, interest of the learner should be considered. 2. Prepared on the sound psychological knowledge of the learner. 3. Provide a new learning experience; systematic but flexible. 4. Sustain the attention of the learner till the end. 5. Related to social and Physical environment of the learner. 6. Development of learner's personality. It is important to note that lesson planning is a thinking process, not the filling in of a lesson plan template. Lesson plan envisaged s a blue print, guide map for action, a comprehensive chart of classroom teaching-learning activities, an elastic but systematic approach for the teaching of concepts, skills and attitudes. Setting objectives [ edit ] The first thing a teacher does is to create an objective, a statement of purpose for the whole lesson. An objective statement itself should answer what students will be able to do by the end of the lesson. Harry Wong states that, "Each [objective] must begin with a verb that states the action to be taken to show accomplishment. The most important word to use in an assignment is a verb , because verbs state how to demonstrate if accomplishment has taken place or not." The objective drives the whole lesson, it is the reason the lesson exists. Care is taken when creating the objective for each day's lesson, as it will determine the activities the students engage in. The teacher also ensures that lesson plan goals are compatible with the developmental level of the students. The teacher ensures as well that their student achievement expectations are reasonable. Types of assignments [ edit ] The instructor must decide whether class assignments are whole-class, small groups, workshops, independent work, peer learning , or contractual: Whole-class—the teacher lectures to the class as a whole and has the class collectively participate in classroom discussions. Small groups—students work on assignments in groups of three or four. Workshops—students perform various tasks simultaneously. Workshop activities must be tailored to the lesson plan. Independent work—students complete assignments individually. Peer learning—students work together, face to face, so they can learn from one another. Contractual work—teacher and student establish an agreement that the student must perform a certain amount of work by a deadline. These assignment categories (e.g. peer learning, independent, small groups) can also be used to guide the instructor’s choice of assessment measures that can provide information about student and class comprehension of the material. As discussed by Biggs (1999), there are additional questions an instructor can consider when choosing which type of assignment would provide the most benefit to students. These include: What level of learning do the students need to attain before choosing assignments with varying difficulty levels? What is the amount of time the instructor wants the students to use to complete the assignment? How much time and effort does the instructor have to provide student grading and feedback? What is the purpose of the assignment? (e.g. to track student learning; to provide students with time to practice concepts; to practice incidental skills such as group process or independent research) How does the assignment fit with the rest of the lesson plan? Does the assignment test content knowledge or does it require application in a new context? Does the lesson plan fit a particular framework? For example, a Common Core Lesson Plan . See also [ edit ] Curriculum Syllabus Bloom's Taxonomy No Child Left Behind References [ edit ] Further reading [ edit ] Ahrenfelt, Johannes, and Neal Watkin. 100 Ideas for Essential Teaching Skills (Continuum One Hundred). New York: Continuum, 2006. Carey, Lou; Dick, Walter (1978), The Systematic Design of Instruction. (1st ed.), Glenview : Scott, Foresman , ISBN 978-0-673-15122-3 Gagne, Robert; Briggs, Leslie (1974), Principles of instructional design (1st ed.), New York : Holt, Rinehart and Winston , hdl : 2027/mdp.39015004151000 , ISBN 978-0-03-008171-2 Mccrea, Peps (2015), Lean Lesson Planning: A practical approach to doing less and achieving more in the classroom , Brighton: Teacherly.co External link in |title= ( help ) Serdyukov, Peter, and Ryan, Mark. Writing Effective Lesson Plans: The 5-Star Approach. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 2008. Salsbury, Denise E., and Melinda Schoenfeldt. Lesson Planning: A Research-Based Model for K-12 Classrooms. Alexandria, VA: Prentice Hall, 2008. Skowron, Janice. Powerful Lesson Planning: Every Teachers Guide to Effective Instruction. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2006. Thompson, Julia G. First Year Teacher's Survival Guide: Ready-To-Use Strategies, Tools & Activities For Meeting The Challenges Of Each School Day (J-B Ed:Survival Guides). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2007. Tileston, Donna E. Walker. What Every Teacher Should Know About Instructional Planning Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2003. Wolfe, Shoshana. Your Best Year Yet! A Guide to Purposeful Planning and Effective Classroom Organization (Teaching Strategies). New York: Teaching Strategies, 2006.

train

when did they start giving the polio vaccine

The first polio vaccine was the inactivated polio vaccine. It was developed by Jonas Salk and came into use in 1955. The oral polio vaccine was developed by Albert Sabin and came into commercial use in 1961. They are on the World Health Organization 's List of Essential Medicines, the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system. The wholesale cost in the developing world is about US $0.25 per dose for the oral form as of 2014. In the United States, it costs between $25 and $50 for the inactivated form.

['hydrogen', '118']

ìgbà wo ni wọ́n bẹ̀rẹ̀ sí fúnni ní àjẹsára àrùn polio

Yes

['Ẹnití ó ṣe àgbéjáde àjẹsára àrùn rọpárọsẹ̀ tí à ń gba ẹnu lò ni Albert Sabin, a sì bẹ̀rẹ̀ sí tàá fún lílò ọ̀pọ̀lọpọ̀ ènìyàn ní ọdún 1961.']

['ní ọdún 1961']

['P3']

Àj?sára àrùn r?pár?s?? Àw?n àj?sára àrùn r?pár?s??, j?? àw?n àj?sára tí à ? lò láti dènà àrùn r?pár?s??.[1] À ? lo kòkòrò àìlèfojúrí afàìsàn r?pár?s?? tí a ti pa láti fi ?e orí?i kan, a sì má a ? fún ni ní èyí bíi ab??r?? (IPV), a sì tún ? lo kòkòrò àìlèfojúrí afàìsàn r?pár?s?? tí kò lágbára m?? láti fi ?e orí?i kejì, a sì ? gba ?nu lo èyí (OPV). Àj? Ìlera Àgbáyé gba ni níyànjú pé kí gbogbo ?m?dé má a gba àj?sára àrùn r?pár?s??.[1] Àw?n àj?sára méjèèjì náà ti d??kun àrùn r?pár?s?? ní ??p??l?p?? oríl??-èdè àgbáyé,[2][3] w??n sì ti dín iye ènìyàn tó ? ní àrùn náà l??d??dún kù láti iye tí a ?írò sí 350,000 ní ?dún 1988 sí 359 ní ?dún 2014.[4] Elétò ìlera ara ? kán aj?sára àrùn r?pá r?s?? sí ahan ?m?dé kan Àw?n àj?sára àrùn r?pár?s?? tí a fi kòkòrò tí a ti pa ?e náà kò léwu rárá. Píp??n yòò ibi ojú ab??r?? náà àti ìrora dí?? lè wáyé. Àj?sára àrùn r?pár?s?? tí à ? gba ?nu lò a má a ?e òkùnfa àrùn r?pár?s?? tó níí ?e p??lú ìmúlò àj?sára náà nínú ìw??n egbògi náà tó tó m????ta nínú mílí??nù kan. A lè lo orí?i àj?sára méjèèjì náà láìséwu bí ènìyàn bá ní oyún àti bí ènìyàn bá ní àrùn kògbóògùn HIV/AIDS ?ùgb??n tí ara r?? ?ì dá ?áká.[1] Àj?sára àrùn r?pár?s?? àk??k?? ni àj?sára àrùn r?pár?s?? tí a fi kòkòrò tí a ti pa ?e. ?nití ó ?e àgbéjáde r?? ni Jonas Salk , a sì b??r?? síí lòó ní ?dún 1955.[1] ?nití ó ?e àgbéjáde àj?sára àrùn r?pár?s?? tí à ? gba ?nu lò ni Albert Sabin, a sì b??r?? sí tàá fún lílò ??p??l?p?? ènìyàn ní ?dún 1961.[1][5] W??n wà lórí Àkój? Àw?n Egbògi Kò?eémáàní ti Àj? Ìlera Àgbáyé, àw?n òògùn tó ?e pàtàkì jùl? tí a nílò fún ètò ìlera ìb??r??p??p?? yòówù.[6] Iye owó r?? lójú pálí j?? bíi 0.25 USD fún ìw??n egbògi náà kan?o?o fún orí?i tí à n gba ?nu lò ní ?dún 2014.[7] Ní il?? Am??ríkà iye owó r?? j?? 25 sí 50 USD fún orí?i tí a fi kòkòrò tí a ti pa ?e.[8]

Polio vaccine Vaccine description Target disease Poliomyelitis Type ? Clinical data Trade names Ipol, Poliovax, others AHFS / Drugs.com Multum Consumer Information Pregnancy category AU : B2 US : Not assigned Routes of administration Parenteral (IPV), By mouth (OPV) ATC code J07BF01 ( WHO ) J07BF02 ( WHO ) J07BF03 ( WHO ) J07BF04 ( WHO ) Identifiers ChemSpider none N Y (what is this?) (verify) Polio vaccines are vaccines used to prevent poliomyelitis (polio). Two types are used: an inactivated poliovirus given by injection (IPV) and a weakened poliovirus given by mouth (OPV). The World Health Organization recommends all children be fully vaccinated against polio. The two vaccines have eliminated polio from most of the world, and reduced the number of cases reported each year from an estimated 350,000 in 1988 to 22 in 2017. The inactivated polio vaccines are very safe. Mild redness or pain may occur at the site of injection. Oral polio vaccines cause about three cases of vaccine-associated paralytic poliomyelitis per million doses given. This compares with 5,000 cases per million who are paralysed following a polio infection. Both are generally safe to give during pregnancy and in those who have HIV/AIDS but are otherwise well. The first polio vaccine was the inactivated polio vaccine. It was developed by Jonas Salk and came into use in 1955. The oral polio vaccine was developed by Albert Sabin and came into commercial use in 1961. They are on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines , the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system . The wholesale cost in the developing world is about US$0.25 per dose for the oral form as of 2014. In the United States, it costs between $25 and $50 for the inactivated form. Contents 1 Medical uses 1.1 Inactivated 1.2 Attenuated 1.3 Schedule 2 Side effects 2.1 Vaccine-induced polio 2.2 Contamination concerns 3 Manufacture 3.1 Inactivated 3.2 Attenuated 4 History 4.1 1935 4.2 1948 4.3 1950–1955 4.3.1 Jonas Salk 4.4 1961 4.5 1987 4.6 1988 4.7 After 1990 5 Society and culture 5.1 Cost 5.2 Misconceptions 6 See also 7 References 8 External links Medical uses [ edit ] This 1963 poster featured CDC's national symbol of public health , the "Wellbee", encouraging the public to receive an oral polio vaccine. Interruption of person-to-person transmission of the virus by vaccination is important in the global polio eradication , since no long-term carrier state exists for poliovirus in individuals with normal immune function, polio viruses have no nonprimate reservoir in nature, and survival of the virus in the environment for an extended period of time appears to be remote. Inactivated [ edit ] When the current formulation of IPV is used, 90% or more of individuals develop protective antibodies to all three serotypes of polio virus after two doses of inactivated polio vaccine (IPV), and at least 99% are immune to polio virus following three doses. The duration of immunity induced by IPV is not known with certainty, although a complete series is thought to provide protection for many years. Attenuated [ edit ] OPV proved to be superior in administration, eliminating the need for sterile syringes and making the vaccine more suitable for mass vaccination campaigns. OPV also provided longer-lasting immunity than the Salk vaccine, as it provides both humoral immunity and cell-mediated immunity . One dose of OPV produces immunity to all three poliovirus serotypes in roughly 50% of recipients. Three doses of live-attenuated OPV produce protective antibodies to all three poliovirus types in more than 95% of recipients. OPV produces excellent immunity in the intestine , the primary site of wild poliovirus entry, which helps prevent infection with wild virus in areas where the virus is endemic . The live virus used in the vaccine can rarely shed in the stool and can rarely spread to others within a community. The live virus also has stringent requirements for transport and storage, which are a problem in some hot or remote areas. As with other live-virus vaccines, immunity initiated by OPV is probably lifelong. The trivalent (against wild types 1, 2, and 3) OPV has been used to nearly eradicate polio infection worldwide. Led by The Global Polio Eradication Initiative, 155 countries switched to use the bivalent (against wild type 1 and 3) between 17 April and 1 May 2016. The bivalent OPV is at more effective against type 1 and 3 but does not cover type 2. The United States as of 2017 continues to recommend the use of a trivalent version, but a fully inactivated version. Schedule [ edit ] In countries with endemic polio or where there is a high risk of imported cases, the WHO recommends OPV vaccine at birth followed by a primary series of 3 OPV and at least one IPV doses starting at 6 weeks of age, with a minimum of 4 weeks between OPV doses. In countries with >90% immunization coverage and low risk of importation, the WHO recommends one or two IPV doses starting at 2 months of age followed by at least two OPV doses, with the doses separated by 4-8 weeks depending on the risk of exposure. In countries with the highest levels of coverage and the lowest risks of importation and transmission, the WHO recommends a primary series of 3 IPV injections, with a booster dose after an interval of six months or more if the first dose was administered before 2 months of age. Side effects [ edit ] Doses of oral polio vaccine are added to sugar cubes for use in a 1967 vaccination campaign in Bonn , West Germany The inactivated polio vaccines are very safe. Mild redness or pain may occur at the site of injection. Oral polio vaccine results in vaccine-associated paralytic poliomyelitis in about three per million doses. They are generally safe to give during pregnancy and in those who have HIV/AIDS , but are otherwise well. Vaccine-induced polio [ edit ] A potential, but rare, adverse effect of the OPV is its known ability to recombine to a form that may cause neurological infection and cause paralysis. Clinical disease, including paralysis, caused by vaccine-derived poliovirus (VDPV) is indistinguishable from that caused by wild polioviruses. This is believed to be a rare event, but outbreaks of vaccine-associated paralytic poliomyelitis (VAPP), caused by a circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus (cVDPV), have been reported, and tend to occur in areas of low coverage by OPV, presumably because the OPV is itself protective against the related outbreak strain. Contamination concerns [ edit ] In 1960, the rhesus monkey kidney cells used to prepare the poliovirus vaccines were determined to be infected with the Simian Virus-40 . SV40 was also discovered in 1960 and is a naturally occurring virus that infects monkeys. In 1961, SV40 was found to cause tumors in rodents . More recently, the virus was found in certain forms of cancer in humans, for instance brain and bone tumors , pleural and peritoneal mesothelioma, and some types of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma . However, SV40 has not been determined to cause these cancers. SV40 was found to be present in stocks of the injected form of the polio vaccine (IPV) in use between 1955 and 1963. It is not found in the OPV form. Over 98 million Americans received one or more doses of polio vaccine between 1955 and 1963 when a proportion of vaccine was contaminated with SV40; an estimated 10–30 million Americans may have received a dose of vaccine contaminated with SV40. Later analysis suggested that vaccines produced by the former Soviet bloc countries until 1980, and used in the USSR , China , Japan , and several African countries, may have been contaminated, meaning hundreds of millions more may have been exposed to SV40. In 1998, the National Cancer Institute undertook a large study, using cancer case information from the institute's SEER database. The published findings from the study revealed no increased incidence of cancer in persons who may have received vaccine containing SV40. Another large study in Sweden examined cancer rates of 700,000 individuals who had received potentially contaminated polio vaccine as late as 1957; the study again revealed no increased cancer incidence between persons who received polio vaccines containing SV40 and those who did not. The question of whether SV40 causes cancer in humans remains controversial, however, and the development of improved assays for detection of SV40 in human tissues will be needed to resolve the controversy. During the race to develop an oral polio vaccine, several large-scale human trials were undertaken. By 1958, the National Institutes of Health had determined that OPV produced using the Sabin strains were the safest. Between 1957 and 1960, however, Hilary Koprowski continued to administer his vaccine around the world. In Africa, the vaccines were administered to roughly one million people in the Belgian territories (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo , Rwanda , and Burundi ). The results of these human trials have been controversial, and unfounded accusations in the 1990s arose that the vaccine had created the conditions necessary for transmission of simian immunodeficiency virus from chimpanzees to humans, causing HIV/AIDS . These hypotheses, however, have been conclusively refuted . By 2004, cases of poliomyelitis in Africa had been reduced to just a small number of isolated regions in the western portion of the continent, with sporadic cases elsewhere. Recent local opposition to vaccination campaigns have evolved due to lack of adequate information, often relating to fears that the vaccine might induce sterility . The disease has since resurged in Nigeria and in several other African nations without necessary information, which epidemiologists believe is due to refusals by certain local populations to allow their children to receive the polio vaccine. Manufacture [ edit ] Inactivated [ edit ] The Salk vaccine, IPV, is based on three wild, virulent reference strains, Mahoney (type 1 poliovirus), MEF-1 (type 2 poliovirus), and Saukett (type 3 poliovirus), grown in a type of monkey kidney tissue culture ( Vero cell line), which are then inactivated with formalin . The injected Salk vaccine confers IgG -mediated immunity in the bloodstream, which prevents polio infection from progressing to viremia and protects the motor neurons , thus eliminating the risk of bulbar polio and post-polio syndrome . In the United States, vaccine is administered along with the tetanus , diphtheria , and acellular pertussis vaccines ( DTaP ) and a pediatric dose of hepatitis B vaccine. In the UK, IPV is combined with tetanus, diphtheria, pertussis, and Haemophilus influenzae type b vaccines. Attenuated [ edit ] Sabin immunization certificate OPV is an attenuated vaccine , produced by the passage of the virus through nonhuman cells at a sub physiological temperature, which produces spontaneous mutations in the viral genome. Oral polio vaccines were developed by several groups, one of which was led by Albert Sabin . Other groups, led by Hilary Koprowski and H.R. Cox , developed their own attenuated vaccine strains. In 1958, the National Institutes of Health created a special committee on live polio vaccines. The various vaccines were carefully evaluated for their ability to induce immunity to polio, while retaining a low incidence of neuropathogenicity in monkeys. Large-scale clinical trials performed in the Soviet Union in late 1950s to early 1960s by Mikhail Chumakov and his colleagues demonstrated safety and high efficacy of the vaccine. Based on these results, the Sabin strains were chosen for worldwide distribution. Fifty-seven nucleotide substitutions distinguish the attenuated Sabin 1 strain from its virulent parent (the Mahoney serotype), two nucleotide substitutions attenuate the Sabin 2 strain, and 10 substitutions are involved in attenuating the Sabin 3 strain. The primary attenuating factor common to all three Sabin vaccines is a mutation located in the virus's internal ribosome entry site , which alters stem-loop structures, and reduces the ability of poliovirus to translate its RNA template within the host cell. The attenuated poliovirus in the Sabin vaccine replicates very efficiently in the gut, the primary site of infection and replication, but is unable to replicate efficiently within nervous system tissue. In 1961, type 1 and 2 monovalent oral poliovirus vaccine (MOPV) was licensed, and in 1962, type 3 MOPV was licensed. In 1963, trivalent OPV (TOPV) was licensed, and became the vaccine of choice in the United States and most other countries of the world, largely replacing the inactivated polio vaccine. A second wave of mass immunizations led to a further dramatic decline in the number of polio cases. Between 1962 and 1965, about 100 million Americans (roughly 56% of the population at that time) received the Sabin vaccine. The result was a substantial reduction in the number of poliomyelitis cases, even from the much-reduced levels following the introduction of the Salk vaccine. OPV is usually provided in vials containing 10–20 doses of vaccine. A single dose of oral polio vaccine (usually two drops) contains 1,000,000 infectious units of Sabin 1 (effective against PV1), 100,000 infectious units of the Sabin 2 strain, and 600,000 infectious units of Sabin 3. The vaccine contains small traces of antibiotics — neomycin and streptomycin —but does not contain preservatives . History [ edit ] In a generic sense, vaccination works by priming the immune system with an ' immunogen '. Stimulating immune response, by use of an infectious agent, is known as immunization . The development of immunity to polio efficiently blocks person-to-person transmission of wild poliovirus, thereby protecting both individual vaccine recipients and the wider community . The development of two polio vaccines led to the first modern mass inoculations . The last cases of paralytic poliomyelitis caused by endemic transmission of wild virus in the United States occurred in 1979, with an outbreak among the Amish in several Midwest states. 1935 [ edit ] Two separate teams developed polio vaccines and reported their results at the annual meeting of the American Public Health Association in November 1935. Both projects were cancelled as a result of the angry reaction from other researchers there, and no researchers dared attempt a polio vaccine for another 20 years. Professor John Kolmer, MD (1886–1962), of Temple University in Philadelphia, presented his findings first. He had developed an attenuated poliovirus vaccine, which he tested in about 10,000 children across much of the United States and Canada. Five of these children died of polio and 10 more were paralyzed, usually in the arm where the vaccine was injected, and frequently affecting children in towns where no polio outbreak had occurred. He had no control group, but asserted that many more children would have gotten sick. The response from other researchers was uncharacteristically blunt; one of them directly called Kolmer a murderer. Maurice Brodie , MD (1903–1939), a young researcher at New York University and the New York City Health Department , presented his results afterwards, but the feelings of the researchers were already unfavorable before he started because of Kolmer's report. Brodie and his team had prepared a formaldehyde -killed poliovirus vaccine, testing it first on himself and five co-workers, and eventually on 7,500 children and adults, with another 4,500 people serving as a control group. In the control group, Brodie reported that one out of 900 developed polio; in the group receiving the vaccine, only one out of 7,500 developed polio, making the vaccine 88% effective during the first year. However, other researchers believed that the one case was likely caused by the vaccine, and two more possible cases were reported later. After this meeting, Brodie, whose polio vaccine was at least partially effective and reasonably safe, and who developed several ground-breaking ideas about vaccination whose validity was confirmed two decades later with the development of the Salk vaccine, was immediately fired and had trouble finding employment again. Brodie died three and a half years later. Kolmer, an established researcher whose vaccine was unsafe and probably ineffective, kept his job, was given a second appointment as professor of medicine at the Temple University School of Dentistry the next year, continued to publish research papers, and received multiple awards throughout his academic career. 1948 [ edit ] A breakthrough came in 1948 when a research group headed by John Enders at the Children's Hospital Boston successfully cultivated the poliovirus in human tissue in the laboratory. This group had recently successfully grown mumps in cell culture. In March 1948, Thomas H. Weller was attempting to grow varicella virus in embryonic lung tissue. He had inoculated the planned number of tubes when he noticed that there were a few unused tubes. He retrieved a sample of mouse brain infected with polio virus and added it to the remaining test tubes, on the off chance that the virus might grow. The varicella cultures failed to grow, but the polio cultures were successful. This development greatly facilitated vaccine research and ultimately allowed for the development of vaccines against polio. Enders and his colleagues, Thomas H. Weller and Frederick C. Robbins , were recognized in 1954 for their labors with a Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine . Other important advances that led to the development of polio vaccines were: the identification of three poliovirus serotypes (Poliovirus type 1 — PV1, or Mahoney; PV2, Lansing; and PV3, Leon); the finding that prior to paralysis, the virus must be present in the blood; and the demonstration that administration of antibodies in the form of gamma globulin protects against paralytic polio. 1950–1955 [ edit ] During the early 1950s, polio rates in the U.S. were above 25,000 annually; in 1952 and 1953, the U.S. experienced an outbreak of 58,000 and 35,000 polio cases, respectively, up from a typical number of some 20,000 a year, with deaths in those years numbering 3,200 and 1,400. Amid this U.S. polio epidemic, millions of dollars were invested in finding and marketing a polio vaccine by commercial interests, including Lederle Laboratories in New York under the direction of H. R. Cox . Also working at Lederle was Polish-born virologist and immunologist Hilary Koprowski of the Wistar Institute in Philadelphia, who tested the first successful polio vaccine, in 1950. His vaccine, however, being a live attenuated virus taken orally, was still in the research stage and would not be ready for use until five years after Jonas Salk's polio vaccine (a dead-virus injectable vaccine) had reached the market. Koprowski's attenuated vaccine was prepared by successive passages through the brains of Swiss albino mice. By the seventh passage, the vaccine strains could no longer infect nervous tissue or cause paralysis. After one to three further passages on rats, the vaccine was deemed safe for human use. On 27 February 1950, Koprowski's live, attenuated vaccine was tested for the first time on an 8-year-old boy living at Letchworth Village , an institution for the physically and mentally disabled located in New York. After the child suffered no side effects, Koprowski enlarged his experiment to include 19 other children. Jonas Salk [ edit ] Administration of the polio inoculation, including by Salk himself, in 1957 at the University of Pittsburgh , where his team and he had developed the vaccine Mass polio vaccination in Columbus, Georgia circa 1961 for the National Polio Immunization Program The first effective polio vaccine was developed in 1952 by Jonas Salk and a team at the University of Pittsburgh that included Julius Youngner , Byron Bennett, L. James Lewis, and Lorraine Friedman, which required years of subsequent testing. Salk went on CBS radio to report a successful test on a small group of adults and children on 26 March 1953; two days later, the results were published in JAMA . Beginning 23 February 1954, the vaccine was tested at Arsenal Elementary School and the Watson Home for Children in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania . Salk's vaccine was then used in a test called the Francis Field Trial, led by Thomas Francis , the largest medical experiment in history at that time. The test began with about 4,000 children at Franklin Sherman Elementary School in McLean, Virginia , and eventually involved 1.8 million children, in 44 states from Maine to California . By the conclusion of the study, roughly 440,000 received one or more injections of the vaccine, about 210,000 children received a placebo , consisting of harmless culture media , and 1.2 million children received no vaccination and served as a control group, who would then be observed to see if any contracted polio. The results of the field trial were announced 12 April 1955 (the tenth anniversary of the death of President Franklin D. Roosevelt , whose paralytic illness was generally believed to have been caused by polio). The Salk vaccine had been 60–70% effective against PV1 (poliovirus type 1), over 90% effective against PV2 and PV3, and 94% effective against the development of bulbar polio. Soon after Salk's vaccine was licensed in 1955, children's vaccination campaigns were launched. In the U.S, following a mass immunization campaign promoted by the March of Dimes , the annual number of polio cases fell from 35,000 in 1953 to 5,600 by 1957. By 1961 only 161 cases were recorded in the United States. A week earlier in April 1955, Pierre Lépine at the Pasteur Institute in Paris also announced an effective polio vaccine. 1961 [ edit ] Albert Sabin (right) with Robert Gallo , circa 1985 At the same time that Salk was testing his vaccine, both Albert Sabin and Hilary Koprowski continued working on developing a vaccine using live virus. During a meeting in Stockholm to discuss polio vaccines in November 1955, Sabin presented results obtained on a group of 80 volunteers, while Koprowski read a paper detailing the findings of a trial enrolling 150 people. Sabin and Koprowski both eventually succeeded in developing vaccines. Because of the commitment to the Salk vaccine in America, Sabin and Koprowski both did their testing outside the United States, Sabin in Mexico and then in the Soviet Union, and Koprowski in the Congo and Poland. In 1957, Sabin developed a trivalent vaccine, containing attenuated strains of all three types of poliovirus. In 1959, ten million children in the Soviet Union received the Sabin oral vaccine. For this work, Sabin was given the medal of the Order of Friendship Among Peoples, described as the Soviets' highest civilian honor, despite having become an American during the height of the cold war. Sabin's oral vaccine using live virus came into commercial use in 1961. Once Sabin’s oral vaccine became widely available, it supplanted Salk’s injected vaccine, which had been tarnished in the public's opinion by the Cutter incident , in which Salk vaccines prepared by one company resulted in several children dying or becoming paralyzed. 1987 [ edit ] An enhanced- potency IPV was licensed in the United States in November 1987, and is currently the vaccine of choice there. The first dose of polio vaccine is given shortly after birth, usually between 1 and 2 months of age, and a second dose is given at 4 months of age. The timing of the third dose depends on the vaccine formulation, but should be given between 6 and 18 months of age. A booster vaccination is given at 4 to 6 years of age, for a total of four doses at or before school entry. In some countries, a fifth vaccination is given during adolescence . Routine vaccination of adults (18 years of age and older) in developed countries is neither necessary nor recommended because most adults are already immune and have a very small risk of exposure to wild poliovirus in their home countries. In 2002, a pentavalent (five-component) combination vaccine (called Pediarix) containing IPV was approved for use in the United States. 1988 [ edit ] A Somali boy is injected with inactivated poliovirus vaccine ( Mogadishu , 1993) A global effort to eradicate polio, led by the World Health Organization , UNICEF , and The Rotary Foundation , began in 1988 and has relied largely on the oral polio vaccine developed by Albert Sabin and Mikhail Chumakov (Sabin-Chumakov vaccine). After 1990 [ edit ] Polio was eliminated in the Americas by 1994. The disease was officially eliminated in 36 Western Pacific countries, including China and Australia, in 2000. Europe was declared polio-free in 2002. Since January 2011, no cases of the disease have been reported in India, hence in February 2012, the country was taken off the WHO list of polio-endemic countries. In March 2014, India was declared a polio-free country. Although poliovirus transmission has been interrupted in much of the world, transmission of wild poliovirus does continue and creates an ongoing risk for the importation of wild poliovirus into previously polio-free regions. If importations of poliovirus occur, outbreaks of poliomyelitis may develop, especially in areas with low vaccination coverage and poor sanitation. As a result, high levels of vaccination coverage must be maintained. In November 2013, the WHO announced a polio outbreak in Syria. In response, the Armenian government put out a notice asking Syrian Armenians under age 15 to get the polio vaccine. As of 2014, polio virus has spread to 10 countries, mainly in Africa , Asia , and the Middle East , with Pakistan, Syria , and Cameroon advising vaccinations to outbound travelers. Polio vaccination programs have received resistance from some people in Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Nigeria (the three countries as of 2017 with remaining polio cases). Some Muslim religious leaders believe that the vaccines are secretly being used for sterilization of Muslims. The fact that in 2011, the CIA organized a fake vaccination program to help find Osama Bin Laden is an additional cause of distrust. In 2015, the WHO announced a deal with the Taliban to encourage them to distribute the vaccine in areas they control. However, on 11 September 2016, two unidentified gunmen associated with the Pakistani Taliban, Jamaat-ul-Ahrar, shot Zakaullah Khan, a doctor who was administering polio vaccines in Pakistan. The leader of the Jamaat-ul-Ahrar claimed responsibility for the shooting and says that the group will continue to keep doing these kinds of attacks. This resistance to and skepticism of vaccinations has consequently slowed down the polio eradication process within the three remaining countries. Society and culture [ edit ] Cost [ edit ] The wholesale cost is about US$0.25 per dose for the oral form as of 2014. The Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunization supplies the inactivated vaccine to developing countries for as little as € 0.75 (about US$0.85 ) per dose in 10-dose vials. In the United States, the inactivated form costs between $25 and $50. Misconceptions [ edit ] A widespread misconception has arisen in Pakistan that polio vaccine contained haram ingredients and could cause impotence and infertility in male children, leading some less-educated parents not to have their children vaccinated. This belief is most prevalent in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province and the FATA region, where people are likely to be influenced by unfounded teachings. Attacks on polio vaccination teams have also occurred, thereby hampering international efforts to eradicate polio in Pakistan and globally, since the virus can be carried by travelers. See also [ edit ] Cold war tensions and the polio vaccine References [ edit ] External links [ edit ] Medicine portal Viruses portal Global Polio Eradication Initiative final project to eliminate polio by 2018. History of Vaccines Website – History of Polio History of Vaccines, a project of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia PBS.org — 'People and Discoveries: Salk Produces Polio Vaccine 1952', PBS Conquering Polio , Smithsonian Magazine, April 2005 The Global Effort To Eradicate Polio , Dream 2047 Magazine, April 2004 FDA Ipol package insert

train

who came up with the vaccine for polio

The first polio vaccine was the inactivated polio vaccine. It was developed by Jonas Salk and came into use in 1955. The oral polio vaccine was developed by Albert Sabin and came into commercial use in 1961. They are on the World Health Organization 's List of Essential Medicines, the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system. The wholesale cost in the developing world is about US $0.25 per dose for the oral form as of 2014. In the United States it costs between $25 -- 50 for the inactivated form.

['april 22, 1500', 'develop from one zygote', 'monozygotic ("identical")\', \'dizygotic ("fraternal")']

tani ẹni tó ṣe oògùn àjẹsára fún àrùn polio

Yes

['Ẹnití ó ṣe àgbéjáde rẹ̀ ni\xa0Jonas Salk\xa0, a sì bẹ̀rẹ̀ síí lòó ní ọdún 1955.\xa0Ẹnití ó ṣe àgbéjáde àjẹsára àrùn\xa0rọpárọsẹ̀ tí à ń gba ẹnu lò ni\xa0Albert Sabin, a sì bẹ̀rẹ̀ sí tàá fún lílò ọ̀pọ̀lọpọ̀ ènìyàn ní ọdún 1961.\xa0Wọ́n wà lórí\xa0Àkójọ Àwọn Egbògi Kòṣeémáàní ti Àjọ Ìlera Àgbáyé, àwọn òògùn tó ṣe pàtàkì jùlọ tí a nílò fún\xa0ètò ìlera\xa0ìbẹ̀rẹ̀pẹ̀pẹ̀ yòówù. Iye owó rẹ̀ lójú pálí jẹ́ bíi 0.25 USD fún ìwọ̀n egbògi náà kanṣoṣo fún oríṣi tí à n gba ẹnu lò ní ọdún 2014. Ní ilẹ̀ Amẹ́ríkà iye owó rẹ̀ jẹ́ 25 sí 50 USD fún oríṣi tí a fi kòkòrò tí a ti pa ṣe.']

['Ẹnití ó ṣe àgbéjáde rẹ̀ ni\xa0Jonas Salk\xa0, a sì bẹ̀rẹ̀ síí lòó ní ọdún 1955.\xa0Ẹnití ó ṣe àgbéjáde àjẹsára àrùn\xa0rọpárọsẹ̀ tí à ń gba ẹnu lò ni\xa0Albert Sabin, a sì bẹ̀rẹ̀ sí tàá fún lílò ọ̀pọ̀lọpọ̀ ènìyàn ní ọdún 1961.\xa0', 'Ẹnití ó ṣe àgbéjáde àjẹsára àrùn\xa0rọpárọsẹ̀ tí à ń gba ẹnu lò ni\xa0Albert Sabin, a sì bẹ̀rẹ̀ sí tàá fún lílò ọ̀pọ̀lọpọ̀ ènìyàn ní ọdún 1961.\xa0']

['P3']

Àj?sára àrùn r?pár?s?? Àw?n àj?sára àrùn r?pár?s??, j?? àw?n àj?sára tí à ? lò láti dènà àrùn r?pár?s??.[1] À ? lo kòkòrò àìlèfojúrí afàìsàn r?pár?s?? tí a ti pa láti fi ?e orí?i kan, a sì má a ? fún ni ní èyí bíi ab??r?? (IPV), a sì tún ? lo kòkòrò àìlèfojúrí afàìsàn r?pár?s?? tí kò lágbára m?? láti fi ?e orí?i kejì, a sì ? gba ?nu lo èyí (OPV). Àj? Ìlera Àgbáyé gba ni níyànjú pé kí gbogbo ?m?dé má a gba àj?sára àrùn r?pár?s??.[1] Àw?n àj?sára méjèèjì náà ti d??kun àrùn r?pár?s?? ní ??p??l?p?? oríl??-èdè àgbáyé,[2][3] w??n sì ti dín iye ènìyàn tó ? ní àrùn náà l??d??dún kù láti iye tí a ?írò sí 350,000 ní ?dún 1988 sí 359 ní ?dún 2014.[4] Elétò ìlera ara ? kán aj?sára àrùn r?pá r?s?? sí ahan ?m?dé kan Àw?n àj?sára àrùn r?pár?s?? tí a fi kòkòrò tí a ti pa ?e náà kò léwu rárá. Píp??n yòò ibi ojú ab??r?? náà àti ìrora dí?? lè wáyé. Àj?sára àrùn r?pár?s?? tí à ? gba ?nu lò a má a ?e òkùnfa àrùn r?pár?s?? tó níí ?e p??lú ìmúlò àj?sára náà nínú ìw??n egbògi náà tó tó m????ta nínú mílí??nù kan. A lè lo orí?i àj?sára méjèèjì náà láìséwu bí ènìyàn bá ní oyún àti bí ènìyàn bá ní àrùn kògbóògùn HIV/AIDS ?ùgb??n tí ara r?? ?ì dá ?áká.[1] Àj?sára àrùn r?pár?s?? àk??k?? ni àj?sára àrùn r?pár?s?? tí a fi kòkòrò tí a ti pa ?e. ?nití ó ?e àgbéjáde r?? ni Jonas Salk , a sì b??r?? síí lòó ní ?dún 1955.[1] ?nití ó ?e àgbéjáde àj?sára àrùn r?pár?s?? tí à ? gba ?nu lò ni Albert Sabin, a sì b??r?? sí tàá fún lílò ??p??l?p?? ènìyàn ní ?dún 1961.[1][5] W??n wà lórí Àkój? Àw?n Egbògi Kò?eémáàní ti Àj? Ìlera Àgbáyé, àw?n òògùn tó ?e pàtàkì jùl? tí a nílò fún ètò ìlera ìb??r??p??p?? yòówù.[6] Iye owó r?? lójú pálí j?? bíi 0.25 USD fún ìw??n egbògi náà kan?o?o fún orí?i tí à n gba ?nu lò ní ?dún 2014.[7] Ní il?? Am??ríkà iye owó r?? j?? 25 sí 50 USD fún orí?i tí a fi kòkòrò tí a ti pa ?e.[8]

Polio vaccine Vaccine description Target disease Poliomyelitis Type ? Clinical data AHFS / Drugs.com Multum Consumer Information Pregnancy category C (both OPV and IPV) Routes of administration Parenteral (IPV), By mouth (OPV) ATC code J07BF01 ( WHO ) J07BF02 ( WHO ) J07BF03 ( WHO ) Legal status Legal status Administered by or under the supervision of a health care professional [ how? ] [ where? ] Identifiers ChemSpider none N Y (what is this?) (verify) Polio vaccines are vaccines used to prevent poliomyelitis (polio). There are two types: one that uses inactivated poliovirus and is given by injection (IPV), and one that uses weakened poliovirus and is given by mouth (OPV). The World Health Organization recommends all children be fully vaccinated against polio. The two vaccines have eliminated polio from most of the world, and reduced the number of cases reported each year from an estimated 350,000 in 1988 to 37 in 2016. The inactivated polio vaccines are very safe. Mild redness or pain may occur at the site of injection. Oral polio vaccines cause about three cases of vaccine-associated paralytic poliomyelitis per million doses given. This compares with one in two hundred who are paralysed following a polio infection. Both are generally safe to give during pregnancy and in those who have HIV/AIDS but are otherwise well. The first polio vaccine was the inactivated polio vaccine. It was developed by Jonas Salk and came into use in 1955. The oral polio vaccine was developed by Albert Sabin and came into commercial use in 1961. They are on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines , the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system . The wholesale cost in the developing world is about US$0.25 per dose for the oral form as of 2014. In the United States it costs between $25–50 for the inactivated form. Contents [ hide ] 1 Medical uses 1.1 Inactivated 1.2 Attenuated 1.3 Schedule 2 Side effects 2.1 Vaccine-induced polio 2.2 Contamination concerns 3 Manufacture 3.1 Inactivated 3.2 Attenuated 4 History 4.1 1935 4.2 1948 4.3 1950–1955 4.3.1 Jonas Salk 4.4 1961 4.5 1987 4.6 1988 4.7 Post-1990 5 Society and culture 5.1 Cost 5.2 Misconceptions 6 See also 7 References 8 External links Medical uses [ edit ] This 1963 poster featured CDC's national symbol of public health , the "Wellbee", encouraging the public to receive an oral polio vaccine. Interruption of person-to-person transmission of the virus by vaccination is important in the global polio eradication , since there is no long term carrier state for poliovirus in individuals with normal immune function, polio viruses have no non-primate reservoir in nature, and survival of the virus in the environment for an extended period of time appears to be remote. Inactivated [ edit ] When the current formulation of IPV is used, 90% or more of individuals develop protective antibody to all three serotypes of polio virus after two doses of inactivated polio vaccine (IPV), and at least 99% are immune to polio virus following three doses. The duration of immunity induced by IPV is not known with certainty, although a complete series is thought to provide protection for many years. Attenuated [ edit ] OPV proved to be superior in administration, eliminating the need for sterile syringes and making the vaccine more suitable for mass vaccination campaigns. OPV also provided longer lasting immunity than the Salk vaccine as it provides both humoral immunity and cell-mediated immunity . One dose of OPV produces immunity to all three poliovirus serotypes in approximately 50% of recipients. Three doses of live-attenuated OPV produce protective antibodies to all three poliovirus types in more than 95% of recipients. OPV produces excellent immunity in the intestine , the primary site of wild poliovirus entry, which helps prevent infection with wild virus in areas where the virus is endemic . The live virus used in the vaccine can rarely shed in the stool and can rarely spread to others within a community. The live virus also has stringent requirements for transport and storage, which are a problem in some hot or remote areas. As with other live-virus vaccines, immunity initiated by OPV is probably lifelong. The trivalent (against wild type 1, 2 and 3) OPV has been used to nearly eradicate polio infection worldwide. Led by The Global Polio Eradication Initiative, 155 countries switched to use the bivalent (against wild type 1 and 3) between 17 April and 1 May 2016. The bivalent OPV is at more effective against type 1 and 3 but does not cover type 2. The United States as of 2017 continues to recommend the use of a trivalent version, but a fully inactivated version. Schedule [ edit ] The World Health Organization recommends three or four doses starting at two months of age. It can be begun earlier but then additional doses are needed. Side effects [ edit ] Doses of oral polio vaccine are added to sugar cubes for use in a 1967 vaccination campaign in Bonn , West Germany The inactivated polio vaccines are very safe. Mild redness or pain may occur at the site of injection. Oral polio vaccine results in vaccine-associated paralytic poliomyelitis in about three per million doses. They are generally safe to give during pregnancy and in those who have HIV/AIDS but are otherwise well. Vaccine-induced polio [ edit ] A potential, but rare, adverse effect of the oral polio vaccine (OPV) is its known ability to recombine to a form that may cause neurological infection and cause paralysis. Clinical disease, including paralysis, caused by vaccine-derived poliovirus (VDPV) is indistinguishable from that caused by wild polioviruses. This is believed to be a rare event, but outbreaks of vaccine-associated paralytic poliomyelitis (VAPP), caused by a circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus (cVDPV), have been reported, and tend to occur in areas of low coverage by OPV, presumably because the OPV is itself protective against the related outbreak strain. Contamination concerns [ edit ] In 1960, it was determined that the rhesus monkey kidney cells used to prepare the poliovirus vaccines were infected with the SV40 virus (Simian Virus-40). SV40 was also discovered in 1960 and is a naturally occurring virus that infects monkeys. In 1961, SV40 was found to cause tumors in rodents . More recently, the virus was found in certain forms of cancer in humans, for instance brain and bone tumors , pleural and peritoneal mesothelioma, and some types of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma . However, it has not been determined that SV40 causes these cancers. SV40 was found to be present in stocks of the injected form of the polio vaccine (IPV) in use between 1955 and 1963. It is not found in the OPV form. Over 98 million Americans received one or more doses of polio vaccine between 1955 and 1963 when a proportion of vaccine was contaminated with SV40; it has been estimated that 10–30 million Americans may have received a dose of vaccine contaminated with SV40. Later analysis suggested that vaccines produced by the former Soviet bloc countries until 1980, and used in the USSR , China , Japan , and several African countries, may have been contaminated; meaning hundreds of millions more may have been exposed to SV40. In 1998, the National Cancer Institute undertook a large study, using cancer case information from the Institute's SEER database. The published findings from the study revealed that there was no increased incidence of cancer in persons who may have received vaccine containing SV40. Another large study in Sweden examined cancer rates of 700,000 individuals who had received potentially contaminated polio vaccine as late as 1957; the study again revealed no increased cancer incidence between persons who received polio vaccines containing SV40 and those who did not. The question of whether SV40 causes cancer in humans remains controversial however, and the development of improved assays for detection of SV40 in human tissues will be needed to resolve the controversy. During the race to develop an oral polio vaccine several large scale human trials were undertaken. By 1958, the National Institutes of Health had determined that OPV produced using the Sabin strains were the safest. Between 1957 and 1960, however, Hilary Koprowski continued to administer his vaccine around the world. In Africa, the vaccines were administered to roughly one million people in the Belgian territories (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo , Rwanda and Burundi ). The results of these human trials have been controversial, and unfounded accusations in the 1990s arose that the vaccine had created the conditions necessary for transmission of SIV from chimpanzees to humans, causing HIV/AIDS . These hypotheses have, however, have been conclusively refuted . By 2004, cases of poliomyelitis in Africa had been reduced to just a small number of isolated regions in the western portion of the continent, with sporadic cases elsewhere. Recent local opposition to vaccination campaigns have evolved due to lack of adequate information, often relating to fears that the vaccine might induce sterility . The disease has since resurged in Nigeria and in several other African nations without necessary information, which epidemiologists believe is due to refusals by certain local populations to allow their children to receive the polio vaccine. Manufacture [ edit ] Inactivated [ edit ] The Salk vaccine, or inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV), is based on three wild, virulent reference strains, Mahoney (type 1 poliovirus), MEF-1 (type 2 poliovirus), and Saukett (type 3 poliovirus), grown in a type of monkey kidney tissue culture ( Vero cell line), which are then inactivated with formalin . The injected Salk vaccine confers IgG -mediated immunity in the bloodstream, which prevents polio infection from progressing to viremia and protects the motor neurons , thus eliminating the risk of bulbar polio and post-polio syndrome . In the United States, vaccine is administered along with the tetanus , diphtheria , and acellular pertussis vaccines ( DTaP ) and a pediatric dose of hepatitis B vaccine. In the UK, IPV is combined with tetanus, diphtheria, pertussis, and Haemophilus influenzae type b vaccines. Attenuated [ edit ] Sabin immunization certificate Oral polio vaccine (OPV) is an attenuated vaccine , produced by the passage of the virus through non-human cells at a sub- physiological temperature, which produces spontaneous mutations in the viral genome. Oral polio vaccines were developed by several groups, one of which was led by Albert Sabin . Other groups, led by Hilary Koprowski and H.R. Cox , developed their own attenuated vaccine strains. In 1958, the National Institutes of Health created a special committee on live polio vaccines. The various vaccines were carefully evaluated for their ability to induce immunity to polio, while retaining a low incidence of neuropathogenicity in monkeys. Large-scale clinical trials performed in the Soviet Union in late 1950s to early 1960s by Mikhail Chumakov and his colleagues demonstrated safety and high efficacy of the vaccine. Based on these results, the Sabin strains were chosen for worldwide distribution. There are 57 nucleotide substitutions which distinguish the attenuated Sabin 1 strain from its virulent parent (the Mahoney serotype), two nucleotide substitutions attenuate the Sabin 2 strain, and 10 substitutions are involved in attenuating the Sabin 3 strain. The primary attenuating factor common to all three Sabin vaccines is a mutation located in the virus's internal ribosome entry site (IRES) which alters stem-loop structures, and reduces the ability of poliovirus to translate its RNA template within the host cell. The attenuated poliovirus in the Sabin vaccine replicates very efficiently in the gut, the primary site of infection and replication, but is unable to replicate efficiently within nervous system tissue. In 1961, type 1 and 2 monovalent oral poliovirus vaccine (MOPV) was licensed, and in 1962, type 3 MOPV was licensed. In 1963, trivalent OPV (TOPV) was licensed, and became the vaccine of choice in the United States and most other countries of the world, largely replacing the inactivated polio vaccine. A second wave of mass immunizations led to a further dramatic decline in the number of polio cases. Between 1962 and 1965 about 100 million Americans (roughly 56% of the population at that time) received the Sabin vaccine. The result was a substantial reduction in the number of poliomyelitis cases, even from the much reduced levels following the introduction of the Salk vaccine. OPV is usually provided in vials containing 10–20 doses of vaccine. A single dose of oral polio vaccine (usually two drops) contains 1,000,000 infectious units of Sabin 1 (effective against PV1), 100,000 infectious units of the Sabin 2 strain, and 600,000 infectious units of Sabin 3. The vaccine contains small traces of antibiotics — neomycin and streptomycin —but does not contain preservatives . History [ edit ] In generic sense, vaccination works by priming the immune system with an ' immunogen '. Stimulating immune response, via use of an infectious agent, is known as immunization . The development of immunity to polio efficiently blocks person-to-person transmission of wild poliovirus, thereby protecting both individual vaccine recipients and the wider community . The development of two polio vaccines led to the first modern mass inoculations . The last cases of paralytic poliomyelitis caused by endemic transmission of wild virus in the United States occurred in 1979, with an outbreak among the Amish in several Midwest states. 1935 [ edit ] Two separate teams developed polio vaccines and reported their results at the annual meeting of the American Public Health Association in November 1935. Both projects were cancelled as a result of the angry reaction from other researchers there, and no researchers dared attempt a polio vaccine for another 20 years. Professor John Kolmer, MD (1886–1962), of Temple University in Philadelphia presented his findings first. He had developed an attenuated poliovirus vaccine, which he tested in about 10,000 children across much of the United States and Canada. Five of these children died of polio and ten more were paralyzed, usually in the arm where the vaccine was injected, and frequently affecting children in towns where no polio outbreak had occurred. He had no control group, but asserted that many more children would have gotten sick. The response from other researchers was uncharacteristically blunt; one of them directly called Kolmer a murderer. Maurice Brodie, MD (1903–1939), a young researcher at New York University and the New York City Health Department , presented his results afterwards, but the feelings of the researchers were already unfavorable before he started because of Kolmer's report. Brodie and his team had prepared a formaldehyde -killed poliovirus vaccine, testing it first on himself and five co-workers, and eventually on 7,500 children and adults, with another 4,500 people serving as a control group. In the control group, Brodie reported that 1 out of 900 developed polio; in the group receiving the vaccine, only 1 out of 7,500 developed polio, making the vaccine 88% effective during the first year. However, other researchers believed that the one case was likely caused by the vaccine, and two more possible cases were reported later. After this meeting, Brodie, whose polio vaccine was at least partially effective and reasonably safe, and who developed several ground-breaking ideas about vaccination whose validity was confirmed two decades later with the development of the Salk vaccine, was immediately fired and had trouble finding employment again. Brodie died three and a half years later, possibly by suicide. Kolmer, an established researcher whose vaccine was unsafe and probably ineffective, kept his job, was given a second appointment as professor of medicine at the Temple University School of Dentistry the next year, continued to publish research papers, and received multiple awards throughout his academic career. 1948 [ edit ] A breakthrough came in 1948 when a research group headed by John Enders at the Children's Hospital Boston successfully cultivated the poliovirus in human tissue in the laboratory. This group had recently successfully grown mumps in cell culture. In March 1948 Thomas H. Weller was attempting to grow varicella virus in embryonic lung tissue. He had inoculated the planned number of tubes when he noticed that there were a few unused tubes. He retrieved a sample of mouse brain infected with polio virus and added it to the remaining test tubes, on the off chance that the virus might grow. The varicella cultures failed to grow but the polio cultures were successful. This development greatly facilitated vaccine research and ultimately allowed for the development of vaccines against polio. Enders and his colleagues, Thomas H. Weller and Frederick C. Robbins , were recognized in 1954 for their labors with a Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine . Other important advances that led to the development of polio vaccines were: the identification of three poliovirus serotypes (Poliovirus type 1 — PV1, or Mahoney; PV2, Lansing; and PV3, Leon); the finding that prior to paralysis, the virus must be present in the blood; and the demonstration that administration of antibodies in the form of gamma globulin protects against paralytic polio. 1950–1955 [ edit ] During the early 1950s, polio rates in the U.S. were above 25,000 annually; in 1952 and 1953, the U.S. experienced an outbreak of 58,000 and 35,000 polio cases, respectively, up from a typical number of some 20,000 a year, with deaths in those years numbering 3,200 and 1,400. Amid this U.S. polio epidemic, millions of dollars were invested in finding and marketing a polio vaccine by commercial interests, including Lederle Laboratories in New York under the direction of H. R. Cox . Also working at Lederle was Polish-born virologist and immunologist Hilary Koprowski of the Wistar Institute in Philadelphia, who tested the first successful polio vaccine, in 1950. His vaccine, however, being a live attenuated virus taken orally, was still in the research stage and would not be ready for use until five years after Jonas Salk's polio vaccine (a dead-virus injectable vaccine) had reached the market. Koprowski's attenuated vaccine was prepared by successive passages through the brains of Swiss albino mice. By the seventh passage, the vaccine strains could no longer infect nervous tissue or cause paralysis. After one to three further passages on rats, the vaccine was deemed safe for human use. On 27 February 1950, Koprowski's live, attenuated vaccine was tested for the first time on an 8-year-old boy living at Letchworth Village , an institution for the physically and mentally disabled located in New York. After the child suffered no side effects, Koprowski enlarged his experiment to include 19 other children. Jonas Salk [ edit ] Administration of the polio inoculation, including by Salk himself, in 1957 at the University of Pittsburgh where he and his team had developed the vaccine Mass polio vaccination in Columbus, Georgia circa 1961 for the National Polio Immunization Program. The first effective polio vaccine was developed in 1952 by Jonas Salk and a team at the University of Pittsburgh that included Julius Youngner , Byron Bennett, L. James Lewis, and Lorraine Friedman, which required years of subsequent testing. Salk went on CBS radio to report a successful test on a small group of adults and children on 26 March 1953; two days later the results were published in JAMA . Beginning 23 February 1954, the vaccine was tested at Arsenal Elementary School and the Watson Home for Children in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania . Salk's vaccine was then used in a test called the Francis Field Trial, led by Thomas Francis , the largest medical experiment in history at that time. The test began with approximately 4,000 children at Franklin Sherman Elementary School in McLean, Virginia , and would eventually involve 1.8 million children, in 44 states from Maine to California . By the conclusion of the study, roughly 440,000 received one or more injections of the vaccine, about 210,000 children received a placebo , consisting of harmless culture media , and 1.2 million children received no vaccination and served as a control group, who would then be observed to see if any contracted polio. The results of the field trial were announced 12 April 1955 (the tenth anniversary of the death of President Franklin D. Roosevelt , whose paralytic illness was generally believed to have been caused by polio). The Salk vaccine had been 60–70% effective against PV1 (poliovirus type 1), over 90% effective against PV2 and PV3, and 94% effective against the development of bulbar polio. Soon after Salk's vaccine was licensed in 1955, children's vaccination campaigns were launched. In the U.S, following a mass immunization campaign promoted by the March of Dimes , the annual number of polio cases fell from 35,000 in 1953 to 5,600 by 1957. By 1961 only 161 cases were recorded in the United States. A week earlier in April 1955, Pierre Lépine at the Pasteur Institute in Paris also announced an effective polio vaccine. 1961 [ edit ] Albert Sabin (right) with Robert Gallo , circa 1985 At the same time that Salk was testing his vaccine, both Albert Sabin and Hilary Koprowski continued working on developing a vaccine using live virus. During a meeting in Stockholm to discuss polio vaccines in November 1955, Sabin presented results obtained on a group of 80 volunteers, while Koprowski read a paper detailing the findings of a trial enrolling 150 people. Sabin and Koprowski both eventually succeeded in developing vaccines. Because of the commitment to the Salk vaccine in America, Sabin and Koprowski both did their testing outside the United States, Sabin in Mexico and then in the Soviet Union, and Koprowski in the Congo and Poland. In 1957, Sabin developed a trivalent vaccine, containing attenuated strains of all three types of poliovirus. In 1959, ten million children in the Soviet Union received the Sabin oral vaccine. For this work, Sabin was given the medal of the Order of Friendship Among Peoples, described as the Soviets' highest civilian honor, despite having become an American during the height of the cold war. Sabin's oral vaccine using live virus came into commercial use in 1961. Once Sabin’s oral vaccine became widely available, it supplanted Salk’s injected vaccine, which had been tarnished in the public's opinion by the Cutter incident , in which Salk vaccines prepared by one company resulted in several children dying or becoming paralyzed. 1987 [ edit ] An enhanced- potency IPV (inactivated polio vaccine) was licensed in the United States in November 1987, and is currently the vaccine of choice in the United States. The first dose of polio vaccine is given shortly after birth, usually between 1 and 2 months of age, and a second dose is given at 4 months of age. The timing of the third dose depends on the vaccine formulation but should be given between 6 and 18 months of age. A booster vaccination is given at 4 to 6 years of age, for a total of four doses at or before school entry. In some countries, a fifth vaccination is given during adolescence . Routine vaccination of adults (18 years of age and older) in developed countries is neither necessary nor recommended because most adults are already immune and have a very small risk of exposure to wild poliovirus in their home countries. In 2002, a pentavalent (five-component) combination vaccine (called Pediarix) containing IPV was approved for use in the United States. 1988 [ edit ] A Somali boy is injected with inactivated poliovirus vaccine ( Mogadishu , 1993) A global effort to eradicate polio, led by the World Health Organization , UNICEF , and The Rotary Foundation , began in 1988 and has relied largely on the oral polio vaccine developed by Albert Sabin and Mikhail Chumakov (Sabin-Chumakov vaccine). Post-1990 [ edit ] Polio was eliminated in the Americas by 1994. The disease was officially eliminated in 36 Western Pacific countries, including China and Australia in 2000. Europe was declared polio-free in 2002. Since January 2011, there were no reported cases of the disease in India, and hence in February 2012, the country was taken off the WHO list of polio endemic countries. In March 2014, India was declared a polio-free country. Although poliovirus transmission has been interrupted in much of the world, transmission of wild poliovirus does continue and creates an ongoing risk for the importation of wild poliovirus into previously polio-free regions. If importations of poliovirus occur, outbreaks of poliomyelitis may develop, especially in areas with low vaccination coverage and poor sanitation. As a result, high levels of vaccination coverage must be maintained. In November 2013, the World Health Organization announced a polio outbreak in Syria. In response, the Armenian government put out a notice asking Syrian Armenians under age 15 to get the polio vaccine. As of 2014, polio virus has spread out to ten countries mainly in Africa , Asia and the Middle East with Pakistan, Syria and Cameroon advising vaccinations to outbound travelers. Polio vaccination programs have received resistance from some people in Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Nigeria (the three countries with remaining polio cases). Some Muslim religious leaders believe that the vaccines are secretly being used for sterilization of Muslims. The fact that in 2011 the CIA organized a fake vaccination program in order to help find Osama Bin Laden is an additional cause of distrust. In 2015, the World Health Organization announced a deal with the Taliban to encourage them to distribute the vaccine in areas they control. However, on 11 September 2016, two unidentified gunmen associated with the Pakistani Taliban, Jamaat-ul-Ahrar, shot Zakaullah Khan, a doctor who was administering polio vaccines in Pakistan. The leader of the Jamaat-ul-Ahrar claimed responsibility for the shooting and says that the group will continue to keep doing these kinds of attacks. This resistance to and skepticism of vaccinations has consequently slowed down the polio eradication process within the three remaining countries. Society and culture [ edit ] Cost [ edit ] The wholesale cost is about US$0.25 per dose for the oral form as of 2014. The Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunization (GAVI) supplies the inactivated vaccine to developing countries for as little as € 0.75 (about US$0.83 ) per dose in ten-dose vials. In the United States, the inactivated form costs between $25–50. Misconceptions [ edit ] A widespread misconception has arisen in Pakistan that polio vaccine contained Haram ingredients and could cause impotence and infertility in male children, leading some less-educated parents not to have their children vaccinated. This belief is most prevalent in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province and the FATA region, where people are likely to be influenced by unfounded teachings. There also have been attacks on polio vaccination teams. This is hampering international efforts to eradicate polio in Pakistan and globally since the virus can be carried by travelers. See also [ edit ] Cold war tensions and the polio vaccine Poliomyelitis eradication References [ edit ] External links [ edit ] Global Polio Eradication Initiative final project to eliminate polio by 2018. History of Vaccines Website – History of Polio History of Vaccines, a project of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia PBS.org — 'People and Discoveries: Salk Produces Polio Vaccine 1952', PBS Conquering Polio , Smithsonian Magazine, April 2005 The Global Effort To Eradicate Polio , Dream 2047 Magazine, April 2004

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a primary reason for needing a new vaccine for influenza each year is that

Influenza vaccines, also known as flu shots or flu jabs, are vaccines that protect against infection by Influenza viruses. A new version of the vaccine is developed twice a year, as the Influenza virus rapidly changes. While their effectiveness varies from year to year, most provide modest to high protection against influenza. The CDC estimates that vaccination against influenza reduces sickness, medical visits, hospitalizations, and deaths. When an immunized worker does catch the flu, they are on average back at work a half day sooner. Vaccine effectiveness in those under two years old and over 65 years old remains unknown due to the low quality of the research. Vaccinating children may protect those around them.

['1834', 'atmospheric pressure', 'june 28, 1870', 'the coming to earth of jesus']

ìdí pàtàkì kan tí wọ́n fi nílò àjẹsára tuntun fún àrùn gágá lọ́dọọdún ni pé

Yes

['A má a ń ṣe àgbéjáde ẹ̀yà àjẹsára náà titun lẹ́ẹ̀mejì lọ́dún nítorí tí kòkòrò àrùn àìlèfojúrí afàìsàn ọ̀fìnkì a má a paradà kíákíá.']

['nítorí tí kòkòrò àrùn àìlèfojúrí afàìsàn ọ̀fìnkì a má a paradà kíákíá.']

['P1']

Àj?sára ??fìnkì Àj?sára ??fìnkì, tí a tún m?? sí àb??r?? ??fìnkì, j?? àj?sára tí ? dáàbò bo ni l??w?? ??fìnkì.[1] A má a ? ?e àgbéjáde ??yà àj?sára náà titun l????mejì l??dún nítorí tí kòkòrò àrùn àìlèfojúrí afàìsàn ??fìnkì a má a paradà kíákíá.[1] ??p??l?p?? w?n a má a pèsè ààbò tó m? níw??n àti èyí tó lágbára púp?? fúnni l??w?? ??fìnkì; ?ùgb??n, èyí a má a yàt?? láti ?dún dé ?dún.[2][1] ??rí i??? r?? lára àgbàlagbà tí ?j??-orí r?? ti ju ?dún 65 l? kò fi b???? w??p??.[3][4] W?n a má a dín iye ?j?? tí àw?n ènìyàn kò fi níí lè l? sí ibi-i??? kù sí bíi ìdajì ?j?? bí a bá wòó lápap??.[5] Fífún àw?n ?m?dé ní àj?sára lè dáàbò bo àw?n ?lòmíràn tó wà ní àyíká w?n.[1] Àti Àj? Ìlera Àgbáyé àti Ilé-i??? Ì?àkóso àti Ìdènà Àrùn ni ó gba ni níyànjú pé kí gbogbo ?nití ?j??-orí r?? bá ti ju o?ù 6 l? má a gba àj?sára náà l??d??dún.[1][6] Èyí ?e pàtàkì púp?? pàápàá jùl? fún àw?n obìrin tó ní oyún, àw?n ?m?dé tí ?j??-orí w?n j?? bí o?ù m??fá sí ?dún máàrún, àw?n tó ní ì?òrò yòówù nípa ìlera w?n, Àw?n ?m? Abínibí Am??ríkà, àti àw?n ò?ì??? ìlera.[1][7] Àw?n àj?sára náà kò léwu láti lò. Ní àárín àw?n ?m?dé ibà a má a wáyé láàárín iye àw?n ?m? tó tó ìw??n 5 sí 10 nínú ?g????rún, b???? sì ni ìrora nínú ?ran-ara, àti àár?? náà lè wáyé. Ní àw?n ?dún mìíràn, láàárín àw?n àgbàlagbà, àj?sára náà a má a fa àìsàn tí à n pè ní Guillain Barre syndrome ní ìw??n egbògi náà kan nínú mílí??nù kan. A kò gb?d?? lòó fún àw?n tó ní ìfèsì ara ?ni l??nà tó burú púp?? sí ?yin tàbí sí orí?i àj?sára náà àtij??. W?n a má a wá bíi orí?i tí a fi kòkòrò afàìsàn àìlèfojúrí tí a ti pa ?e, àti bíi orí?i tí a fi kòkòrò afàìsàn náà ti a ti s? di aláìlágbára ?e. Orí?i tí a fi kòkòrò afàìsàn tí a ti pa ?e ni a gb??d?? lò fún àw?n aboyún. W?n a má a wá bíi orí?i tí à ? gún bí ab??r?? sínú ?ran-ara ?ni tàbí bíi orí?i tí à ? fún sínú imú ?ni.[1] Gbígba àj?sára fún ààbò l??w?? ??fìnkì b??r?? ní àw?n ?dún 1930, nígbàtí wíwà fún lílò gbogbogbò ní il?? Am??ríkà b??r?? ní ?dún 1945.[8][9] Ó wà lórí Àkój? Àw?n Egbògi Kò?eémáàní ti Àj? Ìlera Àgbáyé, àw?n òògùn tó ?e pàtàkì jùl? tí a nílò fún ètò ìlera ìb??r??p??p?? yòówù.[10] Iye owó r?? lójú pálí j?? bíi 5.25 USD fún ìw??n egbògi náà kan?o?o ní ?dún 2014.[11] Ní il?? Am??ríkà iye owó r?? kò tó 25 USD.[12]

Influenza vaccine U.S. Navy crew member receiving an influenza vaccination Vaccine description Target disease influenza virus Type inactivated, attenuated Clinical data Trade names Fluarix, Fluzone, other AHFS / Drugs.com Monograph Pregnancy category US : C (Risk not ruled out) Routes of administration IM , intranasal, intradermal ATC code J07BB01 ( WHO ) Legal status Legal status US : ℞-only Identifiers ChemSpider none Influenza vaccines , also known as flu shots or flu jabs , are vaccines that protect against infection by Influenza viruses. A new version of the vaccine is developed twice a year, as the Influenza virus rapidly changes. While their effectiveness varies from year to year, most provide modest to high protection against influenza. The CDC estimates that vaccination against influenza reduces sickness, medical visits, hospitalizations, and deaths. When an immunized worker does catch the flu, they are on average back at work a half day sooner. Vaccine effectiveness in those under two years old and over 65 years old remains unknown due to the low quality of the research. [ needs update ] [ needs update ] Vaccinating children may protect those around them. The World Health Organization (WHO) and the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommend yearly vaccination for nearly all people over the age of six months, especially those at high risk. The European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control also recommends yearly vaccination of high risk groups. These groups include pregnant women, the elderly, children between six months and five years of age, those with other health problems, and those who work in healthcare. The vaccines are generally safe. Fever occurs in five to ten percent of children vaccinated. Temporary muscle pains or feelings of tiredness may occur as well. In certain years, the vaccine has been linked to an increase in Guillain–Barré syndrome among older people at a rate of about one case per million doses. It should not be given to those with severe allergies to eggs or to previous versions of the vaccine. The vaccines come in both inactive and weakened viral forms. The inactive version should be used for those who are pregnant. They come in forms that are injected into a muscle , sprayed into the nose , or injected into the middle layer of the skin . Vaccination against influenza began in the 1930s with large scale availability in the United States beginning in 1945. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines , the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system . The wholesale price in the developing world is about $5.25 USD per dose as of 2014. In the United States, it costs less than $25 USD as of 2015. Contents 1 Medical uses 1.1 Effectiveness 1.2 Children 1.3 Adults 1.4 Elderly 1.5 Pregnancy 2 Safety 3 Injection versus nasal spray 4 Recommendations 4.1 World Health Organization 4.2 Canada 4.3 Europe 4.4 United States 5 Uptake 5.1 At risk groups 5.2 Healthcare workers 6 Manufacturing 6.1 Annual reformulation 6.2 2016 Southern Hemisphere influenza season 6.3 2016–2017 Northern Hemisphere influenza season 6.4 2017 Southern Hemisphere influenza season 6.5 2017–2018 Northern Hemisphere influenza season 6.6 2018 Southern Hemisphere influenza season 7 History 7.1 Origins and development 7.2 Acceptance 8 Society and culture 8.1 Evaluation of evidence 8.2 Cost-effectiveness 9 Research 9.1 Rapid response to pandemic flu 9.2 Quadrivalent vaccines for seasonal flu 9.3 Universal flu vaccines 10 Veterinary use 10.1 Horses 10.2 Poultry 10.3 Pigs 10.4 Dogs 11 Notes 12 References 13 External links Medical uses [ edit ] The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends the flu vaccine as the best way to protect people against the flu and prevent its spread. The flu vaccine can also reduce the severity of the flu if a person contracts a flu strain that the vaccine did not contain. It takes about two weeks following vaccination for protective antibodies to form. A 2012 meta-analysis found that flu vaccination was effective 67 percent of the time; the populations that benefited the most were HIV-positive adults ages 18 to 55 (76 percent), healthy adults ages 18 to 46 (approximately 70 percent), and healthy children ages six to 24 months (66 percent). Effectiveness [ edit ] U.S. vaccine effectiveness by start year: 2004 10% 2005 21% 2006 52% 2007 37% 2008 41% 2009 56% 2010 60% 2011 47% 2012 49% 2013 52% 2014 19% 2015 48% 2016 39% A vaccine is assessed by its efficacy ; the extent to which it reduces risk of disease under controlled conditions, and its effectiveness , the observed reduction in risk after the vaccine is put into use. In the case of influenza, effectiveness is expected to be lower than the efficacy because it is measured using the rates of influenza-like illness , which is not always caused by influenza. Influenza vaccines generally show high efficacy, as measured by the antibody production in animal models or vaccinated people. However, studies on the effectiveness of flu vaccines in the real world are difficult; vaccines may be imperfectly matched, virus prevalence varies widely between years, and influenza is often confused with other influenza-like illnesses. However, in most years (16 of the 19 years before 2007), the flu vaccine strains have been a good match for the circulating strains, and even a mismatched vaccine can often provide cross-protection. Trials of both live and inactivated influenza vaccines against seasonal influenza have been summarized in several 2012 meta-analyses. Studies on live vaccines have very limited data, but these preparations may be more effective than inactivated vaccines . The meta-analyses examined the efficacy and effectiveness of inactivated vaccines against seasonal influenza in adults, children, and the elderly. [ needs update ] Children [ edit ] The CDC recommend that everyone except infants under the age of six months should receive the seasonal influenza vaccine. Vaccination campaigns usually focus special attention on people who are at high risk of serious complications if they catch the flu, such as pregnant women, children over six months, the elderly, and people with chronic illnesses or weakened immune systems , as well as those to whom they are exposed, such as health care workers. As the death rate is also high among infants who catch influenza, the household contacts and caregivers of infants should be vaccinated to reduce the risk of passing an influenza infection to the infant. In children, vaccines again showed high efficacy, but low effectiveness in preventing "flu-like illness". In children under the age of two, the data are extremely limited, but vaccination appeared to confer no measurable benefit. During the 2017–18 flu season the CDC director indicated that 85 percent of the children who died "likely will not have been vaccinated." Adults [ edit ] In unvaccinated adults, 16% get symptoms similar to the flu, while about 10% of vaccinated adults do. Vaccination decreased confirmed cases of influenza from about 2.4% to 1.1%. No effect on hospitalization was found. In working adults a review by the Cochrane Collaboration found that vaccination resulted in a modest decrease in both influenza symptoms and working days lost, without affecting transmission or influenza-related complications. [ needs update ] In healthy working adults, influenza vaccines can provide moderate protection against virologically confirmed influenza, though such protection is greatly reduced or absent in some seasons. In health care workers, a 2006 review found a net benefit. Of the eighteen studies in this review, only two also assessed the relationship of patient mortality relative to staff influenza vaccine uptake; both found that higher rates of health care worker vaccination correlated with reduced patient deaths. A 2014 review found benefits to patients when health care workers were immunized, as supported by moderate evidence based in part on the observed reduction in all-cause deaths in patients whose health care workers were given immunization compared with comparison patients in which the health care workers were not offered vaccine. Elderly [ edit ] Evidence for an effect in adults over 65 years old is unclear. Systematic reviews examining both randomized controlled and case–control studies found a lack of high-quality evidence. Reviews of case–control studies found effects against laboratory-confirmed influenza, pneumonia , and death among the community-dwelling elderly. The group most vulnerable to non-pandemic flu, the elderly, benefits least from the vaccine. There are multiple reasons behind this steep decline in vaccine efficacy, the most common of which are the declining immunological function and frailty associated with advanced age. In a non-pandemic year, a person in the United States aged 50–64 is nearly ten times more likely to die an influenza-associated death than a younger person, and a person over age 65 is over ten times more likely to die an influenza-associated death than the 50–64 age group. There is a high-dose flu vaccine specifically formulated to provide a stronger immune response. Available evidence indicates that vaccinating the elderly with the high-dose vaccine leads to a stronger immune response against influenza than the regular-dose vaccine. A flu vaccine containing an adjuvant was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in November 2015, for use by adults aged 65 years of age and older. The vaccine is marketed as Fluad in the U.S. and was first available in the 2016–2017 flu season. The vaccine contains the MF59C.1 adjuvant which is an oil-in-water emulsion of squalene oil. It is the first adjuvanted seasonal flu vaccine marketed in the United States. It is not clear if there is a significant benefit for the elderly to use a flu vaccine containing the MF59C.1 adjuvant. Per Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices guidelines, Fluad can be used as an alternative to other influenza vaccines approved for people 65 years and older. Vaccinating health care workers who work with elderly people is recommended in many countries, with the goal of reducing influenza outbreaks in this vulnerable population. While there is no conclusive evidence from randomized clinical trials that vaccinating health care workers helps protect the elderly people from influenza, there is tentative evidence of benefit. Pregnancy [ edit ] As well as protecting mother and child from the effects of an influenza infection, the immunization of pregnant women tends to increase their chances of experiencing a successful full-term pregnancy. The trivalent inactivated influenza vaccine is protective in pregnant women infected with HIV . Safety [ edit ] See also: Vaccine controversies While side effects of the flu vaccine may occur, they are usually minor. The flu vaccine can cause serious side effects, including an allergic reaction , but this is rare. Furthermore, the common side effects and risks of inoculation are mild and temporary when compared to the risks and severe health effects of the annual influenza epidemic's well-documented toll of illness, hospitalization, and death. Flu vaccination may lead to side effects such as runny nose and sore throat, which can last for up to several days. Egg allergy may also be a concern, since flu vaccines are typically made using eggs; however, research into egg-allergy and influenza vaccination has led some advisory groups to recommend vaccine for those with mild allergies and monitored vaccination for those with more severe symptoms. A large study of nearly 800 children in the UK with egg allergy, including over 250 with previous anaphylactic reactions, had zero systemic allergic reactions when given the live attenuated flu vaccine. On January 17, 2013, the U.S. FDA approved Flublok , a faster-turnaround influenza vaccine which is the first grown in insect cells instead of eggs. Since eggs are not used in its production, it avoids any problem with egg allergies. Although Guillain–Barré syndrome had been feared as a complication of vaccination, the CDC states that most studies on modern influenza vaccines have seen no link with Guillain–Barré. Infection with influenza virus itself increases both the risk of death (up to 1 in 10,000) and increases the risk of developing Guillain–Barré syndrome to a far higher level than the highest level of suspected vaccine involvement (approximately 10 times higher by 2009 estimates). Although one review gives an incidence of about one case of Guillain–Barré per million vaccinations, a large study in China, reported in The New England Journal of Medicine covering close to 100 million doses of vaccine against the 2009 H1N1 "swine" flu found only eleven cases of Guillain–Barré syndrome , (0.1 per million doses) total incidence in persons vaccinated, actually lower than the normal rate of the disease in China, and no other notable side effects; "The risk-benefit ratio, which is what vaccines and everything in medicine is about, is overwhelmingly in favor of vaccination." Several studies have identified an increased incidence of narcolepsy among recipients of the pandemic H1N1 influenza ASO3-adjuvanted vaccine; efforts to identify a mechanism for this suggest that narcolepsy is autoimmune, and that the ASO3-adjuvanted H1N1 vaccine may mimic hypocretin, serving as a trigger. Some injection-based flu vaccines intended for adults in the United States contain thiomersal (also known as thimerosal), a mercury -based preservative. Despite some controversy in the media, the World Health Organization 's Global Advisory Committee on Vaccine Safety has concluded that there is no evidence of toxicity from thiomersal in vaccines and no reason on grounds of safety to change to more-expensive single-dose administration. Injection versus nasal spray [ edit ] Flu vaccines are available either as: a trivalent or quadrivalent injection (TIV or QIV), which contains the inactivated form of the virus a nasal spray of live attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV, Q/LAIV), which contains the attenuated or weakened form of the virus. TIV induces protection after injection (typically intramuscular, though subcutaneous and intradermal routes can also be protective) based on an immune response to the antigens present on the inactivated virus, while cold-adapted LAIV works by establishing infection in the nasal passages. Recommendations [ edit ] Various public health organizations, including the World Health Organization, have recommended that yearly influenza vaccination be routinely offered, particularly to people at risk of complications of influenza and those individuals who live with or care for high-risk individuals, including: the elderly (UK recommendation is those aged 65 or above) people with chronic lung diseases ( asthma , COPD , etc.) people with chronic heart diseases ( congenital heart disease , chronic heart failure , ischaemic heart disease ) people with chronic liver diseases (including cirrhosis ) people with chronic kidney diseases (such as the nephrotic syndrome ) people who are immunosuppressed (those with HIV or who are receiving drugs to suppress the immune system such as chemotherapy and long-term steroids ) and their household contacts people who live together in large numbers in an environment where influenza can spread rapidly, such as prisons, nursing homes, schools, and dormitories. healthcare workers (both to prevent sickness and to prevent spread to patients) pregnant women. However, a 2009 review concluded that there was insufficient evidence to recommend routine use of trivalent influenza vaccine during the first trimester of pregnancy. Influenza vaccination during flu season is part of recommendations for influenza vaccination of pregnant women in the United States . Both types of flu vaccines are contraindicated for those with severe allergies to egg proteins and people with a history of Guillain–Barré syndrome . World Health Organization [ edit ] As of 2016 [update] , the World Health Organization recommends seasonal influenza vaccination for: Highest priority: Pregnant women Priority (in no particular order): Children aged 6–59 months Elderly Individuals with specific chronic medical conditions Health-care workers Canada [ edit ] In 2008, the National Advisory Committee on Immunization, the group that advises the Public Health Agency of Canada , recommended that everyone aged two to 64 years be encouraged to receive annual influenza vaccination, and that children between the age of six and 24 months, and their household contacts, should be considered a high priority for the flu vaccine. The NACI also recommends the flu vaccine for: People at high risk of influenza-related complications or hospitalization, including the morbidly obese, healthy pregnant women, children six to 59 months, the elderly, aboriginals, and people suffering from one of an itemized list of chronic health conditions People capable of transmitting influenza to those at high risk, including household contacts and healthcare workers People who provide essential community services Certain poultry workers Europe [ edit ] The European Center for Disease Prevention and Control recommends vaccinating the elderly as a priority, with a secondary priority people with chronic medical conditions and healthcare workers. The influenza vaccination strategy is generally that of protecting vulnerable people, rather than limiting influenza circulation or totally eliminating human influenza sickness. This is in contrast with the high herd immunity strategies for other infectious diseases such as polio and measles . This is also due in part to the financial and logistics burden associated with the need of an annual injection. United States [ edit ] In the United States routine influenza vaccination is recommended for all persons aged ≥ 6 months. According to the CDC, the live attenuated virus (which comes in the form of the nasal spray in the US) should be avoided by: Children younger than two years Adults 50 years and older People with a history of severe allergic reaction to any component of the vaccine or to a previous dose of any influenza vaccine People with asthma Children or adolescents on long-term aspirin treatment. Children and adults who have chronic pulmonary, cardiovascular (except isolated hypertension), renal, hepatic, neurologic/neuromuscular, hematologic, or metabolic disorders Children and adults who have immunosuppression (including immunosuppression caused by medications or by HIV) Pregnant women A young woman shows off her flu shot after receiving vaccine at a local drug store . Within its blanket recommendation for general vaccination in the United States, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), which began recommending the influenza vaccine to health care workers in 1981, emphasizes to clinicians the special urgency of vaccination for members of certain vulnerable groups, and their caregivers : Vaccination is especially important for people at higher risk of serious influenza complications or people who live with or care for people at higher risk for serious complications. In 2009, a new high-dose formulation of the standard influenza vaccine was approved. The Fluzone High Dose is specifically for people 65 and older; the difference is that it has four times the antigen dose of the standard Fluzone. The U.S. government requires hospitals to report worker vaccination rates. Some U.S. states and hundreds of U.S. hospitals require health-care workers to either get vaccinations or wear masks during flu season. These requirements occasionally engender union lawsuits on narrow collective bargaining grounds, but proponents note that courts have generally endorsed forced vaccination laws affecting the general population during disease outbreaks. Vaccination against influenza is especially important for members of high-risk groups who would be likely to have complications from influenza, for example pregnant women and children and teenagers from six months to 18 years of age; In raising the upper age limit to 18 years, the aim is to reduce both the time children and parents lose from visits to pediatricians and missing school and the need for antibiotics for complications An added benefit expected from the vaccination of children is a reduction in the number of influenza cases among parents and other household members, and of possible spread to the general community. In the USA: The CDC has indicated that live attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV), also called the nasal spray vaccine, is not recommended for the 2016–2017 flu season, in the United States. Furthermore, health care personnel who care for severely immunocompromised persons should receive injections (TIV or QIV) rather than LAIV. Uptake [ edit ] At risk groups [ edit ] Uptake of flu vaccination, both seasonally and during pandemics, is often low. Systematic reviews of pandemic flu vaccination uptake have identified several personal factors that may influence uptake, including gender (higher uptake in men), ethnicity (higher in people from ethnic minorities) and having a chronic illness. Beliefs in the safety and effectiveness of the vaccine are also important. Healthcare workers [ edit ] Frontline healthcare workers are often recommended to get seasonal and any pandemic flu vaccination. For example, in the UK all healthcare workers involved in patient care are recommended to receive the seasonal flu vaccine, and were also recommended to be vaccinated against the H1N1/09 (later renamed A(H1N1)pdm09 ) swine flu virus during the 2009 pandemic . However, uptake is often low. During the 2009 pandemic, low uptake by healthcare workers was seen in countries including the UK, Italy, Greece, and Hong Kong. In a 2010 survey of United States healthcare workers, 63.5% reported that they received the flu vaccine during the 2010–11 season, an increase from 61.9% reported the previous season. US Health professionals with direct patient contact had higher vaccination uptake, such as physicians and dentists (84.2%) and nurse practitioners (82.6%). The main reason to vaccinate healthcare workers is to prevent staff from spreading flu to their patients and to reduce staff absence at a time of high service demand, but the reasons healthcare workers state for their decisions to accept or decline vaccination may more often be to do with perceived personal benefits. In Victoria (Australia) public hospitals, rates of healthcare worker vaccination in 2005 ranged from 34% for non-clinical staff to 42% for laboratory staff. One of the reasons for rejecting vaccines was concern over adverse reactions; in one study, 31% of resident physicians at a teaching hospital incorrectly believed Australian vaccines could cause influenza. Manufacturing [ edit ] Schematic of influenza vaccine creation Flu vaccine is usually grown by vaccine manufacturers in fertilized chicken eggs. In the Northern hemisphere, the manufacturing process begins following the announcement (typically in February) of the WHO recommended strains for the winter flu season. Three strains (representing an H1N1, an H3N2, and a B strain) of flu are selected and chicken eggs inoculated separately, these monovalent harvests are then combined to make the trivalent vaccine. Avian flu vaccine development by reverse genetics technique As of November 2007 [update] , both the conventional injection and the nasal spray are manufactured using chicken eggs. The European Union has also approved Optaflu , a vaccine produced by Novartis using vats of animal cells. This technique is expected to be more scalable and avoid problems with eggs, such as allergic reactions and incompatibility with strains that affect avians like chickens. Research continues into the idea of a "universal" influenza vaccine that would not require tailoring to a particular strain, but would be effective against a broad variety of influenza viruses. However, no vaccine candidates had been announced by Nov 2007. A DNA-based vaccination, which is hoped to be even faster to manufacture, is as of 2011 in clinical trials, determining safety and efficacy. On November 20, 2012, Novartis received FDA approval for the first cell-culture vaccine. In a 2007 report, the global capacity of approximately 826 million seasonal influenza vaccine doses (inactivated and live) was double the production of 413 million doses. In an aggressive scenario of producing pandemic influenza vaccines by 2013, only 2.8 billion courses could be produced in a six-month time frame. If all high- and upper-middle-income countries sought vaccines for their entire populations in a pandemic, nearly 2 billion courses would be required. If China pursued this goal as well, more than 3 billion courses would be required to serve these populations. Vaccine research and development is ongoing to identify novel vaccine approaches that could produce much greater quantities of vaccine at a price that is affordable to the global population. Methods of vaccine generation that bypass the need for eggs include the construction of influenza virus-like particles (VLP). VLP resemble viruses, but there is no need for inactivation, as they do not include viral coding elements, but merely present antigens in a similar manner to a virion. Some methods of producing VLP include cultures of Spodoptera frugiperda Sf9 insect cells and plant-based vaccine production (e.g., production in Nicotiana benthamiana ). There is evidence that some VLPs elicit antibodies that recognize a broader panel of antigenically distinct viral isolates compared to other vaccines in the hemagglutination-inhibition assay (HIA). Influenza vaccines are produced in pathogen-free eggs that are 11 to 12 days old. The top of the egg is disinfected by wiping it with alcohol and then the egg is candled to identify a non-veinous area in the allantoic cavity where a small hole is poked to serve as a pressure release. A second hole is made at the top of the egg, where the influenza virus is injected in the allantoic cavity, past the chorioallantoic membrane. The two holes are then sealed with melted paraffin and the inoculated eggs are incubated for 48 hours at 37 degrees Celsius. During incubation time, the virus replicates and newly replicated viruses are released into the allantoic fluid After the 48 hour incubation period, the top of the egg is cracked and the 10 milliliters of allantoic fluid is removed, from which about 15 micrograms of the flu vaccine can be obtained. At this point, the viruses have been weakened or killed and the viral antigen is purified and placed inside vials, syringes, or nasal sprayers. Done on a large scale, this method is used to produce the flu vaccine for the human population. Annual reformulation [ edit ] Further information: Historical annual reformulations of the influenza vaccine See also: 2009 flu pandemic vaccine Each year, three strains are chosen for selection in that year's flu vaccination by the WHO Global Influenza Surveillance Network . The chosen strains are the H1N1, H3N2, and Type-B strains thought most likely to cause significant human suffering in the coming season. Starting with the 2012–2013 Northern Hemisphere influenza season (coincident with the approval of quadrivalent influenza vaccines), the WHO has also recommended a 2nd B-strain for use in quadrivalent vaccines. The World Health Organization coordinates the contents of the vaccine each year to contain the most likely strains of the virus to attack the next year. "The WHO Global Influenza Surveillance Network was established in 1952. The network comprises four WHO Collaborating Centres (WHO CCs) and 112 institutions in 83 countries, which are recognized by WHO as WHO National Influenza Centres (NICs). These NICs collect specimens in their country, perform primary virus isolation and preliminary antigenic characterization. They ship newly isolated strains to WHO CCs for high level antigenic and genetic analysis, the result of which forms the basis for WHO recommendations on the composition of influenza vaccine for the Northern and Southern Hemisphere each year." The Global Influenza Surveillance Network 's selection of viruses for the vaccine manufacturing process is based on its best estimate of which strains will predominate the next year, amounting in the end to well-informed but fallible guesswork. Formal WHO recommendations were first issued in 1973. Beginning in 1999 there have been two recommendations per year: one for the northern hemisphere (N) and the other for the southern hemisphere (S). Historical annual reformulations of the influenza vaccine are listed in a separate article. Recent [update] WHO seasonal influenza vaccine composition recommendations: 2016 Southern Hemisphere influenza season [ edit ] The composition of virus vaccines for use in the 2016 Southern Hemisphere influenza season recommended by the World Health Organisation on September 24, 2015 was: an A/California/7/2009 (H1N1)pdm09-like virus an A/Hong Kong/4801/2014 (H3N2)-like virus a B/Brisbane/60/2008-like virus WHO recommended that quadrivalent vaccines containing two influenza B viruses should contain the above three viruses and a B/Phuket/3073/2013-like virus. 2016–2017 Northern Hemisphere influenza season [ edit ] The composition of trivalent virus vaccines for use in the 2016–2017 Northern Hemisphere influenza season recommended by the World Health Organization on February 25, 2016 was: an A/California/7/2009 (H1N1)pdm09-like virus an A/Hong Kong/4801/2014 (H3N2)-like virus a B/Brisbane/60/2008-like virus The WHO recommends that quadrivalent vaccines containing two influenza B viruses contain the above three viruses and a B/Phuket/3073/2013-like virus. 2017 Southern Hemisphere influenza season [ edit ] The composition of virus vaccines for use in the 2017 Southern Hemisphere influenza season recommended by the World Health Organisation on September 29, 2016 was: an A/Michigan/45/2015 (H1N1)pdm09-like virus an A/Hong Kong/4801/2014 (H3N2)-like virus a B/Brisbane/60/2008-like virus WHO recommended that quadrivalent vaccines containing two influenza B viruses should contain the above three viruses and a B/Phuket/3073/2013-like virus. The Southern Hemisphere experienced "poor vaccine effectiveness" against H3N2 this season. 2017–2018 Northern Hemisphere influenza season [ edit ] The composition of trivalent virus vaccines for use in the 2017–2018 Northern Hemisphere influenza season recommended by the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices on August 25, 2017 was: an A/Michigan/45/2015 (H1N1)pdm09–like virus an A/Hong Kong/4801/2014 (H3N2)-like virus a B/Brisbane/60/2008–like virus (Victoria lineage) In addition to these components, quadrivalent vaccines will also include a B/Phuket/3073/2013–like virus (Yamagata lineage). In California, some emergency systems were strained by a spike in H3N2 flu cases. In addition, some areas experienced local shortages of oseltamivir . The severity of the flu season seemed somewhat comparable to the 2009–10 swine flu outbreak. A February 2018 CDC interim report estimated the vaccine effectiveness to be 25% against H3N2, 67% against H1N1, and 42% against influenza B. 2018 Southern Hemisphere influenza season [ edit ] The composition of virus vaccines for use in the 2018 Southern Hemisphere influenza season recommended by the World Health Organisation on September 28, 2017 was: an A/Michigan/45/2015 (H1N1)pdm09-like virus an A/Singapore/INFIMH-16-0019/2016 (H3N2)-like virus a B/Phuket/3073/2013-like virus WHO recommended that quadrivalent vaccines containing two influenza B viruses should contain the above three viruses and a B/Brisbane/60/2008-like virus. History [ edit ] See also: Timeline of vaccines Vaccines are used in both humans and nonhumans. Human vaccine is meant unless specifically identified as a veterinary, poultry or livestock vaccine. Origins and development [ edit ] In the worldwide Spanish flu pandemic of 1918, "Physicians tried everything they knew, everything they had ever heard of, from the ancient art of bleeding patients, to administering oxygen, to developing new vaccines and sera (chiefly against what we now call Hemophilus influenzae —a name derived from the fact that it was originally considered the etiological agent—and several types of pneumococci). Only one therapeutic measure, transfusing blood from recovered patients to new victims, showed any hint of success." In 1931, viral growth in embryonated hens' eggs was reported by Ernest William Goodpasture and colleagues at Vanderbilt University . The work was extended to growth of influenza virus by several workers, including Thomas Francis , Jonas Salk , Wilson Smith and Macfarlane Burnet , leading to the first experimental influenza vaccines. In the 1940s, the US military developed the first approved inactivated vaccines for influenza, which were used in the Second World War. Hen's eggs continued to be used to produce virus used in influenza vaccines, but manufacturers made improvements in the purity of the virus by developing improved processes to remove egg proteins and to reduce systemic reactivity of the vaccine. Recently, [ when? ] the US FDA approved influenza vaccines made by growing virus in cell cultures and influenza vaccines made from recombinant proteins have been approved, with plant-based influenza vaccines being tested in clinical trials. Acceptance [ edit ] According to the CDC: "Influenza vaccination is the primary method for preventing influenza and its severe complications. [...] Vaccination is associated with reductions in influenza-related respiratory illness and physician visits among all age groups, hospitalization and death among persons at high risk, otitis media among children, and work absenteeism among adults. Although influenza vaccination levels increased substantially during the 1990s, further improvements in vaccine coverage levels are needed". The egg-based technology (still in use as of 2005) for producing influenza vaccine was created in the 1950s. In the U.S. swine flu scare of 1976 , President Gerald Ford was confronted with a potential swine flu pandemic. The vaccination program was rushed, yet plagued by delays and public relations problems. Meanwhile, maximum military containment efforts succeeded unexpectedly in confining the new strain to the single army base where it had originated. On that base a number of soldiers fell severely ill, but only one died. The program was canceled, after about 24% of the population had received vaccinations. An excess in deaths of twenty-five over normal annual levels as well as 400 excess hospitalizations, both from Guillain–Barré syndrome , were estimated to have occurred from the vaccination program itself, illustrating that the vaccine itself is not free of risks. The result has been cited to stoke lingering doubts about vaccination. In the end, however, even the maligned 1976 vaccine may have saved lives. A 2010 study found a significantly enhanced immune response against the 2009 pandemic H1N1 in study participants who had received vaccination against the swine flu in 1976. Society and culture [ edit ] Evaluation of evidence [ edit ] Tom Jefferson , who has led Cochrane Collaboration reviews of flu vaccines, has called clinical evidence concerning flu vaccines "rubbish" and has therefore declared them to be ineffective; he has called for placebo-controlled randomized clinical trials. His views on clinical trials are considered unethical by mainstream medicine and his views on the efficacy of vaccines are rejected by medical institutions including the CDC and the National Institutes of Health , and by key figures in the field like Anthony Fauci . Michael Osterholm who has led the Center for Infectious Disease Research and Policy 2012 review on flu vaccines recommends getting the vaccine but criticizes its promotion "We have overpromoted and overhyped this vaccine...it does not protect as promoted. It's all a sales job: it's all public relations". Cost-effectiveness [ edit ] The cost-effectiveness of seasonal influenza vaccination has been widely evaluated for different groups and in different settings. In the elderly (aged over 65 years) the majority of published studies have found that vaccination is cost saving, with the cost savings associated with influenza vaccination (e.g. prevented health care visits) outweighing the cost of vaccination. In older adults (aged 50–64 years), several published studies have found that influenza vaccination is likely to be cost-effective, however the results of these studies were often found to be dependent on key assumptions used in the economic evaluations. The uncertainty in influenza cost-effectiveness models can partially be explained by the complexities involved in estimating the disease burden, as well as the seasonal variability in the circulating strains and the match of the vaccine. In healthy working adults (aged 18–49 years), a 2012 review found that vaccination was generally not cost-saving, with the suitability for funding being dependent on the willingness to pay to obtain the associated health benefits. In children, the majority of studies have found that influenza vaccination was cost-effective, however many of the studies included (indirect) productivity gains, which may not be given the same weight in all settings. Several studies have attempted to predict the cost-effectiveness of interventions (including prepandemic vaccination) to help protect against a future pandemic, however estimating the cost-effectiveness has been complicated by uncertainty as to the severity of a potential future pandemic and the efficacy of measures against it. Research [ edit ] Influenza research includes molecular virology , molecular evolution , pathogenesis , host immune responses , genomics , and epidemiology . These help in developing influenza countermeasures such as vaccines , therapies and diagnostic tools. Improved influenza countermeasures require basic research on how viruses enter cells, replicate, mutate, evolve into new strains and induce an immune response. The Influenza Genome Sequencing Project is creating a library of influenza sequences that will help us understand what makes one strain more lethal than another, what genetic determinants most affect immunogenicity , and how the virus evolves over time. Solutions to limitations in current [ when? ] vaccine methods are being researched. A different approach uses Internet content to estimate the impact of an influenza vaccination campaign. More specifically, researchers have used data from Twitter and Microsoft's Bing (search engine) , and proposed a statistical framework which, after a series of operations, maps this information to estimates of the influenza-like illness reduction percentage in areas, where vaccinations have been performed. The method has been used to quantify the impact of two flu vaccination programmes in England (2013/14 and 2014/15), where school-age children were administered a live attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV). Notably, the impact estimates were in accordance with estimations from Public Health England based on traditional syndromic surveillance endpoints. Rapid response to pandemic flu [ edit ] The rapid development, production, and distribution of pandemic influenza vaccines could potentially save millions of lives during an influenza pandemic. Due to the short time frame between identification of a pandemic strain and need for vaccination, researchers are looking at novel technologies for vaccine production that could provide better "real-time" access and be produced more affordably, thereby increasing access for people living in low- and moderate-income countries, where an influenza pandemic may likely originate, such as live attenuated (egg-based or cell-based ) technology and recombinant technologies (proteins and virus-like particles). As of July 2009, more than 70 known clinical trials have been completed or are ongoing for pandemic influenza vaccines. In September 2009, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved four vaccines against the 2009 H1N1 influenza virus (the 2009 pandemic strain), and expected the initial vaccine lots to be available within the following month. Quadrivalent vaccines for seasonal flu [ edit ] A quadrivalent flu vaccine administered by nasal mist was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in March 2012. Fluarix Quadrivalent was approved by the FDA in December 2012. Universal flu vaccines [ edit ] A " universal vaccine " that would not have to be designed and made for each flu season in each hemisphere would be useful, in order to stabilize the supply and to ensure against error in the design or escape of the circulating strains by mutation. Such a vaccine has been the subject of research for decades. One promising approach is using broadly neutralizing antibodies that unlike the vaccine used today, which provoke the body to generate an immune response, instead provide a component of the immune response itself. The first neutralizing antibodies were identified in 1993 via experimentation; with time researchers understood that the flu neutralizing antibodies were binding to the stalk of the Hemagglutinin protein ; later researchers identified antibodies that could bind to the head of those proteins. Later yet, researchers identified the highly conserved M2 proton channel as a potential target for broadly neutralizing antibodies. The challenges for researchers have been identifying single antibodies that could neutralize many subtypes of the virus, so that they could be useful in any season, and that target conserved domains that are resistant to antigenic drift . Another approach has been taking the conserved domains identified from these projects, and delivering groups of these antigens to provoke an immune response; various approaches with different antigens, presented different ways (as fusion proteins , mounted on virus-like particles , on non-pathogenic viruses, as DNA, and others), are under development. Efforts have also been undertaken to develop universal vaccines that specifically activate a T-cell response, based on clinical data showing that people with a strong, early T-cell response have better outcomes when infected with influenza and because T-cells respond to conserved epitopes. The challenge for developers is that these epitopes are on internal protein domains that are only mildly immunogenic. Along with the rest of the vaccine field, people working on universal vaccines have been experimenting with vaccine adjuvants to improve the ability of their vaccines to create a sufficiently powerful and enduring immune response. Veterinary use [ edit ] See also: Influenza A virus and Influenza § Infection in other animals "Vaccination in the veterinary world pursues four goals: (i) protection from clinical disease, (ii) protection from infection with virulent virus, (iii) protection from virus excretion, and (iv) serological differentiation of infected from vaccinated animals (so-called DIVA principle). In the field of influenza vaccination, neither commercially available nor experimentally tested vaccines have been shown so far to fulfill all of these requirements." Horses [ edit ] Horses with horse flu can run a fever, have a dry hacking cough, have a runny nose, and become depressed and reluctant to eat or drink for several days but usually recover in two to three weeks. "Vaccination schedules generally require a primary course of two doses, 3–6 weeks apart, followed by boosters at 6–12 month intervals. It is generally recognized that in many cases such schedules may not maintain protective levels of antibody and more frequent administration is advised in high-risk situations." It is a common requirement at shows in the United Kingdom that horses be vaccinated against equine flu and a vaccination card must be produced; the International Federation for Equestrian Sports (FEI) requires vaccination every six months. Poultry [ edit ] Poultry vaccines for bird flu are made inexpensively and are not filtered and purified like human vaccines to remove bits of bacteria or other viruses. They usually contain whole virus, not just hemagglutinin as in most human flu vaccines. Another difference between human and poultry vaccines is that poultry vaccines are adjuvated with mineral oil, which induces a strong immune reaction but can cause inflammation and abscesses. "Chicken vaccinators who have accidentally jabbed themselves have developed painful swollen fingers or even lost thumbs, doctors said. Effectiveness may also be limited. Chicken vaccines are often only vaguely similar to circulating flu strains — some contain an H5N2 strain isolated in Mexico years ago. 'With a chicken, if you use a vaccine that's only 85 percent related, you'll get protection,' Dr. Cardona said. 'In humans, you can get a single point mutation, and a vaccine that's 99.99 percent related won't protect you.' And they are weaker [than human vaccines]. 'Chickens are smaller and you only need to protect them for six weeks, because that's how long they live till you eat them,' said Dr. John J. Treanor, a vaccine expert at the University of Rochester. Human seasonal flu vaccines contain about 45 micrograms of antigen, while an experimental A( H5N1 ) vaccine contains 180. Chicken vaccines may contain less than one microgram. 'You have to be careful about extrapolating data from poultry to humans,' warned Dr. David E. Swayne, director of the agriculture department's Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory. 'Birds are more closely related to dinosaurs .'" Researchers, led by Nicholas Savill of the University of Edinburgh in Scotland, used mathematical models to simulate the spread of H5N1 and concluded that "at least 95 percent of birds need to be protected to prevent the virus spreading silently. In practice, it is difficult to protect more than 90 percent of a flock; protection levels achieved by a vaccine are usually much lower than this." The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations has issued recommendations on the prevention and control of avian influenza in poultry, including the use of vaccination. A filtered and purified Influenza A vaccine for humans is being developed [ when? ] and many countries have recommended it be stockpiled so if an Avian influenza pandemic starts jumping to humans, the vaccine can quickly be administered to avoid loss of life. Avian influenza is sometimes called avian flu, and commonly bird flu. Pigs [ edit ] Swine influenza vaccines are extensively used in pig farming in Europe and North America. Most swine flu vaccines include an H1N1 and an H3N2 strain. Swine influenza has been recognized as a major problem since the outbreak in 1976 . Evolution of the virus has resulted in inconsistent responses to traditional vaccines. Standard commercial swine flu vaccines are effective in controlling the problem when the virus strains match enough to have significant cross-protection. Customised (autogenous) vaccines made from the specific viruses isolated, are made and used in the more difficult cases. The vaccine manufacturer Novartis claims that the H3N2 strain (first identified in 1998) has brought major losses to pig farmers. Abortion storms are a common sign and sows stop eating for a few days and run a high fever. The mortality rate can be as high as 15 percent. Dogs [ edit ] In 2004, influenza A virus subtype H3N8 was discovered to cause canine influenza . Because of the lack of previous exposure to this virus, dogs have no natural immunity to this virus. However, a vaccine is now [ when? ] available. Notes [ edit ] References [ edit ] External links [ edit ] PATH's Vaccine Resource Library influenza resources CDC Inactivated Influenza Vaccine Information Statement Vaccines and Preventable Diseases – Seasonal Influenza (Flu) Vaccination Misconceptions about Seasonal Influenza and Influenza Vaccines

train

when did the flu shot first come out

Vaccination against influenza began in the 1930s with large scale availability in the United States beginning in 1945. It is on the World Health Organization 's List of Essential Medicines, the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system. The wholesale price in the developing world is about $5.25 USD per dose as of 2014. In the United States, it costs less than $25 USD as of 2015.

['cell nucleus']

ìgbà wo ni abẹ́rẹ́ àjẹsára fáírọ́ọ̀sì ti kọ́kọ́ jáde

Yes

['Gbígba àjẹsára fún ààbò lọ́wọ́ ọ̀fìnkì bẹ̀rẹ̀ ní àwọn ọdún 1930, nígbàtí wíwà fún lílò gbogbogbò ní ilẹ̀ Amẹ́ríkà bẹ̀rẹ̀ ní ọdún 1945. Ó wà lórí Àkójọ Àwọn Egbògi Kòṣeémáàní ti Àjọ Ìlera Àgbáyé, àwọn òògùn tó ṣe pàtàkì jùlọ tí a nílò fún ètò ìlera\xa0ìbẹ̀rẹ̀pẹ̀pẹ̀ yòówù. Iye owó rẹ̀ lójú pálí jẹ́ bíi 5.25 USD fún ìwọ̀n egbògi náà kanṣoṣo ní ọdún 2014. Ní ilẹ̀ Amẹ́ríkà iye owó rẹ̀ kò tó 25 USD.']

[]

['P4']

Àj?sára ??fìnkì Àj?sára ??fìnkì, tí a tún m?? sí àb??r?? ??fìnkì, j?? àj?sára tí ? dáàbò bo ni l??w?? ??fìnkì.[1] A má a ? ?e àgbéjáde ??yà àj?sára náà titun l????mejì l??dún nítorí tí kòkòrò àrùn àìlèfojúrí afàìsàn ??fìnkì a má a paradà kíákíá.[1] ??p??l?p?? w?n a má a pèsè ààbò tó m? níw??n àti èyí tó lágbára púp?? fúnni l??w?? ??fìnkì; ?ùgb??n, èyí a má a yàt?? láti ?dún dé ?dún.[2][1] ??rí i??? r?? lára àgbàlagbà tí ?j??-orí r?? ti ju ?dún 65 l? kò fi b???? w??p??.[3][4] W?n a má a dín iye ?j?? tí àw?n ènìyàn kò fi níí lè l? sí ibi-i??? kù sí bíi ìdajì ?j?? bí a bá wòó lápap??.[5] Fífún àw?n ?m?dé ní àj?sára lè dáàbò bo àw?n ?lòmíràn tó wà ní àyíká w?n.[1] Àti Àj? Ìlera Àgbáyé àti Ilé-i??? Ì?àkóso àti Ìdènà Àrùn ni ó gba ni níyànjú pé kí gbogbo ?nití ?j??-orí r?? bá ti ju o?ù 6 l? má a gba àj?sára náà l??d??dún.[1][6] Èyí ?e pàtàkì púp?? pàápàá jùl? fún àw?n obìrin tó ní oyún, àw?n ?m?dé tí ?j??-orí w?n j?? bí o?ù m??fá sí ?dún máàrún, àw?n tó ní ì?òrò yòówù nípa ìlera w?n, Àw?n ?m? Abínibí Am??ríkà, àti àw?n ò?ì??? ìlera.[1][7] Àw?n àj?sára náà kò léwu láti lò. Ní àárín àw?n ?m?dé ibà a má a wáyé láàárín iye àw?n ?m? tó tó ìw??n 5 sí 10 nínú ?g????rún, b???? sì ni ìrora nínú ?ran-ara, àti àár?? náà lè wáyé. Ní àw?n ?dún mìíràn, láàárín àw?n àgbàlagbà, àj?sára náà a má a fa àìsàn tí à n pè ní Guillain Barre syndrome ní ìw??n egbògi náà kan nínú mílí??nù kan. A kò gb?d?? lòó fún àw?n tó ní ìfèsì ara ?ni l??nà tó burú púp?? sí ?yin tàbí sí orí?i àj?sára náà àtij??. W?n a má a wá bíi orí?i tí a fi kòkòrò afàìsàn àìlèfojúrí tí a ti pa ?e, àti bíi orí?i tí a fi kòkòrò afàìsàn náà ti a ti s? di aláìlágbára ?e. Orí?i tí a fi kòkòrò afàìsàn tí a ti pa ?e ni a gb??d?? lò fún àw?n aboyún. W?n a má a wá bíi orí?i tí à ? gún bí ab??r?? sínú ?ran-ara ?ni tàbí bíi orí?i tí à ? fún sínú imú ?ni.[1] Gbígba àj?sára fún ààbò l??w?? ??fìnkì b??r?? ní àw?n ?dún 1930, nígbàtí wíwà fún lílò gbogbogbò ní il?? Am??ríkà b??r?? ní ?dún 1945.[8][9] Ó wà lórí Àkój? Àw?n Egbògi Kò?eémáàní ti Àj? Ìlera Àgbáyé, àw?n òògùn tó ?e pàtàkì jùl? tí a nílò fún ètò ìlera ìb??r??p??p?? yòówù.[10] Iye owó r?? lójú pálí j?? bíi 5.25 USD fún ìw??n egbògi náà kan?o?o ní ?dún 2014.[11] Ní il?? Am??ríkà iye owó r?? kò tó 25 USD.[12]

Influenza vaccine U.S. Navy crew member receiving an influenza vaccination Vaccine description Target disease influenza virus Type inactivated, attenuated Clinical data Trade names Fluarix, Fluzone, other AHFS / Drugs.com Monograph Pregnancy category US : C (Risk not ruled out) Routes of administration IM , intranasal, intradermal ATC code J07BB01 ( WHO ) Legal status Legal status US : ℞-only Identifiers ChemSpider none Influenza vaccines , also known as flu shots or flu jabs , are vaccines that protect against infection by influenza viruses. A new version of the vaccine is developed twice a year, as the influenza virus rapidly changes. While their effectiveness varies from year to year, most provide modest to high protection against influenza. The United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimates that vaccination against influenza reduces sickness, medical visits, hospitalizations, and deaths. When an immunized worker does catch the flu, they are on average back at work a half day sooner. Vaccine effectiveness in those under two years old and over 65 years old remains unknown due to the low quality of the research. Vaccinating children may protect those around them. The World Health Organization (WHO) and the CDC recommend yearly vaccination for nearly all people over the age of six months, especially those at high risk. The European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control also recommends yearly vaccination of high risk groups. These groups include pregnant women, the elderly, children between six months and five years of age, those with other health problems, and those who work in healthcare. The vaccines are generally safe. Fever occurs in five to ten percent of children vaccinated. Temporary muscle pains or feelings of tiredness may occur as well. In certain years, the vaccine has been linked to an increase in Guillain–Barré syndrome among older people at a rate of about one case per million doses. It should not be given to those with severe allergies to previous versions of the vaccine. Although most influenza vaccines are produced using egg-based techniques, influenza vaccines are nonetheless recommended for people with egg allergies , even if severe. The vaccines come in both inactive and weakened viral forms. The inactive version should be used for those who are pregnant. They come in forms that are injected into a muscle , sprayed into the nose , or injected into the middle layer of the skin . Vaccination against influenza began in the 1930s with large scale availability in the United States beginning in 1945. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines , the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system . The wholesale price in the developing world is about $5.25 USD per dose as of 2014. In the United States, it costs less than $25 USD as of 2015. Contents 1 Medical uses 1.1 Effectiveness 1.1.1 Criticism 1.2 Children 1.3 Adults 1.4 Elderly 1.5 Pregnancy 2 Safety 2.1 Guillain–Barré syndrome 2.2 Egg allergy 2.3 Other 3 Injection versus nasal spray 4 Recommendations 4.1 World Health Organization 4.2 Canada 4.3 Europe 4.4 United States 5 Uptake 5.1 At risk groups 5.2 Healthcare workers 6 Manufacturing 6.1 Annual reformulation 6.2 2017 Southern Hemisphere influenza season 6.3 2017–2018 Northern Hemisphere influenza season 6.4 2018 Southern Hemisphere influenza season 6.5 2018–2019 Northern Hemisphere influenza season 7 History 7.1 Origins and development 7.2 Acceptance 8 Cost-effectiveness 9 Research 9.1 Rapid response to pandemic flu 9.2 Quadrivalent vaccines for seasonal flu 9.3 Universal flu vaccines 10 Veterinary use 10.1 Horses 10.2 Poultry 10.3 Pigs 10.4 Dogs 11 Notes 12 References 13 External links Medical uses [ edit ] The CDC recommends the flu vaccine as the best way to protect people against the flu and prevent its spread. The flu vaccine can also reduce the severity of the flu if a person contracts a flu strain that the vaccine did not contain. It takes about two weeks following vaccination for protective antibodies to form. A 2012 meta-analysis found that flu vaccination was effective 67 percent of the time; the populations that benefited the most were HIV-positive adults ages 18 to 55 (76 percent), healthy adults ages 18 to 46 (approximately 70 percent), and healthy children ages six to 24 months (66 percent). Effectiveness [ edit ] U.S. vaccine effectiveness by start year: 2004 10% 2005 21% 2006 52% 2007 37% 2008 41% 2009 56% 2010 60% 2011 47% 2012 49% 2013 52% 2014 19% 2015 48% 2016 40% 2017 36% A vaccine is assessed by its efficacy ; the extent to which it reduces risk of disease under controlled conditions, and its effectiveness , the observed reduction in risk after the vaccine is put into use. In the case of influenza, effectiveness is expected to be lower than the efficacy because it is measured using the rates of influenza-like illness , which is not always caused by influenza. Influenza vaccines generally show high efficacy, as measured by the antibody production in animal models or vaccinated people. However, studies on the effectiveness of flu vaccines in the real world are difficult; vaccines may be imperfectly matched, virus prevalence varies widely between years, and influenza is often confused with other influenza-like illnesses. However, in most years (16 of the 19 years before 2007), the flu vaccine strains have been a good match for the circulating strains, and even a mismatched vaccine can often provide cross-protection. Trials of both live and inactivated influenza vaccines against seasonal influenza have been summarized in several meta-analyses. Studies on live vaccines have very limited data, but these preparations may be more effective than inactivated vaccines . The meta-analyses examined the efficacy and effectiveness of inactivated vaccines against seasonal influenza in adults, children, and the elderly. Criticism [ edit ] Tom Jefferson , who has led Cochrane Collaboration reviews of flu vaccines, has called clinical evidence concerning flu vaccines "rubbish" and has therefore declared them to be ineffective; he has called for placebo-controlled randomized clinical trials, which most in the field hold as unethical. His views on the efficacy of flu vaccines are rejected by medical institutions including the CDC and the National Institutes of Health , and by key figures in the field like Anthony Fauci . Michael Osterholm , who has led the Center for Infectious Disease Research and Policy 2012 review on flu vaccines, recommended getting the vaccine but criticized its promotion, saying, "We have overpromoted and overhyped this vaccine...it does not protect as promoted. It's all a sales job: it's all public relations". Children [ edit ] The CDC recommend that everyone except infants under the age of six months should receive the seasonal influenza vaccine. Vaccination campaigns usually focus special attention on people who are at high risk of serious complications if they catch the flu, such as pregnant women, children over six months, the elderly, and people with chronic illnesses or weakened immune systems , as well as those to whom they are exposed, such as health care workers. As the death rate is also high among infants who catch influenza, the household contacts and caregivers of infants should be vaccinated to reduce the risk of passing an influenza infection to the infant. In children, vaccines again showed high efficacy, but low effectiveness in preventing "flu-like illness". In children under the age of two, the data are extremely limited, but vaccination appeared to confer no measurable benefit. During the 2017–18 flu season, the CDC director indicated that 85 percent of the children who died "likely will not have been vaccinated." Adults [ edit ] In unvaccinated adults, 16% get symptoms similar to the flu, while about 10% of vaccinated adults do. Vaccination decreased confirmed cases of influenza from about 2.4% to 1.1%. No effect on hospitalization was found. In working adults a review by the Cochrane Collaboration found that vaccination resulted in a modest decrease in both influenza symptoms and working days lost, without affecting transmission or influenza-related complications. [ needs update ] In healthy working adults, influenza vaccines can provide moderate protection against virologically confirmed influenza, though such protection is greatly reduced or absent in some seasons. In health care workers, a 2006 review found a net benefit. Of the eighteen studies in this review, only two also assessed the relationship of patient mortality relative to staff influenza vaccine uptake; both found that higher rates of health care worker vaccination correlated with reduced patient deaths. A 2014 review found benefits to patients when health care workers were immunized, as supported by moderate evidence based in part on the observed reduction in all-cause deaths in patients whose health care workers were given immunization compared with comparison patients in which the health care workers were not offered vaccine. Elderly [ edit ] Evidence for an effect in adults over 65 years old is unclear. Systematic reviews examining both randomized controlled and case–control studies found a lack of high-quality evidence. Reviews of case–control studies found effects against laboratory-confirmed influenza, pneumonia , and death among the community-dwelling elderly. The group most vulnerable to non-pandemic flu, the elderly, benefits least from the vaccine. There are multiple reasons behind this steep decline in vaccine efficacy, the most common of which are the declining immunological function and frailty associated with advanced age. In a non-pandemic year, a person in the United States aged 50–64 is nearly ten times more likely to die an influenza-associated death than a younger person, and a person over age 65 is over ten times more likely to die an influenza-associated death than the 50–64 age group. There is a high-dose flu vaccine specifically formulated to provide a stronger immune response. Available evidence indicates that vaccinating the elderly with the high-dose vaccine leads to a stronger immune response against influenza than the regular-dose vaccine. A flu vaccine containing an adjuvant was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in November 2015, for use by adults aged 65 years of age and older. The vaccine is marketed as Fluad in the U.S. and was first available in the 2016–2017 flu season. The vaccine contains the MF59C.1 adjuvant which is an oil-in-water emulsion of squalene oil. It is the first adjuvanted seasonal flu vaccine marketed in the United States. It is not clear if there is a significant benefit for the elderly to use a flu vaccine containing the MF59C.1 adjuvant. Per Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices guidelines, Fluad can be used as an alternative to other influenza vaccines approved for people 65 years and older. Vaccinating health care workers who work with elderly people is recommended in many countries, with the goal of reducing influenza outbreaks in this vulnerable population. While there is no conclusive evidence from randomized clinical trials that vaccinating health care workers helps protect the elderly people from influenza, there is tentative evidence of benefit. Pregnancy [ edit ] As well as protecting mother and child from the effects of an influenza infection, the immunization of pregnant women tends to increase their chances of experiencing a successful full-term pregnancy. The trivalent inactivated influenza vaccine is protective in pregnant women infected with HIV . Safety [ edit ] See also: Vaccine controversies While side effects of the flu vaccine may occur, they are usually minor. The flu vaccine can cause serious side effects, including an allergic reaction , but this is rare. Furthermore, the common side effects and risks are mild and temporary when compared to the risks and severe health effects of the annual influenza epidemic. Flu vaccination may lead to side effects such as runny nose and sore throat, which can last for up to several days. Guillain–Barré syndrome [ edit ] Although Guillain–Barré syndrome had been feared as a complication of vaccination, the CDC states that most studies on modern influenza vaccines have seen no link with Guillain–Barré. Infection with influenza virus itself increases both the risk of death (up to 1 in 10,000) and increases the risk of developing Guillain–Barré syndrome to a far higher level than the highest level of suspected vaccine involvement (approximately 10 times higher by 2009 estimates). Although one review gives an incidence of about one case of Guillain–Barré per million vaccinations, a large study in China, covering close to 100 million doses of vaccine against the 2009 H1N1 "swine" flu found only eleven cases of Guillain–Barré syndrome , (0.1 per million doses) total incidence in persons vaccinated, actually lower than the normal rate of the disease in China, and no other notable side effects. Egg allergy [ edit ] Although most influenza vaccines are produced using egg-based techniques, influenza vaccines are nonetheless recommended for people with egg allergies , even if severe. Studies examining the safety of influenza vaccines in people with severe egg allergies found that anaphylaxis was very rare, occurring in 1.3 cases per million doses given. Monitoring for symptoms from vaccination is recommended in those with more severe symptoms. A study of nearly 800 children with egg allergy, including over 250 with previous anaphylactic reactions, had zero systemic allergic reactions when given the live attenuated flu vaccine. Other [ edit ] Several studies have identified an increased incidence of narcolepsy among recipients of the pandemic H1N1 influenza ASO3-adjuvanted vaccine; efforts to identify a mechanism for this suggest that narcolepsy is autoimmune, and that the ASO3-adjuvanted H1N1 vaccine may mimic hypocretin, serving as a trigger. Some injection-based flu vaccines intended for adults in the United States contain thiomersal (also known as thimerosal), a mercury -based preservative. Despite some controversy in the media, the World Health Organization 's Global Advisory Committee on Vaccine Safety has concluded that there is no evidence of toxicity from thiomersal in vaccines and no reason on grounds of safety to change to more-expensive single-dose administration. Injection versus nasal spray [ edit ] Flu vaccines are available either as: a trivalent or quadrivalent intramuscular injection (IIV3 or IIV4, that is, TIV or QIV), which contains the inactivated form of the virus a nasal spray of live attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV, Q/LAIV), which contains the live but attenuated (weakened) form of the virus. TIV or QIV induce protection after injection (typically intramuscular, though subcutaneous and intradermal routes can also be protective) based on an immune response to the antigens present on the inactivated virus, while cold-adapted LAIV works by establishing infection in the nasal passages. Recommendations [ edit ] Various public health organizations, including the World Health Organization, have recommended that yearly influenza vaccination be routinely offered, particularly to people at risk of complications of influenza and those individuals who live with or care for high-risk individuals, including: the elderly (UK recommendation is those aged 65 or above) people with chronic lung diseases ( asthma , COPD , etc.) people with chronic heart diseases ( congenital heart disease , chronic heart failure , ischaemic heart disease ) people with chronic liver diseases (including cirrhosis ) people with chronic kidney diseases (such as the nephrotic syndrome ) people who are immunosuppressed (those with HIV or who are receiving drugs to suppress the immune system such as chemotherapy and long-term steroids ) and their household contacts people who live together in large numbers in an environment where influenza can spread rapidly, such as prisons, nursing homes, schools, and dormitories. healthcare workers (both to prevent sickness and to prevent spread to patients) pregnant women. However, a 2009 review concluded that there was insufficient evidence to recommend routine use of trivalent influenza vaccine during the first trimester of pregnancy. Influenza vaccination during flu season is part of recommendations for influenza vaccination of pregnant women in the United States . Both types of flu vaccines are contraindicated for those with severe allergies to egg proteins and people with a history of Guillain–Barré syndrome . World Health Organization [ edit ] As of 2016 [update] , the World Health Organization recommends seasonal influenza vaccination for: Highest priority: Pregnant women Priority (in no particular order): Children aged 6–59 months Elderly Individuals with specific chronic medical conditions Health-care workers Canada [ edit ] In 2008, the National Advisory Committee on Immunization, the group that advises the Public Health Agency of Canada , recommended that everyone aged two to 64 years be encouraged to receive annual influenza vaccination, and that children between the age of six and 24 months, and their household contacts, should be considered a high priority for the flu vaccine. The NACI also recommends the flu vaccine for: People at high risk of influenza-related complications or hospitalization, including the morbidly obese, healthy pregnant women, children six to 59 months, the elderly, aboriginals, and people suffering from one of an itemized list of chronic health conditions People capable of transmitting influenza to those at high risk, including household contacts and healthcare workers People who provide essential community services Certain poultry workers Europe [ edit ] The European Center for Disease Prevention and Control recommends vaccinating the elderly as a priority, with a secondary priority people with chronic medical conditions and healthcare workers. The influenza vaccination strategy is generally that of protecting vulnerable people, rather than limiting influenza circulation or totally eliminating human influenza sickness. This is in contrast with the high herd immunity strategies for other infectious diseases such as polio and measles . This is also due in part to the financial and logistics burden associated with the need of an annual injection. United States [ edit ] A young woman displays her bandage after receiving the vaccine at a drug store In the United States routine influenza vaccination is recommended for all persons aged ≥ 6 months. It takes up to two weeks after vaccination for sufficient antibodies to develop in the body. The CDC recommends vaccination before the end of October. However, getting a vaccine in January or even later is still beneficial. According to the CDC, the live attenuated virus (which comes in the form of the nasal spray in the US) should be avoided by: Children younger than two years Adults 50 years and older People with a history of severe allergic reaction to any component of the vaccine or to a previous dose of any influenza vaccine People with asthma Children or adolescents on long-term aspirin treatment. Children and adults who have chronic pulmonary, cardiovascular (except isolated hypertension), renal, hepatic, neurologic/neuromuscular, hematologic, or metabolic disorders Children and adults who have immunosuppression (including immunosuppression caused by medications or by HIV) Pregnant women Within its blanket recommendation for general vaccination in the United States, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), which began recommending the influenza vaccine to health care workers in 1981, emphasizes to clinicians the special urgency of vaccination for members of certain vulnerable groups, and their caregivers : Vaccination is especially important for people at higher risk of serious influenza complications or people who live with or care for people at higher risk for serious complications. In 2009, a new high-dose formulation of the standard influenza vaccine was approved. The Fluzone High Dose is specifically for people 65 and older; the difference is that it has four times the antigen dose of the standard Fluzone. The U.S. government requires hospitals to report worker vaccination rates. Some U.S. states and hundreds of U.S. hospitals require health-care workers to either get vaccinations or wear masks during flu season. These requirements occasionally engender union lawsuits on narrow collective bargaining grounds, but proponents note that courts have generally endorsed forced vaccination laws affecting the general population during disease outbreaks. Vaccination against influenza is especially important for members of high-risk groups who would be likely to have complications from influenza, for example pregnant women and children and teenagers from six months to 18 years of age; In raising the upper age limit to 18 years, the aim is to reduce both the time children and parents lose from visits to pediatricians and missing school and the need for antibiotics for complications An added benefit expected from the vaccination of children is a reduction in the number of influenza cases among parents and other household members, and of possible spread to the general community. In the USA: The CDC has indicated that live attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV), also called the nasal spray vaccine, is not recommended for the 2016–2017 flu season, in the United States. Furthermore, health care personnel who care for severely immunocompromised persons should receive injections (TIV or QIV) rather than LAIV. Uptake [ edit ] At risk groups [ edit ] Uptake of flu vaccination, both seasonally and during pandemics, is often low. Systematic reviews of pandemic flu vaccination uptake have identified several personal factors that may influence uptake, including gender (higher uptake in men), ethnicity (higher in people from ethnic minorities) and having a chronic illness. Beliefs in the safety and effectiveness of the vaccine are also important. Healthcare workers [ edit ] Frontline healthcare workers are often recommended to get seasonal and any pandemic flu vaccination. For example, in the UK all healthcare workers involved in patient care are recommended to receive the seasonal flu vaccine, and were also recommended to be vaccinated against the H1N1/09 (later renamed A(H1N1)pdm09 ) swine flu virus during the 2009 pandemic . However, uptake is often low. During the 2009 pandemic, low uptake by healthcare workers was seen in countries including the UK, Italy, Greece, and Hong Kong. In a 2010 survey of United States healthcare workers, 63.5% reported that they received the flu vaccine during the 2010–11 season, an increase from 61.9% reported the previous season. US Health professionals with direct patient contact had higher vaccination uptake, such as physicians and dentists (84.2%) and nurse practitioners (82.6%). The main reason to vaccinate healthcare workers is to prevent staff from spreading flu to their patients and to reduce staff absence at a time of high service demand, but the reasons healthcare workers state for their decisions to accept or decline vaccination may more often be to do with perceived personal benefits. In Victoria (Australia) public hospitals, rates of healthcare worker vaccination in 2005 ranged from 34% for non-clinical staff to 42% for laboratory staff. One of the reasons for rejecting vaccines was concern over adverse reactions; in one study, 31% of resident physicians at a teaching hospital incorrectly believed Australian vaccines could cause influenza. Manufacturing [ edit ] Schematic of influenza vaccine creation Flu vaccine is usually grown by vaccine manufacturers in fertilized chicken eggs. In the Northern hemisphere, the manufacturing process begins following the announcement (typically in February) of the WHO recommended strains for the winter flu season. Three strains (representing an H1N1, an H3N2, and a B strain) of flu are selected and chicken eggs inoculated separately. These monovalent harvests are then combined to make the trivalent vaccine. Avian flu vaccine development by reverse genetics technique As of November 2007 [update] , both the conventional injection and the nasal spray are manufactured using chicken eggs. The European Union has also approved Optaflu , a vaccine produced by Novartis using vats of animal cells. This technique is expected to be more scalable and avoid problems with eggs, such as allergic reactions and incompatibility with strains that affect avians like chickens. Research continues into the idea of a "universal" influenza vaccine that would not require tailoring to a particular strain, but would be effective against a broad variety of influenza viruses. However, no vaccine candidates had been announced by Nov 2007. A DNA-based vaccination, which is hoped to be even faster to manufacture, is as of 2011 in clinical trials, determining safety and efficacy. On November 20, 2012, Novartis received FDA approval for the first cell-culture vaccine. In a 2007 report, the global capacity of approximately 826 million seasonal influenza vaccine doses (inactivated and live) was double the production of 413 million doses. In an aggressive scenario of producing pandemic influenza vaccines by 2013, only 2.8 billion courses could be produced in a six-month time frame. If all high- and upper-middle-income countries sought vaccines for their entire populations in a pandemic, nearly 2 billion courses would be required. If China pursued this goal as well, more than 3 billion courses would be required to serve these populations. Vaccine research and development is ongoing to identify novel vaccine approaches that could produce much greater quantities of vaccine at a price that is affordable to the global population. Methods of vaccine generation that bypass the need for eggs include the construction of influenza virus-like particles (VLP). VLP resemble viruses, but there is no need for inactivation, as they do not include viral coding elements, but merely present antigens in a similar manner to a virion. Some methods of producing VLP include cultures of Spodoptera frugiperda Sf9 insect cells and plant-based vaccine production (e.g., production in Nicotiana benthamiana ). There is evidence that some VLPs elicit antibodies that recognize a broader panel of antigenically distinct viral isolates compared to other vaccines in the hemagglutination-inhibition assay (HIA). Influenza vaccines are produced in pathogen-free eggs that are 11 to 12 days old. The top of the egg is disinfected by wiping it with alcohol and then the egg is candled to identify a non-veinous area in the allantoic cavity where a small hole is poked to serve as a pressure release. A second hole is made at the top of the egg, where the influenza virus is injected in the allantoic cavity, past the chorioallantoic membrane. The two holes are then sealed with melted paraffin and the inoculated eggs are incubated for 48 hours at 37 degrees Celsius. During incubation time, the virus replicates and newly replicated viruses are released into the allantoic fluid After the 48 hour incubation period, the top of the egg is cracked and the 10 milliliters of allantoic fluid is removed, from which about 15 micrograms of the flu vaccine can be obtained. At this point, the viruses have been weakened or killed and the viral antigen is purified and placed inside vials, syringes, or nasal sprayers. Done on a large scale, this method is used to produce the flu vaccine for the human population. Annual reformulation [ edit ] Further information: Historical annual reformulations of the influenza vaccine See also: 2009 flu pandemic vaccine Each year, three strains are chosen for selection in that year's flu vaccination by the WHO Global Influenza Surveillance Network . The chosen strains are the H1N1, H3N2, and Type-B strains thought most likely to cause significant human suffering in the coming season. Starting with the 2012–2013 Northern Hemisphere influenza season (coincident with the approval of quadrivalent influenza vaccines), the WHO has also recommended a 2nd B-strain for use in quadrivalent vaccines. The World Health Organization coordinates the contents of the vaccine each year to contain the most likely strains of the virus to attack the next year. "The WHO Global Influenza Surveillance Network was established in 1952. The network comprises four WHO Collaborating Centres (WHO CCs) and 112 institutions in 83 countries, which are recognized by WHO as WHO National Influenza Centres (NICs). These NICs collect specimens in their country, perform primary virus isolation and preliminary antigenic characterization. They ship newly isolated strains to WHO CCs for high level antigenic and genetic analysis, the result of which forms the basis for WHO recommendations on the composition of influenza vaccine for the Northern and Southern Hemisphere each year." The Global Influenza Surveillance Network 's selection of viruses for the vaccine manufacturing process is based on its best estimate of which strains will predominate the next year, amounting in the end to well-informed but fallible guesswork. Formal WHO recommendations were first issued in 1973. Beginning in 1999 there have been two recommendations per year: one for the northern hemisphere (N) and the other for the southern hemisphere (S). Historical annual reformulations of the influenza vaccine are listed in a separate article. Recent [update] WHO seasonal influenza vaccine composition recommendations: 2017 Southern Hemisphere influenza season [ edit ] The composition of virus vaccines for use in the 2017 Southern Hemisphere influenza season recommended by the World Health Organisation on September 29, 2016 was: an A/Michigan/45/2015 (H1N1)pdm09-like virus an A/Hong Kong/4801/2014 (H3N2)-like virus a B/Brisbane/60/2008-like virus WHO recommended that quadrivalent vaccines containing two influenza B viruses should contain the above three viruses and a B/Phuket/3073/2013-like virus. The Southern Hemisphere experienced "poor vaccine effectiveness" against H3N2 this season. 2017–2018 Northern Hemisphere influenza season [ edit ] The composition of trivalent virus vaccines for use in the 2017–2018 Northern Hemisphere influenza season recommended by the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices on August 25, 2017 was: an A/Michigan/45/2015 (H1N1)pdm09–like virus an A/Hong Kong/4801/2014 (H3N2)-like virus a B/Brisbane/60/2008–like virus (Victoria lineage) In addition to these components, quadrivalent vaccines will also include a B/Phuket/3073/2013–like virus (Yamagata lineage). In California, some emergency systems were strained by a spike in H3N2 flu cases. In addition, some areas experienced local shortages of oseltamivir . The severity of the flu season seemed somewhat comparable to the 2009–10 swine flu outbreak. A February 2018 CDC interim report estimated the vaccine effectiveness to be 25% against H3N2, 67% against H1N1, and 42% against influenza B. 2018 Southern Hemisphere influenza season [ edit ] The composition of virus vaccines for use in the 2018 Southern Hemisphere influenza season recommended by the World Health Organisation on September 28, 2017 was: an A/Michigan/45/2015 (H1N1)pdm09-like virus an A/Singapore/INFIMH-16-0019/2016 (H3N2)-like virus a B/Phuket/3073/2013-like virus WHO recommended that quadrivalent vaccines containing two influenza B viruses should contain the above three viruses and a B/Brisbane/60/2008-like virus. 2018–2019 Northern Hemisphere influenza season [ edit ] The composition of virus vaccines for use in the 2018–2019 Northern Hemisphere influenza season recommended by the World Health Organisation on February 22, 2018 was: an A/Michigan/45/2015 (H1N1)pdm09-like virus an A/Singapore/INFIMH-16-0019/2016 (H3N2)-like virus a B/Colorado/06/2017-like virus (B/Victoria/2/87 lineage) a B/Phuket/3073/2013-like virus (B/Yamagata/16/88 lineage) WHO recommended that trivalent vaccines use as their influenza B virus a B/Colorado/06/2017-like virus of the B/Victoria/2/87-lineage. History [ edit ] See also: Timeline of vaccines Vaccines are used in both humans and nonhumans. Human vaccine is meant unless specifically identified as a veterinary, poultry or livestock vaccine. Origins and development [ edit ] In the worldwide Spanish flu pandemic of 1918, "Physicians tried everything they knew, everything they had ever heard of, from the ancient art of bleeding patients, to administering oxygen, to developing new vaccines and sera (chiefly against what we now call Hemophilus influenzae —a name derived from the fact that it was originally considered the etiological agent—and several types of pneumococci). Only one therapeutic measure, transfusing blood from recovered patients to new victims, showed any hint of success." In 1931, viral growth in embryonated hens' eggs was reported by Ernest William Goodpasture and colleagues at Vanderbilt University . The work was extended to growth of influenza virus by several workers, including Thomas Francis , Jonas Salk , Wilson Smith and Macfarlane Burnet , leading to the first experimental influenza vaccines. In the 1940s, the US military developed the first approved inactivated vaccines for influenza, which were used in the Second World War. Hen's eggs continued to be used to produce virus used in influenza vaccines, but manufacturers made improvements in the purity of the virus by developing improved processes to remove egg proteins and to reduce systemic reactivity of the vaccine. Recently, [ when? ] the US FDA approved influenza vaccines made by growing virus in cell cultures and influenza vaccines made from recombinant proteins have been approved, with plant-based influenza vaccines being tested in clinical trials. Acceptance [ edit ] According to the CDC: "Influenza vaccination is the primary method for preventing influenza and its severe complications. [...] Vaccination is associated with reductions in influenza-related respiratory illness and physician visits among all age groups, hospitalization and death among persons at high risk, otitis media among children, and work absenteeism among adults. Although influenza vaccination levels increased substantially during the 1990s, further improvements in vaccine coverage levels are needed". The egg-based technology (still in use as of 2005) for producing influenza vaccine was created in the 1950s. In the U.S. swine flu scare of 1976 , President Gerald Ford was confronted with a potential swine flu pandemic. The vaccination program was rushed, yet plagued by delays and public relations problems. Meanwhile, maximum military containment efforts succeeded unexpectedly in confining the new strain to the single army base where it had originated. On that base a number of soldiers fell severely ill, but only one died. The program was canceled, after about 24% of the population had received vaccinations. An excess in deaths of twenty-five over normal annual levels as well as 400 excess hospitalizations, both from Guillain–Barré syndrome , were estimated to have occurred from the vaccination program itself, illustrating that the vaccine itself is not free of risks. The result has been cited to stoke lingering doubts about vaccination. In the end, however, even the maligned 1976 vaccine may have saved lives. A 2010 study found a significantly enhanced immune response against the 2009 pandemic H1N1 in study participants who had received vaccination against the swine flu in 1976. Cost-effectiveness [ edit ] The cost-effectiveness of seasonal influenza vaccination has been widely evaluated for different groups and in different settings. In the elderly (aged over 65 years) the majority of published studies have found that vaccination is cost saving, with the cost savings associated with influenza vaccination (e.g. prevented health care visits) outweighing the cost of vaccination. In older adults (aged 50–64 years), several published studies have found that influenza vaccination is likely to be cost-effective, however the results of these studies were often found to be dependent on key assumptions used in the economic evaluations. The uncertainty in influenza cost-effectiveness models can partially be explained by the complexities involved in estimating the disease burden, as well as the seasonal variability in the circulating strains and the match of the vaccine. In healthy working adults (aged 18–49 years), a 2012 review found that vaccination was generally not cost-saving, with the suitability for funding being dependent on the willingness to pay to obtain the associated health benefits. In children, the majority of studies have found that influenza vaccination was cost-effective, however many of the studies included (indirect) productivity gains, which may not be given the same weight in all settings. Several studies have attempted to predict the cost-effectiveness of interventions (including prepandemic vaccination) to help protect against a future pandemic, however estimating the cost-effectiveness has been complicated by uncertainty as to the severity of a potential future pandemic and the efficacy of measures against it. Research [ edit ] Influenza research includes molecular virology , molecular evolution , pathogenesis , host immune responses , genomics , and epidemiology . These help in developing influenza countermeasures such as vaccines , therapies and diagnostic tools. Improved influenza countermeasures require basic research on how viruses enter cells, replicate, mutate, evolve into new strains and induce an immune response. The Influenza Genome Sequencing Project is creating a library of influenza sequences that will help us understand what makes one strain more lethal than another, what genetic determinants most affect immunogenicity , and how the virus evolves over time. Solutions to limitations in current [ when? ] vaccine methods are being researched. A different approach uses Internet content to estimate the impact of an influenza vaccination campaign. More specifically, researchers have used data from Twitter and Microsoft's Bing search engine , and proposed a statistical framework which, after a series of operations, maps this information to estimates of the influenza-like illness reduction percentage in areas where vaccinations have been performed. The method has been used to quantify the impact of two flu vaccination programmes in England (2013/14 and 2014/15), where school-age children were administered a live attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV). Notably, the impact estimates were in accordance with estimations from Public Health England based on traditional syndromic surveillance endpoints. Rapid response to pandemic flu [ edit ] The rapid development, production, and distribution of pandemic influenza vaccines could potentially save millions of lives during an influenza pandemic. Due to the short time frame between identification of a pandemic strain and need for vaccination, researchers are looking at novel technologies for vaccine production that could provide better "real-time" access and be produced more affordably, thereby increasing access for people living in low- and moderate-income countries, where an influenza pandemic may likely originate, such as live attenuated (egg-based or cell-based ) technology and recombinant technologies (proteins and virus-like particles). As of July 2009, more than 70 known clinical trials have been completed or are ongoing for pandemic influenza vaccines. In September 2009, the FDA approved four vaccines against the 2009 H1N1 influenza virus (the 2009 pandemic strain), and expected the initial vaccine lots to be available within the following month. Quadrivalent vaccines for seasonal flu [ edit ] A quadrivalent flu vaccine administered by nasal mist was approved by the FDA in March 2012. Fluarix Quadrivalent was approved by the FDA in December 2012. Universal flu vaccines [ edit ] A " universal vaccine " that would not have to be designed and made for each flu season in each hemisphere would be useful, in order to stabilize the supply and to ensure against error in the design or escape of the circulating strains by mutation. Such a vaccine has been the subject of research for decades. One promising approach is using broadly neutralizing antibodies that unlike the vaccine used today, which provoke the body to generate an immune response, instead provide a component of the immune response itself. The first neutralizing antibodies were identified in 1993 via experimentation; with time researchers understood that the flu neutralizing antibodies were binding to the stalk of the Hemagglutinin protein ; later researchers identified antibodies that could bind to the head of those proteins. Later yet, researchers identified the highly conserved M2 proton channel as a potential target for broadly neutralizing antibodies. The challenges for researchers have been identifying single antibodies that could neutralize many subtypes of the virus, so that they could be useful in any season, and that target conserved domains that are resistant to antigenic drift . Another approach has been taking the conserved domains identified from these projects, and delivering groups of these antigens to provoke an immune response; various approaches with different antigens, presented different ways (as fusion proteins , mounted on virus-like particles , on non-pathogenic viruses, as DNA, and others), are under development. Efforts have also been undertaken to develop universal vaccines that specifically activate a T-cell response, based on clinical data showing that people with a strong, early T-cell response have better outcomes when infected with influenza and because T-cells respond to conserved epitopes. The challenge for developers is that these epitopes are on internal protein domains that are only mildly immunogenic. Along with the rest of the vaccine field, people working on universal vaccines have been experimenting with vaccine adjuvants to improve the ability of their vaccines to create a sufficiently powerful and enduring immune response. Veterinary use [ edit ] See also: Influenza A virus and Influenza § Infection in other animals "Vaccination in the veterinary world pursues four goals: (i) protection from clinical disease, (ii) protection from infection with virulent virus, (iii) protection from virus excretion, and (iv) serological differentiation of infected from vaccinated animals (so-called DIVA principle). In the field of influenza vaccination, neither commercially available nor experimentally tested vaccines have been shown so far to fulfill all of these requirements." Horses [ edit ] Horses with horse flu can run a fever, have a dry hacking cough, have a runny nose, and become depressed and reluctant to eat or drink for several days but usually recover in two to three weeks. "Vaccination schedules generally require a primary course of two doses, 3–6 weeks apart, followed by boosters at 6–12 month intervals. It is generally recognized that in many cases such schedules may not maintain protective levels of antibody and more frequent administration is advised in high-risk situations." It is a common requirement at shows in the United Kingdom that horses be vaccinated against equine flu and a vaccination card must be produced; the International Federation for Equestrian Sports (FEI) requires vaccination every six months. Poultry [ edit ] Poultry vaccines for bird flu are made inexpensively and are not filtered and purified like human vaccines to remove bits of bacteria or other viruses. They usually contain whole virus, not just hemagglutinin as in most human flu vaccines. Another difference between human and poultry vaccines is that poultry vaccines are adjuvated with mineral oil, which induces a strong immune reaction but can cause inflammation and abscesses. "Chicken vaccinators who have accidentally jabbed themselves have developed painful swollen fingers or even lost thumbs, doctors said. Effectiveness may also be limited. Chicken vaccines are often only vaguely similar to circulating flu strains — some contain an H5N2 strain isolated in Mexico years ago. 'With a chicken, if you use a vaccine that's only 85 percent related, you'll get protection,' Dr. Cardona said. 'In humans, you can get a single point mutation, and a vaccine that's 99.99 percent related won't protect you.' And they are weaker [than human vaccines]. 'Chickens are smaller and you only need to protect them for six weeks, because that's how long they live till you eat them,' said Dr. John J. Treanor, a vaccine expert at the University of Rochester. Human seasonal flu vaccines contain about 45 micrograms of antigen, while an experimental A( H5N1 ) vaccine contains 180. Chicken vaccines may contain less than one microgram. 'You have to be careful about extrapolating data from poultry to humans,' warned Dr. David E. Swayne, director of the agriculture department's Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory. 'Birds are more closely related to dinosaurs .'" Researchers, led by Nicholas Savill of the University of Edinburgh in Scotland, used mathematical models to simulate the spread of H5N1 and concluded that "at least 95 percent of birds need to be protected to prevent the virus spreading silently. In practice, it is difficult to protect more than 90 percent of a flock; protection levels achieved by a vaccine are usually much lower than this." The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations has issued recommendations on the prevention and control of avian influenza in poultry, including the use of vaccination. A filtered and purified Influenza A vaccine for humans is being developed [ when? ] and many countries have recommended it be stockpiled so if an Avian influenza pandemic starts jumping to humans, the vaccine can quickly be administered to avoid loss of life. Avian influenza is sometimes called avian flu, and commonly bird flu. Pigs [ edit ] Swine influenza vaccines are extensively used in pig farming in Europe and North America. Most swine flu vaccines include an H1N1 and an H3N2 strain. Swine influenza has been recognized as a major problem since the outbreak in 1976 . Evolution of the virus has resulted in inconsistent responses to traditional vaccines. Standard commercial swine flu vaccines are effective in controlling the problem when the virus strains match enough to have significant cross-protection. Customised (autogenous) vaccines made from the specific viruses isolated, are made and used in the more difficult cases. The vaccine manufacturer Novartis claims that the H3N2 strain (first identified in 1998) has brought major losses to pig farmers. Abortion storms are a common sign and sows stop eating for a few days and run a high fever. The mortality rate can be as high as 15 percent. Dogs [ edit ] In 2004, influenza A virus subtype H3N8 was discovered to cause canine influenza . Because of the lack of previous exposure to this virus, dogs have no natural immunity to this virus. However, a vaccine is now [ when? ] available. Notes [ edit ] References [ edit ] External links [ edit ] PATH's Vaccine Resource Library influenza resources CDC Inactivated Influenza Vaccine Information Statement Vaccines and Preventable Diseases – Seasonal Influenza (Flu) Vaccination Misconceptions about Seasonal Influenza and Influenza Vaccines

train

when did the hepatitis b vaccine come out

The first hepatitis B vaccine was approved in the United States in 1981. A recombinant version came to market in 1986. It is on the World Health Organization 's List of Essential Medicines, the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system. As of 2014, the wholesale cost in the developing world is US $ 0.58 -- 13.20 per dose. In the United States it costs US $50 -- 100.

['minsk', 'dame judith olivia "judi" dench']

ìgbà wo ni àjẹsára hepatitis b jáde

Yes

['Wọ́n fọwọ́sí Àjẹsára jẹ̀dọ̀jẹ̀dọ̀ B àkọ́kọ́ ní ilẹ̀ United States ní odún 1981. Èyí tí kò léwu púpọ̀ di títà ní odún 1986. Ó jẹ́ ìkan lára àwon oògún tí Àjọ Ìlera Àgbáyé ṣàkójọ ẹ̀ sí oògún tó wúlò jùlọ fún ìlera. Ní bíi 2014, òṣùwọ̀n owó rẹ̀ lójú pálí kúsí US$ 0.58–13.20 fún abẹ́rẹ́ kan. Ní ilẹ̀ Amẹ́ríkà, iye owó rẹ̀ kúsí US$50–100.']

[]

['P4']

Àj?sára j??d??j??d?? B Àj?sára j??d??j??d?? B j?? àj?sára tí a fi ? dáàbò bo ara ?ni l??w?? àkóràn kòkòrò àìlèfojúrí afàìsàn j??d??j??d?? B.[1] ?m? tuntun a maa gba àk??k?? ab??r?? Àj?sára yíi láàrín wákàtí m??rìndínlógún tí w??n bíi àti ab??r?? yíi méjì tàbí méta l??yìn ìgbà náà. Èyí p??lú àwon tí ara w?n kò ní anfààní púp?? lati dojú k? àrùn, bi àwon tí ó ní àrùn kògbóògùn HIV/AIDS tàbi àwon tí w??n bí l??j?? àìpé. Lílo Àj?sára yíi déédéé máa n dáàbò bo èèyàn márùndínl??g??rú nínú ?g??rún èèyàn tí kò ní àrùn.[1] ?í?e ày??wò ??j?? lati ríi dájú wípé Àj?sára yíi ?i??? j?? ohun tí ó ?e kókó fún àwon tí ó ní anfààní jùl? lati ní àrùn j??d??j??d?? B. Àfikún ab??r?? Àj?sára yíi lè wúlò fún àwon tí ara w?n kò ní anfààní púp?? lati dojú k? àrùn ?ùgb??n kò p?n dandan fún ??p??l?p?? èniyàn. Àwon tí ó ti kó àrùn j??d??j??d?? B ?ùgb??n tí w?n kò gba ab??r?? Àj?sára yíi gbúd?? gbàá p??lú àj?sára tí àwon òyìnbó ? pè ní "hepatitis B immune globulin". Inú i?an ni w??n máa ? gba ab??r?? Àj?sára yíi tí á fi dè inú ara.[1] Ewu nípa lílo Àj?sára j??d??j??d?? B ò w??p??. Ìrora lè wáyé níbi tí a gba ab??r?? sí. lílo Àj?sára yíi kò léwu nígbà oyún àti nìgba fífún ?m? l??yàn. Kò ní ìbá?ep?? tí ó dájú p??lú Guilain-Barre syndrome. W??n pèlo Àj?sára j??d??j??d?? B tí ó wà bayí nípa ??nà tàbí ?gb??n recombinant DNA. W??n dáwà tàbí p??lú àwon Àj?sára míràn.[1] W??n f?w??sí Àj?sára j??d??j??d?? B àk??k?? ní il?? Oríl??-Èdè Am??ríkà ní odún 1981.[2] Èyí tí kò léwu púp?? di títà ní odún 1986.[1] Ó j?? ìkan lára àwon oògún tí Àj? Ìlera Àgbáyé ?àkój? ?? sí oògún tó wúlò jùl? fún ìlera.[3] Ní bíi 2014, ò?ùw??n owó r?? lójú pálí kúsí US$ 0.58–13.20 fún ab??r?? kan.[4] Ní il?? Am??ríkà, iye owó r?? kúsí US$50–100.[5] Lílo fún ìlera Àj?sára j??d??j??d?? B. ?m? tuntun tí ìyá tó bá ní àrùn j??d??j??d?? B bá bí a máa gba ab??r?? àj?sára j??d??j??d?? B p??lú imunogulobulínì.[6] Báyí ??p??l?p?? oríl?? èdè a màa gba ab??r?? àj?sára j??d??j??d?? B fún àwon ?m? ìkókó lati dènàn àìsàn j??d??j??d?? B. Ní àwon oríl?? èdè tí ó ní anfààní jùl? lati ní àrùn j??d??j??d?? B, gbígba ab??r?? àj?sára yí fún ?m? tuntun ti dínkù àrùn j??d??j??d?? B àti àrùn j?j?r? inú ??d??. W??n fi ìdí r?? múl?? ní il?? Taiwan, níbi tí w??n tí ?ètò gbígba ab??r?? àj?sára j??d??j??d?? B kárí gbogbio àgbáyé ní odún 1984 wípé gbígba ab??r?? àj?sára náà má a ? dín ì???l?? àrùn tí w??n ? pè ní hepatocellular carcinoma kù láàárìn àwon ?m?dé.[7] Ní il?? UK, gbígba ab??r?? àj?sára j??d??j??d?? B wà làra ày??wò Ìbálòp?? tí w??n má a ?e ? fún àwon ?kùnrin tí ? bá ?kùnrin lòp?? (MSM). W??n ?e irú ètò yii ní oril?? ède Ireland.[8] Ní ??p??l??p?? agbègèbè, gbígba Àj?sára j??d??j??d?? B j?? dandan fún àwon ò?ì??? ìlera àti fún àwon ò?ì??? ilé ày??wò fún ìlera.[9] Ilé ì?àkoso àti ìdènàn àrùn ti il?? United States gbani ní ìm??ràn pé gbígba ab??r?? àj?sára j??d??j??d?? B ?e pàtàkì fún àwon tó ní àrùn àt??gbe melitus.[10] Ipa Natasha Wooden ? gba ab??r?? Àj?sára j??d??j??d?? B fún ológún ojú omí il?? Am??ríkà. L??yin àk??k?? gba àj?sára yìí l????m?ta, ày??wò ??j?? lè t??le láàárìn o?ù kan sí m?rin fún àrídájú i??? r??, tí w??n ? pè ní ìdènàn àìsàn j??d??j??d?? B lójú p?p? á?tíj??nì, agbóguntàìsàn tí ó ju 100 mIU/ml l?. Írú ìdáhun báyìí má ? wáyé láàárìn 85 sí 90% èèyàn.[9] Ìdáhun agbóguntàìsàn tí ó wáyé láàárìn 10 sí 100 mIU/ml j?? ìdáhun tí kò péyé. Àw?n èèyàn tí ìdáhun agbóguntàìsàn w?n bá ? ?í?e báyìí má ? gba ohun tí ó má fún agbóguntàìsàn yìí lágbára láìsí ìdí fún ày??wò ??j??.[9] Àw?n èèyàn tí ìdáhun agbóguntàìsàn w?n ò pó?ùw??n (tí ìdáhun agbóguntàìsàn w?n bá kéré sí 10 mIU/ml) gb??d?? ?e ày??wò j??d??j??d?? B, w?n á sí gba ab??r?? àj?sára yìí l????m?ta ??t????t??. L??yìn ab??r?? àj?sára ????kejì, ày??wò ??j?? á t??le láàárìn o?ù kan sí m?rin fún àrídájú i??? r??. Àw?n èèyàn tí ó rí ìyàt?? l??yìn ab??r?? àj?sára ìkejì lè rí ìyàt?? tí w??n bá gba àj?sára yii sára[11] tàbí Àfikún ìdá àj?sára yii[12] tàbí ìdá meji Àj?sára j??d??j??d?? A àti B.[13] Àw?n èèyàn tí ó pàpà rí ìyàt?? l??yìn èyi á gba hepatitis B immunoglobulin (HBIG) tí w??n bá kó àrùn j??d??j??d?? B l??j?? wájú.[9] Àwon ohun tí ó ? ?e okùnfà ìdáhun agbóguntàìsàn tí ò pó?ùw??n ni tí ?j?? orí bá ju ogójì, ìsanrajù, àti sìgá mímu,[14] àti ?tí mímu pàápàá bí èèyàn bá ní àrùn ??d??.[15] Àwon aláìsàn tí adínà àìsàn w?n ò pó?ùw??n tàbí tí kíndìrín w?n kò ?is?? dáadáa lè ma dáhun si àj?sára dáadáa, Fífún w?n ní àj?sára déédéé tàtí àfikún ìdá àj?sára yii lè ?e wón láànfàní.[9] Ókéré jù, ìwádí kan fihàn pé i??? Àj?sára j??d??j??d?? B kò péye fún àwon tí ó ní àrùn kògbóògùn HIV.[16] Iye àkókò ìdáàbòbò Airman Sandra Valdovinos, lati Delano, Calif. ? gba ab??r?? Àj?sára j??d??j??d?? B fún Airman Adam Helton, lati Mesa, Ariz.. Báyìí, ìgbàgb?? ti wà pé iye àkókò ìdáàbòbò Àj?sára j??d??j??d?? B kò lópin. Síb??síb??, t??l?? ìgbàgbó wà pé iye àkókò tí Àj?sára j??d??j??d?? B lè ?e ìdáàbòbò m? kò ju bí ?dún máàrún sí méje.[17][18]

Hepatitis B vaccine Vaccine description Target disease Hepatitis B Type Subunit Clinical data Trade names Recombivax HB AHFS / Drugs.com Monograph MedlinePlus a607014 ATC code J07BC01 ( WHO ) Identifiers ChemSpider none Y (what is this?) (verify) Hepatitis B vaccine is a vaccine that prevents hepatitis B . The first dose is recommended within 24 hours of birth with either two or three more doses given after that. This includes those with poor immune function such as from HIV/AIDS and those born premature . It is also recommended for health-care workers to be vaccinated. In healthy people routine immunization results in more than 95% of people being protected. Blood testing to verify that the vaccine has worked is recommended in those at high risk. Additional doses may be needed in people with poor immune function but are not necessary for most people. In those who have been exposed to the hepatitis B virus but not immunized, hepatitis B immune globulin should be given in addition to the vaccine. The vaccine is given by injection into a muscle . Serious side effects from the hepatitis B vaccine are very uncommon. Pain may occur at the site of injection. It is safe for use during pregnancy or while breastfeeding . It has not been linked to Guillain–Barré syndrome . The current vaccines are produced with recombinant DNA techniques. They are available both by themselves and in combination with other vaccines. The first hepatitis B vaccine was approved in the United States in 1981. A recombinant version came to market in 1986. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines , the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system . As of 2014, the wholesale cost in the developing world is US$ 0.58–13.20 per dose. In the United States it costs US$50–100. Contents [ hide ] 1 Medical uses 1.1 Effectiveness 1.2 Duration of protection 2 Side effects 2.1 Multiple sclerosis 3 Usage 4 History 5 Manufacture 6 Brand names 7 Research 8 References 9 External links Medical uses [ edit ] Hepatitis B vaccination, hepatitis B immunoglobulin, and the combination of hepatitis B vaccine plus hepatitis B immunoglobulin, all are considered as preventive for babies born to mothers infected with HBV. The combination is superior for protecting these infants. The vaccine during pregnancy is not considered to be valuable in protecting babies of the infected mothers. Hepatitis B immunoglobulin before birth has not been well studied. In the United States vaccination is recommended for nearly all babies at birth. Many countries now routinely vaccinate infants against hepatitis B. In countries with high rates of hepatitis B infection, vaccination of newborns has not only reduced the risk of infection, but has also led to marked reduction in liver cancer . This was reported in Taiwan where the implementation of a nationwide hepatitis B vaccination program in 1984 was associated with a decline in the incidence of childhood hepatocellular carcinoma. In the UK, the vaccine is offered to MSM , usually as part of a sexual health check-up. A similar situation is in operation in Ireland. In many areas, vaccination against hepatitis B is also required for all health-care and laboratory staff. Both types of the vaccine, the plasma-derived vaccine (PDV) and recombinant vaccine (RV), seems to be able to elicit similar protective anti-HBs levels. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention have issued recommendations for vaccination against hepatitis B among patients with diabetes mellitus . The World Health Organization recommends a pentavalent vaccine , combining vaccines against diphtheria , tetanus , pertussis and Haemophilus influenzae type B with the vaccine against hepatitis B. There is not yet sufficient evidence on how effective this pentavalent vaccine is in relation to the individual vaccines. Effectiveness [ edit ] Following the primary course of 3 vaccinations, a blood test may be taken after an interval of 1–4 months to establish if there has been an adequate response, which is defined as an anti-hepatitis B surface antigen (anti-Hbs) antibody level above 100 mIU/ml. Such a full response occurs in about 85–90% of individuals. An antibody level between 10 and 100 mIU/ml is considered a poor response, and these people should receive a single booster vaccination at this time, but do not need further retesting. People who fail to respond (anti-Hbs antibody level below 10 mIU/ml) should be tested to exclude current or past Hepatitis B infection, and given a repeat course of 3 vaccinations, followed by further retesting 1–4 months after the second course. Those who still do not respond to a second course of vaccination may respond to intradermal administration or to a high dose vaccine or to a double dose of a combined hepatitis A and B vaccine. Those who still fail to respond will require hepatitis B immunoglobulin (HBIG) if later exposed to the hepatitis B virus. Poor responses are mostly associated with being over the age of 40 years, obesity and smoking, and also in alcoholics, especially if with advanced liver disease. Patients who are immunosuppressed or on renal dialysis may respond less well and require larger or more frequent doses of vaccine. At least one study suggests that hepatitis B vaccination is less effective in patients with HIV. Duration of protection [ edit ] It is now believed that the hepatitis B vaccine provides indefinite protection. However, it was previously believed and suggested that the vaccination would only provide effective coverage of between five and seven years, but subsequently it has been appreciated that long-term immunity derives from immunological memory which outlasts the loss of antibody levels and hence subsequent testing and administration of booster doses is not required in successfully vaccinated immunocompetent individuals. Hence with the passage of time and longer experience, protection has been shown for at least 25 years in those who showed an adequate initial response to the primary course of vaccinations, and UK guidelines now suggest that for initial responders who require ongoing protection, such as for healthcare workers, only a single booster is advocated at 5 years. Side effects [ edit ] Serious side effects from the hepatitis B vaccine are very uncommon. Pain may occur at the site of injection. It is safe for use during pregnancy or while breastfeeding . [ citation needed ] It has not been linked to Guillain–Barré syndrome . Multiple sclerosis [ edit ] Several studies have looked for an association between recombinant hepatitis B vaccine (HBV) and multiple sclerosis (MS) in adults. Most studies do not support a causal relationship between hepatitis B vaccination and demyelinating diseases such as MS. A 2004 study reported a significant increase in risk within 3 years of vaccination. Some of these studies were criticized for methodological problems. This controversy created public misgivings about HB vaccination, and hepatitis B vaccination in children remained low in several countries. A 2006 study concluded that evidence did not support an association between HB vaccination and sudden infant death syndrome, chronic fatigue syndrome, or multiple sclerosis. A 2007 study found that the vaccination does not seem to increase the risk of a first episode of MS in childhood. Usage [ edit ] The following is a list of countries by the percentage of infants receiving three doses of hepatitis B vaccine as published by the World Health Organization in 2014. show Hepatitis B (HepB3) immunization coverage among 1-year-olds worldwide Country Coverage % Afghanistan 75 Albania 98 Algeria 95 Andorra 96 Angola 80 Antigua and Barbuda 99 Argentina 94 Armenia 93 Australia 91 Austria 83 Azerbaijan 94 Bahamas 96 Bahrain 99 Bangladesh 95 Barbados 94 Belarus 97 Belgium 98 Belize 95 Benin 70 Bhutan 99 Bolivia (Plurinational State of) 94 Bosnia and Herzegovina 89 Botswana 95 Brazil 96 Brunei Darussalam 99 Bulgaria 95 Burkina Faso 91 Burundi 95 Côte d'Ivoire 67 Cabo Verde 95 Cambodia 97 Cameroon 87 Canada 75 Central African Republic 47 Chad 46 Chile 92 China 99 Colombia 90 Comoros 80 Congo 90 Cook Islands 99 Costa Rica 91 Croatia 95 Cuba 96 Cyprus 96 Czech Republic 99 Democratic People's Republic of Korea 93 Democratic Republic of the Congo 80 Djibouti 78 Dominica 97 Dominican Republic 89 Ecuador 83 Egypt 94 El Salvador 93 Equatorial Guinea 24 Eritrea 94 Estonia 93 Ethiopia 77 Fiji 99 France 82 Gabon 70 Gambia 96 Georgia 91 Germany 87 Ghana 98 Greece 96 Grenada 97 Guatemala 73 Guinea 51 Guinea-Bissau 80 Guyana 98 Haiti 48 Honduras 85 India 70 Indonesia 78 Iran (Islamic Republic of) 99 Iraq 62 Ireland 95 Israel 97 Italy 94 Jamaica 92 Jordan 98 Kazakhstan 95 Kenya 81 Kiribati 75 Kuwait 96 Kyrgyzstan 96 Lao People's Democratic Republic 88 Latvia 92 Lebanon 81 Lesotho 96 Liberia 50 Libya 94 Lithuania 94 Luxembourg 94 Madagascar 73 Malawi 91 Malaysia 96 Maldives 99 Mali 77 Malta 90 Marshall Islands 79 Mauritania 84 Mauritius 97 Mexico 84 Micronesia (Federated States of) 83 Monaco 99 Mongolia 99 Montenegro 87 Morocco 99 Mozambique 78 Myanmar 75 Namibia 88 Nauru 95 Nepal 92 Netherlands 95 New Zealand 93 Nicaragua 98 Niger 68 Nigeria 66 Niue 99 Oman 98 Pakistan 73 Palau 99 Panama 80 Papua New Guinea 62 Paraguay 87 Peru 88 Philippines 79 Poland 96 Portugal 98 Qatar 99 Republic of Korea 99 Republic of Moldova 92 Romania 94 Russian Federation 97 Rwanda 99 Saint Kitts and Nevis 98 Saint Lucia 99 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 98 Samoa 91 San Marino 80 São Tomé and Príncipe 95 Saudi Arabia 98 Senegal 89 Serbia 92 Seychelles 99 Sierra Leone 83 Singapore 97 Slovakia 97 Solomon Islands 88 Somalia 42 South Africa 74 Spain 96 Sri Lanka 99 Sudan 94 Suriname 85 Swaziland 98 Sweden 42 Syrian Arab Republic 71 Tajikistan 97 Thailand 99 The former Yugoslav republic of Macedonia 97 Timor-Leste 77 Togo 87 Tonga 82 Trinidad and Tobago 92 Tunisia 98 Turkey 96 Turkmenistan 97 Tuvalu 90 Uganda 78 Ukraine 46 United Arab Emirates 94 United Republic of Tanzania 97 United States of America 90 Uruguay 95 Uzbekistan 99 Vanuatu 64 Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) 78 Viet Nam 95 Yemen 88 Zambia 86 Zimbabwe 91 History [ edit ] The road to the hepatitis B vaccine began in 1963 when American physician/geneticist Baruch Blumberg discovered what he called the "Australia Antigen" (now called HBsAg ) in the serum of an Australian Aboriginal person . In 1968, this protein was found to be part of the virus that causes "serum hepatitis" (hepatitis B) by virologist Alfred Prince . The American microbiologist/vaccinologist Maurice Hilleman at Merck used three treatments ( pepsin , urea and formaldehyde ) of blood serum together with rigorous filtration to yield a product that could be used as a safe vaccine. Hilleman hypothesized that he could make an HBV vaccine by injecting patients with hepatitis B surface protein. In theory, this would be very safe, as these excess surface proteins lacked infectious viral DNA. The immune system, recognizing the surface proteins as foreign, would manufacture specially shaped antibodies, custom-made to bind to, and destroy, these proteins. Then, in the future, if the patient were infected with HBV, the immune system could promptly deploy protective antibodies, destroying the viruses before they could do any harm. Hilleman collected blood from gay men and intravenous drug users —groups known to be at risk for viral hepatitis . This was in the late 1970s, when HIV was yet unknown to medicine. In addition to the sought-after hepatitis B surface proteins, the blood samples likely contained HIV. Hilleman devised a multistep process to purify this blood so that only the hepatitis B surface proteins remained. Every known virus was killed by this process, and Hilleman was confident that the vaccine was safe. The first large-scale trials for the blood-derived vaccine were performed on gay men, in accordance with their high-risk status. Later, Hilleman’s vaccine was falsely blamed for igniting the AIDS epidemic. (See Wolf Szmuness ) But, although the purified blood vaccine seemed questionable, it was determined to have indeed been free of HIV. The purification process had destroyed all viruses—including HIV. The vaccine was approved in 1981. The blood-derived hepatitis B vaccine was withdrawn from the marketplace in 1986 when Pablo DT Valenzuela , Research Director of Chiron Corporation , succeeded in making the antigen in yeast and invented the world's first recombinant vaccine. The recombinant vaccine was developed by inserting the HBV gene that codes for the surface protein into the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae . This allows the yeast to produce only the noninfectious surface protein, without any danger of introducing actual viral DNA into the final product. This is the vaccine still in use today. In 1976, Blumberg had won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his work on hepatitis B (sharing it with Daniel Carleton Gajdusek for his work on kuru ). In 2002, Blumberg published a book, Hepatitis B: The Hunt for a Killer Virus . In the book, according to Paul A. Offit —Hilleman's biographer and an accomplished vaccinologist himself—Blumberg... ... claimed that the hepatitis B vaccine was his invention. Maurice Hilleman's name is mentioned once.... Blumberg failed to mention that it was Hilleman who had figured out how to inactivate hepatitis B virus, how to kill all other possible contaminating viruses, how to completely remove every other protein found in human blood, and how to do all of this while retaining the structural integrity of the surface protein. Blumberg had identified Australia antigen, an important first step. But all of the other steps—the ones critical to making a vaccine—belonged to Hilleman. Later, Hilleman recalled, "I think that [Blumberg] deserves a lot of credit, but he doesn't want to give credit to the other guy." Manufacture [ edit ] The vaccine contains one of the viral envelope proteins , hepatitis B surface antigen ( HBsAg ). It is now produced by yeast cells, into which the genetic code for HBsAg has been inserted. Afterward an immune system antibody to HBsAg is established in the bloodstream. The antibody is known as anti-HBs . This antibody and immune system memory then provide immunity to HBV infection. Brand names [ edit ] The common brands available are Recombivax HB (Merck), Engerix-B (GSK), Elovac B (Human Biologicals Institute, a division of Indian Immunologicals Limited), Genevac B (Serum Institute), Shanvac B , etc. These vaccines are given by the intramuscular route. In late 2017 the FDA approved a new vaccine called Heplisav-B from Dynavax Technologies Corps. This two-dose vaccine will compete with Engerix-B's three-dose vaccine. Twinrix is a vaccine against hepatitis A and hepatitis B. Research [ edit ] Injectable Hepatitis B vaccines require expensive production processes and refrigeration, which can make them difficult to access in developing countries. As a result, researchers have been working to engineer plants capable of producing the ingredients necessary to make vaccines so that people can eat these plants to receive the vaccine. Potatoes, bananas, lettuce, carrots, tobacco are some of the plants being genetically engineered to produce the Hepatitis B vaccine ingredients. The process of genetically engineering plants to produce the vaccine includes extracting the gene that codes for Hepatitis B surface antigens from the Hepatitis B genome, and placing it in a bacterial plasmid. The bacteria then infect a plant, which will produce the surface antigens. When a human eats the plant, their body is stimulated to produce an antibody response to the surface antigens. Although concerns remain in improving the efficacy of edible vaccines, controlling the dosage of vaccine in each plant, and managing land allocation for this process, scientists consider this a promising avenue for vaccinating underprivileged areas of the world. References [ edit ] External links [ edit ]

train

when did the first meningitis vaccine come out

The first meningococcal vaccine became available in the 1970s. It is on the World Health Organization 's List of Essential Medicines, the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system. The wholesale cost in the developing world is between 3.23 and 10.77 USD per dose as of 2014. In the United States it costs 100 to 200 USD for a course.

['william jack poulter']

ìgbà wo ni abẹ́rẹ́ àjẹsára meningitis jáde

Yes

['Àjẹsára meningococcal di èyí tó wà fún lílò ní ìgbà àkọ́kọ́ ní ọdún 1970s. Ó wà lórí Àkójọ Àwọn Egbògi Kòṣeémáàní ti Àjọ Ìlera Àgbáyé, àwọn òògùn tó ṣe pàtàkì jùlọ tí a nílò fún ètò ìlera ìbẹ̀rẹ̀pẹ̀pẹ̀ yòówù. Iye owó rẹ̀ lójú pálí jẹ́ bíi 3.23 àti 10.77 USD fún ìwọ̀n egbògi náà kanṣoṣo ní ọdún 2014. Ní ilẹ̀ Amẹ́ríkà iye owó rẹ̀ jẹ́ 100 sí 200 fún ìdá kan.']

['Gbígba àjẹsára fún ààbò lọ́wọ́ ọ̀fìnkì bẹ̀rẹ̀ ní àwọn ọdún 1930, nígbàtí wíwà fún lílò gbogbogbò ní ilẹ̀ Amẹ́ríkà bẹ̀rẹ̀ ní ọdún 1945. ']

['P4']

Àj?sára Meningococcal Àj?sára Meningococcal j?? èyíkèyí àj?sára tí a fi ? dáàbò bo ara ?ni l??w?? àkóràn kòkòrò àìlèfojúrí afàìsàn kan tí à ? pè ní Neisseria meningitidis.[1] Ori?iri?i ??yá àj?sára yìí lo ? ?i?é fún dí?? nínú tàbí gbogbo ori?i meningococcus: A, C,W135 àti Y. Ó kéré jù, àj?sára yìí ? ?i?é dáadáa láàrín 85 sí 100% fún ?dún meji gbáko.[1] Ó máa ? dínku meningitis àti sepsi láàrín ??p?? ènìyan níbi tí w??n ti ? lòó káàkìri.[2][3] W??n máa ? gba ab??r?? àj?sára yí sára gba inú i?an tàbí ab?? ?ran ara.[1] Àj? Ìlera Àgbáyé (WHO) gbani ním??ràn pé kí àw?n oríl?? èdè tí àrùn náà ti ?e r??gí tàb? w??p?? máa gba àj?sára yìí lóòrèkóòrè.[1][4] Ní ìlú tí w?n kò b? ti láà?fàní púp?? lati kó àrùn yìí, wón gbani ním??ràn wípé àw?n tí láà?fàní púp?? lati kóo láàrín w?n gbód? gba àj?sára.[1] Ní apá ibìkan ní [Áfíríkà] níbí tí áà?fàní púp?? lati kó meningitis, ìyànjú ? l? l??wó lati ri wípé w??n gba ab??r?? àjésára fún àw?n ènìyàn tí ?j?? orí w?n b????r?? lati ?dún kan sí ?gb??n ?dún.[4] Ní il?? Kánádà àti Am??ríkà, àj?sára èyí tó ? ?i?é f?n ori?i m?rin meningococcus ni w??n máa ? gbà fún àw??n ??? tí kò tíì bàlágà àti àw?n tí ó láà?fàní jùl? lati kó àrún yìí[1] Ó tún p?n dandan fún àw?n tó ? l? sí il?? m??kà fún Hajj.[1] ààbò j?? ohun tó dará púp?. Àw?n mìràn máa ? ní ìrora àti píp??n lójú ibi tí w??n gba ab????r?? sí. [1] Lílò r?? nínú oyún kò léwu rárá.[4] àìbániláramu má ? ?el?? l????ksn nínú mílí??nù kan.[1] Àj?sára meningococcal di èyí tó wà fún lílò ní ìgbà àk??k?? ní ?dún 1970s.[5] Ó wà lórí Àkój? Àw?n Egbògi Kò?eémáàní ti Àj? Ìlera Àgbáyé, àw?n òògùn tó ?e pàtàkì jùl? tí a nílò fún ètò ìlera ìb??r??p??p?? yòówù.[6] Iye owó r?? lójú pálí j?? bíi 3.23 àti 10.77 USD fún ìw??n egbògi náà kan?o?o ní ?dún 2014.[7] Ní il?? Am??ríkà iye owó r?? j?? 100 sí 200 fún ìdá kan.

Meningococcal vaccine Vaccine description Target disease Neisseria meningitidis Type ? Clinical data Trade names Menactra, Menveo, Menomune, MenAfriVac, Other AHFS / Drugs.com Monograph MedlinePlus a607020 Pregnancy category Category C Routes of administration Intramuscular (conjugate), Subcutaneous (polysaccharide) ATC code J07AH01 ( WHO ) J07AH02 ( WHO ) J07AH03 ( WHO ) J07AH04 ( WHO ) J07AH05 ( WHO ) J07AH06 ( WHO ) J07AH07 ( WHO ) J07AH08 ( WHO ) J07AH09 ( WHO ) Legal status Legal status US : ℞-only Identifiers ChemSpider none N Y (what is this?) (verify) Meningococcal vaccine refers to any of the vaccines used to prevent infection by Neisseria meningitidis . Different versions are effective against some or all of the following types of meningococcus: A, C, W-135, and Y. The vaccines are between 85 and 100% effective for at least two years. They result in a decrease in meningitis and sepsis among populations where they are widely used. They are given either by injection into a muscle or just under the skin . The World Health Organization recommends that countries with a moderate or high rate of disease or with frequent outbreaks should routinely vaccinate . In countries with a low risk of disease, they recommend that high risk groups should be immunized. In the African meningitis belt efforts to immunize all people between the ages of one and thirty with the meningococcal A conjugate vaccine are ongoing. In Canada and the United States the vaccines effective against all four types of meningococcus are recommended routinely for teenagers and others who are at high risk. Saudi Arabia requires vaccination with the quadrivalent vaccine for international travelers to Mecca for Hajj . Safety is generally good. Some people develop pain and redness at the injection site. Use in pregnancy appears to be safe. Severe allergic reactions occur in less than one in a million doses. The first meningococcal vaccine became available in the 1970s. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines , the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system . The wholesale cost in the developing world is between 3.23 and 10.77 USD per dose as of 2014. In the United States it costs 100 to 200 USD for a course. Contents [ hide ] 1 Types 1.1 Quadrivalent (Serogroups A, C, W-135, and Y) 1.1.1 Limitations 1.1.2 Endurance 1.2 Bivalent (Serogroups C and Y) 1.3 Serogroup A 1.4 Serogroup B 1.5 Serogroup X 2 Side effects 3 References 4 Further reading 5 External links Types [ edit ] Neisseria meningitidis has 13 clinically significant serogroups , classified according to the antigenic structure of their polysaccharide capsule. Six serogroups, A, B, C, Y, W-135, and X, are responsible for virtually all cases of the disease in humans. Quadrivalent (Serogroups A, C, W-135, and Y) [ edit ] There are currently three vaccines available in the US to prevent meningococcal disease, all quadrivalent in nature, targeting serogroups A, C, W-135, and Y: two conjugate vaccines (MCV-4), Menactra and Menveo, and one polysaccharide vaccine (MPSV-4), Menomune, produced by Sanofi Pasteur . Mencevax ( GlaxoSmithKline ) and NmVac4-A/C/Y/W-135 ( JN-International Medical Corporation ) are used worldwide, but have not been licensed in the United States. Nimenrix ( GlaxoSmithKline ), a new quadrivalent conjugate vaccine against serogroups A, C, W-135, and Y, is currently available in the states of the European Union and some additional countries. The first meningococcal conjugate vaccine (MCV-4), Menactra, was licensed in the U.S. in 2005 by Sanofi Pasteur ; Menveo was licensed in 2010 by Novartis . Both MCV-4 vaccines have been approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for people 2 through 55 years of age. Menactra received FDA approval for use in children as young as 9 months in April 2011 while Menveo received FDA approval for use in children as young as 2 months in August 2013. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has not made recommendations for or against its use in children less than 2 years. Meningococcal polysaccharide vaccine (MPSV-4), Menomune, has been available since the 1970s. It may be used if MCV-4 is not available, and is the only meningococcal vaccine licensed for people older than 55. Information about who should receive the meningococcal vaccine is available from the CDC. Limitations [ edit ] The duration of immunity mediated by Menomune (MPSV-4) is three years or less in children aged under 5 because it does not generate memory T cells . Attempting to overcome this problem by repeated immunization results in a diminished, not increased, antibody response, so boosters are not recommended with this vaccine. As with all polysaccharide vaccines, Menomune does not produce mucosal immunity , so people can still become colonised with virulent strains of meningococcus, and no herd immunity can develop. For this reason, Menomune is suitable for travelers requiring short-term protection, but not for national public health prevention programs. Menveo and Menactra contain the same antigens as Menomune, but the antigens are conjugated to a diphtheria toxoid polysaccharide–protein complex, resulting in anticipated enhanced duration of protection, increased immunity with booster vaccinations, and effective herd immunity. Endurance [ edit ] A study published in March 2006 comparing the two kinds of vaccines found that 76% of subjects still had passive protection three years after receiving MCV-4 (63% protective compared with controls), but only 49% had passive protection after receiving MPSV-4 (31% protective compared with controls). As of 2010, there remains limited evidence that any of the current conjugate vaccines offer continued protection beyond three years; studies are ongoing to determine the actual duration of immunity, and the subsequent requirement of booster vaccinations. The CDC offers recommendations regarding who they feel should get booster vaccinations. Bivalent (Serogroups C and Y) [ edit ] On June 14, 2012, the FDA approved a new combination vaccine against two types of meningococcal disease and Hib disease for infants and children 6 weeks to 18 months old. The vaccine, Menhibrix, will prevent disease caused by Neisseria meningitidis serogroups C and Y and Haemophilus influenzae type b. This is the first meningococcal vaccine that can be given to infants as young as six weeks old. Serogroup A [ edit ] A vaccine called MenAfriVac has been developed through a program called the Meningitis Vaccine Project and has the potential to prevent outbreaks of group A meningitis, which is common in sub-Saharan Africa. Serogroup B [ edit ] Vaccines against serotype B meningococcal disease have proved difficult to produce, and require a different approach from vaccines against other serotypes. Whereas effective polysaccharide vaccines have been produced against types A, C, W-135, and Y, the capsular polysaccharide on the type B bacterium is too similar to human neural antigens to be a useful target. A vaccine for serogroup B was developed in Cuba in response to a large outbreak of meningitis B during the 1980s. The VA-MENGOC-BC vaccine proved safe and effective in randomized double-blind studies, but it was granted a licence only for research purposes in the United States as political differences limited cooperation between the two countries. Due to a similarly high prevalence of B-serotype meningitis in Norway between 1975 and 1985, Norwegian health authorities developed a vaccine specifically designed for Norwegian children and young adolescents. Clinical trials were discontinued after the vaccine was shown to cover only slightly more than 50% of all cases. Furthermore, lawsuits for damages were filed against the State of Norway by persons affected by serious adverse reactions. Information that the health authorities obtained during the vaccine development were subsequently passed on to Chiron (now GlaxoSmithKline), who developed a similar vaccine, MeNZB , for New Zealand. A MenB vaccine was approved for use in Europe in January 2013. Following a positive recommendation from the European Union 's Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use , Bexsero, produced by Novartis , received a licence from the European Commission . However, deployment in individual EU member states still depends on decisions by national governments. In July 2013, the United Kingdom 's Joint Committee on Vaccination and Immunisation (JCVI) issued an interim position statement recommending against adoption of Bexsero as part of a routine meningococcal B immunisation program, on the grounds of cost-effectiveness. This decision was reverted in favor of Bexsero vaccination in March 2014. In March 2015 the UK government announced that they had reached agreement with GlaxoSmithKline who had taken over Novartis ' vaccines business, and that Bexsero would be introduced into the UK routine immunization schedule later in 2015. In November 2013, in response to an outbreak of B-serotype meningitis on the campus of Princeton University , the acting head of the Centers for Disease Control meningitis and vaccine preventable diseases branch told NBC News that they had authorized emergency importation of Bexsero to stop the outbreak. Bexsero was subsequently approved by the FDA in February 2015. In October 2014, Trumenba, a serogroup B vaccine produced by Pfizer , was approved by the FDA. Serogroup X [ edit ] The occurrence of serogroup X has been reported in North America, Europe, Australia, and West Africa. Current meningoccocal meningitis vaccines are not known to protect against serogroup X N. meningitidis disease. Side effects [ edit ] Common side effects include pain and redness around the site of injection (up to 50% of recipients). A small percentage of people develop a mild fever. As with any medication, a small proportion of people develop a severe allergic reaction. In 2016 Health Canada warned of an increased risk of anemia or hemolysis in people treated with eculizumab (Soliris). The highest risk was when individuals "received a dose of Soliris within 2 weeks after being vaccinated with Bexsero". Despite initial concerns about Guillain-Barré syndrome , subsequent studies in 2012 have shown no increased risk of GBS after meningococcal conjugate vaccination. References [ edit ] Further reading [ edit ] Conterno LO, Silva Filho CR, Rüggeberg JU, Heath PT (2006). Conterno, Lucieni O, ed. "Conjugate vaccines for preventing meningococcal C meningitis and septicaemia". Cochrane Database Syst Rev . 3 (3): CD001834. PMID 16855979 . doi : 10.1002/14651858.CD001834.pub2 . CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list ( link ) Patel M, Lee CK (2005). Patel, Mahomed, ed. "Polysaccharide vaccines for preventing serogroup A meningococcal meningitis". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (1): CD001093. PMID 15674874 . doi : 10.1002/14651858.CD001093.pub2 . External links [ edit ] Meningococcal Vaccines at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)

train

two core functions of the world health organization (who) are

The constitution of the World Health Organization had been signed by 61 countries on 22 July 1946, with the first meeting of the World Health Assembly finishing on 22 July 1946. It incorporated the Office International d'Hygiène Publique and the League of Nations Health Organization. Since its establishment, it has played a leading role in the eradication of smallpox. Its current priorities include communicable diseases, in particular HIV / AIDS, Ebola, malaria and tuberculosis ; the mitigation of the effects of non-communicable diseases such as sexual and reproductive health, development, and aging ; nutrition, food security and healthy eating ; occupational health ; substance abuse ; and driving the development of reporting, publications, and networking.

['about 4 billion years ago', 'the gut flora']

iṣẹ́ pàtàkì méjì tí àjọ ìlera àgbáyé ń ṣe ni

Yes

['Àwọn nkan tí ó múmú láyà wọn lọ́wọ́ ni ọ̀nà láti ségun àwọn àrùn tí ó sé ràn, pàápàá jù lọ àrùn HIV/AIDS, Ebola, COVID-19, malaria àti tuberculosis; àwọn àrùn tí ó sé ràn bi àrùn ọkàn àti cancer; àti bẹ́ẹ̀ bẹ́ẹ̀ lọ.']

['Àwọn nkan tí ó múmú láyà wọn lọ́wọ́ ni ọ̀nà láti ségun àwọn àrùn tí ó sé ràn, pàápàá jù lọ àrùn HIV/AIDS, Ebola, COVID-19, malaria àti tuberculosis; àwọn àrùn tí ó sé ràn bi àrùn ọkàn àti cancer; àti bẹ́ẹ̀ bẹ́ẹ̀ lọ.']

['P4']

Àj? Ìlera Àgbáyé Àj? Ìlera Àgbáyé ti agekuru re nje WHO j?? àj? Àgbáj? àw?n Oríl??-èdè A?òkan tí w??n dá síl?? fún ètò ìlera gbogbo àgbáyé[1]. Erongba dida WHO sile ni "ki gbogbo eniyan le de ipele ilera to ga ju to see see".[2] Olú ilé i??? r?? wà ní Geneva, Swítsàlandì,[3] o si ni ile-ise agbegbe mefa ati ibi ise àád??j? kaakiri agbaye. W??n dáa WHO síl?? ní ?j?? keje O?ù k?rin ?dún 1948.[4][5] Ipade akoko ti apejo ilera agbaye, ajo ti o n sakoso WHO, waye ni ojo kerinlelogun osu keje odun naa. Àj? Ìlera Àgbáyé gba awon dukia, osise, ati ojuse Ajo Ilera ti Ajumose Orilede, ile-ise agbaye d'Hygiène Publique, ati isori ailera gbogboogbo mora.[6] Ise re bere ni odun 1951 leyin asopo ti oro inawo ati ise ona to lapere.[7] Ète àti èròngbà aáj? WHO ni láti mú kí ìlera pé káàkiri àgbáyé. W??n ma ? ran àw?n oríl??-èdè àgbáyé l??w?? láti k?jú àrùn, w??n sì ma ? ?e òfin nípa ètò ìlera láti mú kí ìlera péye. Àj? WHO kó ipa ribiribi nínú líle àrùn smallpox sígbó, nínú ì???gun ribiribi tí ìran ènìyàn ti ní lórí Àrùn Polio, àti nínú ?í?e ab??r?? ajé sára Àrùn Ebola. Àw?n nkan tí ó múmú láyà w?n l??w?? ni ??nà láti ségun àw?n àrùn tí ó sé ràn, pàápàá jù l? àrùn Àrùn HIV/AIDS, Ebola, COVID-19, àìsàn ibà àti ik?? ??gb?; àw?n àrùn tí ó sé ràn bi àrùn ?kàn àti àrùn j?j?r?; àti b???? b???? l?.

"WHO" redirects here. For other uses, see WHO (disambiguation) . World Health Organization Flag of the World Health Organization Abbreviation WHO OMS Formation 7 April 1948 ; 70 years ago ( 1948-04-07 ) Type Specialized agency of the United Nations Legal status Active Headquarters Geneva , Switzerland Head Tedros Adhanom , Director-General Parent organization United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) Website www .who .int The World Health Organization ( WHO ) is a specialized agency of the United Nations that is concerned with international public health . It was established on 7 April 1948, and is headquartered in Geneva , Switzerland . The WHO is a member of the United Nations Development Group . Its predecessor, the Health Organization, was an agency of the League of Nations . The constitution of the World Health Organization had been signed by 61 countries on 22 July 1946, with the first meeting of the World Health Assembly finishing on 22 July 1946. It incorporated the Office International d'Hygiène Publique and the League of Nations Health Organization. Since its establishment, it has played a leading role in the eradication of smallpox . Its current priorities include communicable diseases , in particular HIV/AIDS , Ebola , malaria and tuberculosis ; the mitigation of the effects of non-communicable diseases such as sexual and reproductive health , development, and aging; nutrition, food security and healthy eating; occupational health; substance abuse; and driving the development of reporting, publications, and networking. The WHO is responsible for the World Health Report , the worldwide World Health Survey , and World Health Day . The current Director-General of the WHO is Tedros Adhanom , who started his five-year term on 1 July 2017. Contents 1 History 1.1 Origins 1.2 Establishment 1.3 Operational history 1.4 Overall focus 1.5 Communicable diseases 1.6 Non-communicable diseases 1.7 Environmental health 1.8 Life course and life style 1.9 Surgery and trauma care 1.10 Emergency work 1.11 Health policy 1.12 Governance and support 1.12.1 Partnerships 1.12.2 Public health education and action 1.13 Data handling and publications 2 Structure 2.1 Membership 2.2 World Health Assembly and Executive Board 2.3 Regional offices 2.4 Director-General 2.5 Employees 2.6 Goodwill Ambassadors 2.7 Country and liaison offices 2.8 Financing and partnerships 3 Controversies 3.1 IAEA – Agreement WHA 12–40 3.2 Roman Catholic Church and AIDS 3.3 Intermittent preventive therapy 3.4 Diet and sugar intake 3.5 2009 swine flu pandemic 3.6 2013–2016 Ebola outbreak and reform efforts 3.7 FCTC implementation database 3.8 IARC controversies 3.9 Block of Taiwanese participation 3.10 Travel expenses 3.11 Robert Mugabe's role as a goodwill ambassador 4 World headquarters 4.1 Early views 4.2 Views 2013 5 See also 6 Notes and references 7 External links History [ edit ] Origins [ edit ] The International Sanitary Conferences , originally held on 23 June 1851, were the first predecessors of the WHO. A series of 14 conferences that lasted from 1851 to 1938, the International Sanitary Conferences worked to combat many diseases, chief among them cholera , yellow fever , and the bubonic plague . The conferences were largely ineffective until the seventh, in 1892; when an International Sanitary Convention that dealt with cholera was passed. Five years later, a convention for the plague was signed. In part as a result of the successes of the Conferences, the Pan-American Sanitary Bureau , and the Office International d'Hygiène Publique were soon founded in 1902 and 1907, respectively. When the League of Nations was formed in 1920, they established the Health Organization of the League of Nations. After World War II , the United Nations absorbed all the other health organizations, to form the WHO. Establishment [ edit ] During the 1945 United Nations Conference on International Organization, Szeming Sze , a delegate from China , conferred with Norwegian and Brazilian delegates on creating an international health organization under the auspices of the new United Nations. After failing to get a resolution passed on the subject, Alger Hiss , the Secretary General of the conference, recommended using a declaration to establish such an organization. Sze and other delegates lobbied and a declaration passed calling for an international conference on health. The use of the word "world", rather than "international", emphasized the truly global nature of what the organization was seeking to achieve. The constitution of the World Health Organization was signed by all 51 countries of the United Nations, and by 10 other countries, on 22 July 1946. It thus became the first specialized agency of the United Nations to which every member subscribed. Its constitution formally came into force on the first World Health Day on 7 April 1948, when it was ratified by the 26th member state. The first meeting of the World Health Assembly finished on 24 July 1948, having secured a budget of US$5 million (then GB£1,250,000 ) for the 1949 year. Andrija Stampar was the Assembly's first president, and G. Brock Chisholm was appointed Director-General of WHO, having served as Executive Secretary during the planning stages. Its first priorities were to control the spread of malaria , tuberculosis and sexually transmitted infections , and to improve maternal and child health , nutrition and environmental hygiene. Its first legislative act was concerning the compilation of accurate statistics on the spread and morbidity of disease . The logo of the World Health Organization features the Rod of Asclepius as a symbol for healing. Operational history [ edit ] Three former directors of the Global Smallpox Eradication Programme read the news that smallpox had been globally eradicated, 1980 In 1947 the WHO established an epidemiological information service via telex , and by 1950 a mass tuberculosis inoculation drive using the BCG vaccine was under way. In 1955, the malaria eradication programme was launched, although it was later altered in objective. 1965 saw the first report on diabetes mellitus and the creation of the International Agency for Research on Cancer . In 1958, Viktor Zhdanov , Deputy Minister of Health for the USSR , called on the World Health Assembly to undertake a global initiative to eradicate smallpox, resulting in Resolution WHA11.54. At this point, 2 million people were dying from smallpox every year. [ citation needed ] In 1966, the WHO moved its headquarters from the Ariana wing at the Palace of Nations to a newly constructed HQ elsewhere in Geneva. In 1967, the World Health Organization intensified the global smallpox eradication by contributing $2.4 million annually to the effort and adopted a new disease surveillance method. The initial problem the WHO team faced was inadequate reporting of smallpox cases. WHO established a network of consultants who assisted countries in setting up surveillance and containment activities. The WHO also helped contain the last European outbreak in Yugoslavia in 1972 . After over two decades of fighting smallpox , the WHO declared in 1979 that the disease had been eradicated – the first disease in history to be eliminated by human effort. Also in 1967, the WHO launched the Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases and the World Health Assembly voted to enact a resolution on Disability Prevention and Rehabilitation, with a focus on community-driven care. In 1974, the Expanded Programme on Immunization and the control programme of onchocerciasis was started, an important partnership between the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), and the World Bank . In 1977, the first list of essential medicines was drawn up, and a year later the ambitious goal of " health for all " was declared. In 1986, the WHO began its global programme on HIV/AIDS . Two years later preventing discrimination against sufferers was attended to and in 1996 UNAIDS was formed. In 1988, the Global Polio Eradication Initiative was established. In 1998, WHO's Director-General highlighted gains in child survival, reduced infant mortality , increased life expectancy and reduced rates of "scourges" such as smallpox and polio on the fiftieth anniversary of WHO's founding. He, did, however, accept that more had to be done to assist maternal health and that progress in this area had been slow. In 2000, the Stop TB Partnership was created along with the UN's formulation of the Millennium Development Goals . In 2001 the measles initiative was formed, and credited with reducing global deaths from the disease by 68% by 2007. In 2002, The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria was drawn up to improve the resources available. In 2006, the organization endorsed the world's first official HIV/AIDS Toolkit for Zimbabwe, which formed the basis for a global prevention, treatment and support plan to fight the AIDS pandemic . Overall focus [ edit ] The WHO's Constitution states that its objective "is the attainment by all people of the highest possible level of health". The WHO fulfills this objective through its functions as defined in its Constitution: (a) To act as the directing and coordinating authority on international health work; (b) To establish and maintain effective collaboration with the United Nations, specialized agencies, governmental health administrations, professional groups and such other organizations as may be deemed appropriate; (c) To assist Governments, upon request, in strengthening health services; (d) To furnish appropriate technical assistance and, in emergencies, necessary aid upon the request or acceptance of Governments; (e) To provide or assist in providing, upon the request of the United Nations, health services and facilities to special groups, such as the peoples of trust territories; (f) To establish and maintain such administrative and technical services as may be required, including epidemiological and statistical services; (g) to stimulate and advance work to eradicate epidemic, endemic and other diseases; (h) To promote, in co-operation with other specialized agencies where necessary, the prevention of accidental injuries; (i) To promote, in co-operation with other specialized agencies where necessary, the improvement of nutrition, housing, sanitation, recreation, economic or working conditions and other aspects of environmental hygiene; (j) To promote co-operation among scientific and professional groups which contribute to the advancement of health; (k) To propose conventions, agreements and regulations, and make recommendations with respect to international health matters and to perform. [ citation needed ] As of 2012 [update] , the WHO has defined its role in public health as follows: providing leadership on matters critical to health and engaging in partnerships where joint action is needed; shaping the research agenda and stimulating the generation, translation, and dissemination of valuable knowledge; setting norms and standards and promoting and monitoring their implementation; articulating ethical and evidence-based policy options; providing technical support, catalyzing change, and building sustainable institutional capacity; and monitoring the health situation and assessing health trends. CRVS (Civil Registration and Vital Statistics) to provide monitoring of vital events (birth, death, wedding, divorce). Communicable diseases [ edit ] The 2012–2013 WHO budget identified 5 areas among which funding was distributed. Two of those five areas related to communicable diseases : the first, to reduce the "health, social and economic burden" of communicable diseases in general; the second to combat HIV/AIDS , malaria and tuberculosis in particular. As of 2015, the WHO has worked within the UNAIDS network and strived to involve sections of society other than health to help deal with the economic and social effects of HIV/AIDS . In line with UNAIDS, WHO has set itself the interim task between 2009 and 2015 of reducing the number of those aged 15–24 years who are infected by 50%; reducing new HIV infections in children by 90%; and reducing HIV-related deaths by 25%. During the 1970s, WHO had dropped its commitment to a global malaria eradication campaign as too ambitious, it retained a strong commitment to malaria control. WHO's Global Malaria Programme works to keep track of malaria cases, and future problems in malaria control schemes. As of 2012, the WHO was to report as to whether RTS,S /AS01, were a viable malaria vaccine . For the time being, insecticide -treated mosquito nets and insecticide sprays are used to prevent the spread of malaria, as are antimalarial drugs – particularly to vulnerable people such as pregnant women and young children. Between 1990 and 2010, WHO's help has contributed to a 40% decline in the number of deaths from tuberculosis , and since 2005, over 46 million people have been treated and an estimated 7 million lives saved through practices advocated by WHO. These include engaging national governments and their financing, early diagnosis, standardising treatment, monitoring of the spread and effect of tuberculosis and stabilising the drug supply. It has also recognized the vulnerability of victims of HIV/AIDS to tuberculosis. In 1988, WHO launched the Global Polio Eradication Initiative to eradicate polio . [ citation needed ] It has also been successful in helping to reduce cases by 99% since which partnered WHO with Rotary International , the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), and smaller organizations. As of 2011 [update] , it has been working to immunize young children and prevent the re-emergence of cases in countries declared "polio-free". In 2017, a study was conducted where why Polio Vaccines may not be enough to eradicate the Virus & conduct new technology. Polio is now on the verge of extinction, thanks to a Global Vaccination Drive. the World Health Organization (WHO) stated the eradication programme has saved millions from deadly disease. [ citation needed ] Non-communicable diseases [ edit ] Another of the thirteen WHO priority areas is aimed at the prevention and reduction of "disease, disability and premature deaths from chronic noncommunicable diseases , mental disorders , violence and injuries , and visual impairment ". The Division of Noncommunicable Diseases for Promoting Health through the Life-course Sexual and Reproductive Health has published the magazine, Entre Nous , across Europe since 1983. Environmental health [ edit ] The WHO estimates that 12.6 million people died as a result of living or working in an unhealthy environment in 2012 – this accounts for nearly 1 in 4 of total global deaths. Environmental risk factors, such as air, water and soil pollution, chemical exposures, climate change, and ultraviolet radiation, contribute to more than 100 diseases and injuries. This can result in a number of pollution-related diseases . Life course and life style [ edit ] WHO works to "reduce morbidity and mortality and improve health during key stages of life, including pregnancy, childbirth, the neonatal period , childhood and adolescence, and improve sexual and reproductive health and promote active and healthy aging for all individuals". It also tries to prevent or reduce risk factors for "health conditions associated with use of tobacco, alcohol, drugs and other psychoactive substances, unhealthy diets and physical inactivity and unsafe sex ". The WHO works to improve nutrition, food safety and food security and to ensure this has a positive effect on public health and sustainable development . Surgery and trauma care [ edit ] The WHO promotes road safety as a means to reduce traffic-related injuries. The WHO has also worked on global initiatives in surgery, including emergency and essential surgical care, trauma care, and safe surgery. The WHO Surgical Safety Checklist is in current use worldwide in the effort to improve patient safety. Emergency work [ edit ] The World Health Organization's primary objective in natural and man-made emergencies is to coordinate with member states and other stakeholders to "reduce avoidable loss of life and the burden of disease and disability." On 5 May 2014, WHO announced that the spread of polio was a world health emergency – outbreaks of the disease in Asia , Africa , and the Middle East were considered "extraordinary". On 8 August 2014, WHO declared that the spread of Ebola was a public health emergency; an outbreak which was believed to have started in Guinea had spread to other nearby countries such as Liberia and Sierra Leone . The situation in West Africa was considered very serious. Health policy [ edit ] WHO addresses government health policy with two aims: firstly, "to address the underlying social and economic determinants of health through policies and programmes that enhance health equity and integrate pro-poor, gender-responsive, and human rights-based approaches" and secondly "to promote a healthier environment, intensify primary prevention and influence public policies in all sectors so as to address the root causes of environmental threats to health". The organization develops and promotes the use of evidence-based tools, norms and standards to support member states to inform health policy options. It oversees the implementation of the International Health Regulations , and publishes a series of medical classifications ; of these, three are over-reaching "reference classifications": the International Statistical Classification of Diseases (ICD), the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) and the International Classification of Health Interventions (ICHI). Other international policy frameworks produced by WHO include the International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes (adopted in 1981), Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (adopted in 2003) and the Global Code of Practice on the International Recruitment of Health Personnel (adopted in 2010). In terms of health services, WHO looks to improve "governance, financing, staffing and management" and the availability and quality of evidence and research to guide policy. It also strives to "ensure improved access, quality and use of medical products and technologies". WHO – working with donor agencies and national governments – can improve their use of and their reporting about their use of research evidence. Governance and support [ edit ] The remaining two of WHO's thirteen identified policy areas relate to the role of WHO itself: "to provide leadership, strengthen governance and foster partnership and collaboration with countries, the United Nations system, and other stakeholders in order to fulfill the mandate of WHO in advancing the global health agenda"; and "to develop and sustain WHO as a flexible, learning organization, enabling it to carry out its mandate more efficiently and effectively". Partnerships [ edit ] The WHO along with the World Bank constitute the core team responsible for administering the International Health Partnership (IHP+). The IHP+ is a group of partner governments, development agencies, civil society and others committed to improving the health of citizens in developing countries . Partners work together to put international principles for aid effectiveness and development co-operation into practice in the health sector. The organization relies on contributions from renowned scientists and professionals to inform its work, such as the WHO Expert Committee on Biological Standardization , the WHO Expert Committee on Leprosy , and the WHO Study Group on Interprofessional Education & Collaborative Practice . WHO runs the Alliance for Health Policy and Systems Research, targeted at improving health policy and systems . WHO also aims to improve access to health research and literature in developing countries such as through the HINARI network. WHO collaborates with the Global Fund to fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria, UNITAID, and the United States President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief to spearhead and fund the development of HIV programs. WHO created the Civil Society Reference Group on HIV , which brings together other networks that are involved in policy making and the dissemination of guidelines. WHO, a sector of the United Nations, partners with UNAIDS to contribute to the development of HIV responses in different areas of the world. WHO facilitates technical partnerships through the Technical Advisory Committee on HIV , which they created to develop WHO guidelines and policies. Public health education and action [ edit ] Each year, the organization marks World Health Day and other observances focusing on a specific health promotion topic. World Health Day falls on 7 April each year, timed to match the anniversary of WHO's founding. Recent themes have been vector-borne diseases (2014), healthy ageing (2012) and drug resistance (2011). The other official global public health campaigns marked by WHO are World Tuberculosis Day , World Immunization Week , World Malaria Day , World No Tobacco Day , World Blood Donor Day , World Hepatitis Day , and World AIDS Day . As part of the United Nations, the World Health Organization supports work towards the Millennium Development Goals . Of the eight Millennium Development Goals, three – reducing child mortality by two-thirds, to reduce maternal deaths by three-quarters, and to halt and begin to reduce the spread of HIV/AIDS – relate directly to WHO's scope; the other five inter-relate and affect world health. Data handling and publications [ edit ] The World Health Organization works to provide the needed health and well-being evidence through a variety of data collection platforms, including the World Health Survey covering almost 400,000 respondents from 70 countries, and the Study on Global Aging and Adult Health (SAGE) covering over 50,000 persons over 50 years old in 23 countries. The Country Health Intelligence Portal (CHIP), has also been developed to provide an access point to information about the health services that are available in different countries. The information gathered in this portal is used by the countries to set priorities for future strategies or plans, implement, monitor, and evaluate it. The WHO has published various tools for measuring and monitoring the capacity of national health systems and health workforces . The Global Health Observatory (GHO) has been the WHO's main portal which provides access to data and analyses for key health themes by monitoring health situations around the globe. The WHO Assessment Instrument for Mental Health Systems (WHO-AIMS), the WHO Quality Of Life Instrument (WHOQOL), and the Service Availability and Readiness Assessment (SARA) provide guidance for data collection. Collaborative efforts between WHO and other agencies, such as through the Health Metrics Network , also aim to provide sufficient high-quality information to assist governmental decision making. WHO promotes the development of capacities in member states to use and produce research that addresses their national needs, including through the Evidence-Informed Policy Network (EVIPNet). The Pan American Health Organization (PAHO/AMRO) became the first region to develop and pass a policy on research for health approved in September 2009. On 10 December 2013, a new WHO database, known as MiNDbank , went online. The database was launched on Human Rights Day , and is part of WHO's QualityRights initiative, which aims to end human rights violations against people with mental health conditions. The new database presents a great deal of information about mental health, substance abuse, disability, human rights, and the different policies, strategies, laws, and service standards being implemented in different countries. It also contains important international documents and information. The database allows visitors to access the health information of WHO member states and other partners. Users can review policies, laws, and strategies and search for the best practices and success stories in the field of mental health. The WHO regularly publishes a World Health Report , its leading publication, including an expert assessment of a specific global health topic. Other publications of WHO include the Bulletin of the World Health Organization , the Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal (overseen by EMRO), the Human Resources for Health (published in collaboration with BioMed Central ), and the Pan American Journal of Public Health (overseen by PAHO/AMRO). In 2016, the World Health Organization drafted a global health sector strategy on HIV. In the draft, the World Health Organization outlines its commitment to ending the AIDS epidemic by the year 2030 with interim targets for the year 2020. In order to make achievements towards these targets, the draft lists actions that countries and the WHO can take, such as a commitment to universal health coverage, medical accessibility, prevention and eradication of disease, and efforts to educate the public. Some notable points made in the draft include addressing gender inequity where females are nearly twice as likely as men to get infected with HIV and tailoring resources to mobilized regions where the health system may be compromised due to natural disasters, etc. Among the points made, it seems clear that although the prevalence of HIV transmission is declining, there is still a need for resources, health education, and global efforts to end this epidemic. Structure [ edit ] The World Health Organization is a member of the United Nations Development Group . Membership [ edit ] Countries by World Health Organization membership status As of 2016 [update] , the WHO has 194 member states: all of them Member States of the United Nations except for the Cook Islands and Niue . (A state becomes a full member of WHO by ratifying the treaty known as the Constitution of the World Health Organization.) As of 2013 [update] , it also had two associate members, Puerto Rico and Tokelau . Several other countries have been granted observer status . Palestine is an observer as a "national liberation movement" recognized by the League of Arab States under United Nations Resolution 3118. The Holy See also attends as an observer, as does the Order of Malta . In 2010, Taiwan was invited under the name of " Chinese Taipei ". WHO Member States appoint delegations to the World Health Assembly , WHO's supreme decision-making body. All UN Member States are eligible for WHO membership, and, according to the WHO website, "other countries may be admitted as members when their application has been approved by a simple majority vote of the World Health Assembly". Liechtenstein is currently the only UN member not in the WHO membership. In addition, the UN observer organizations International Committee of the Red Cross and International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies have entered into "official relations" with WHO and are invited as observers. In the World Health Assembly they are seated alongside the other NGOs. World Health Assembly and Executive Board [ edit ] WHO Headquarters in Geneva The World Health Assembly (WHA) is the legislative and supreme body of WHO. Based in Geneva, it typically meets yearly in May. It appoints the Director-General every five years and votes on matters of policy and finance of WHO, including the proposed budget. It also reviews reports of the Executive Board and decides whether there are areas of work requiring further examination. The Assembly elects 34 members, technically qualified in the field of health, to the Executive Board for three-year terms. The main functions of the Board are to carry out the decisions and policies of the Assembly, to advise it and to facilitate its work. The current chairman of the executive board is Dr. Assad Hafeez . Regional offices [ edit ] Map of the WHO's Regional offices and their respective operating regions. Africa; HQ: Brazzaville , Republic of Congo Western Pacific; HQ: Manila , Philippines Eastern Mediterranean ; HQ: Cairo , Egypt South East Asia; HQ: New Delhi , India Europe; HQ: Copenhagen , Denmark Americas; HQ: Washington D.C., USA The regional divisions of WHO were created between 1949 and 1952, and are based on article 44 of the WHO's constitution, which allowed the WHO to "establish a [single] regional organization to meet the special needs of [each defined] area". Many decisions are made at regional level, including important discussions over WHO's budget, and in deciding the members of the next assembly, which are designated by the regions. Each region has a Regional Committee, which generally meets once a year, normally in the autumn. Representatives attend from each member or associative member in each region, including those states that are not fully recognized. For example, Palestine attends meetings of the Eastern Mediterranean Regional office . Each region also has a regional office. Each Regional Office is headed by a Regional Director, who is elected by the Regional Committee. The Board must approve such appointments, although as of 2004, it had never over-ruled the preference of a regional committee. The exact role of the board in the process has been a subject of debate, but the practical effect has always been small. Since 1999, Regional Directors serve for a once-renewable five-year term, and typically take their position on 1 February. Each Regional Committee of the WHO consists of all the Health Department heads, in all the governments of the countries that constitute the Region. Aside from electing the Regional Director, the Regional Committee is also in charge of setting the guidelines for the implementation, within the region, of the health and other policies adopted by the World Health Assembly . The Regional Committee also serves as a progress review board for the actions of WHO within the Region. [ citation needed ] The Regional Director is effectively the head of WHO for his or her Region. The RD manages and/or supervises a staff of health and other experts at the regional offices and in specialized centres. The RD is also the direct supervising authority—concomitantly with the WHO Director-General—of all the heads of WHO country offices, known as WHO Representatives, within the Region. [ citation needed ] Regional Offices of WHO Region Headquarters Notes Website Africa Brazzaville , Republic of Congo AFRO includes most of Africa, with the exception of Egypt , Sudan , Djibouti , Tunisia , Libya , Somalia and Morocco (all fall under EMRO). The Regional Director is Dr. Matshidiso Moeti, a Botswanan national. (Tenure: -Present). AFRO Europe Copenhagen , Denmark. EURO includes all of Europe (except Liechtenstein ) Israel , and all of the former USSR . The Regional Director is Dr. Zsuzsanna Jakab, a Hungarian national (Tenure: 2010 – present). EURO South-East Asia New Delhi , India North Korea is served by SEARO. The Regional Director is Dr. Poonam Khetrapal Singh, an Indian national (Tenure: 2014 – present). SEARO Eastern Mediterranean Cairo , Egypt The Eastern Mediterranean Regional Office serves the countries of Africa that are not included in AFRO, as well as all countries in the Middle East except for Israel. Pakistan is served by EMRO. The Regional Director is Dr. Ahmed Al-Mandhari, an Omani national (Tenure: 2018 – present). EMRO Western Pacific Manila , Philippines. WPRO covers all the Asian countries not served by SEARO and EMRO, and all the countries in Oceania. South Korea is served by WPRO. The Regional Director is Dr. Shin Young-soo, a South Korean national (Tenure: 2009 – present). WPRO The Americas Washington D.C. , USA. Also known as the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO), and covers the Americas . The WHO Regional Director is Dr. Carissa F. Etienne , a Dominican national (Tenure: 2013 – present). AMRO Director-General [ edit ] Directors-General of the WHO Name and Nationality Years of tenure Tedros Adhanom 2017 – present Margaret Chan 2007–2017 Anders Nordström * 2006–2007 Lee Jong-wook 2003–2006 Gro Harlem Brundtland 1998–2003 Hiroshi Nakajima 1988–1998 Halfdan T. Mahler 1973–1988 Marcolino Gomes Candau 1953–1973 Brock Chisholm 1948–1953 *Appointed acting Director-General following the death of Lee Jong-wook while in office The head of the organization is the Director-General, elected by the World Health Assembly . The term lasts for 5 years, and Director-Generals are typically appointed in May, when the Assembly meets. The current Director-General is Dr. Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus , who was appointed on 1 July 2017. Employees [ edit ] The WHO employs 8,500 people in 147 countries. In support of the principle of a tobacco-free work environment, the WHO does not recruit cigarette smokers. The organization has previously instigated the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control in 2003. Goodwill Ambassadors [ edit ] The WHO operates " Goodwill Ambassadors "; members of the arts, sports, or other fields of public life aimed at drawing attention to WHO's initiatives and projects. There are currently five Goodwill Ambassadors ( Jet Li , Nancy Brinker , Peng Liyuan , Yohei Sasakawa and the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra ) and a further ambassador associated with a partnership project ( Craig David ). Country and liaison offices [ edit ] The World Health Organization operates 150 country offices in six different regions. It also operates several liaison offices, including those with the European Union , United Nations and a single office covering the World Bank and International Monetary Fund . It also operates the International Agency for Research on Cancer in Lyon , France, and the WHO Centre for Health Development in Kobe , Japan. Additional offices include those in Pristina ; the West Bank and Gaza ; the US-Mexico Border Field Office in El Paso ; the Office of the Caribbean Program Coordination in Barbados ; and the Northern Micronesia office. There will generally be one WHO country office in the capital, occasionally accompanied by satellite-offices in the provinces or sub-regions of the country in question. The country office is headed by a WHO Representative (WR). As of 2010 [update] , the only WHO Representative outside Europe to be a national of that country was for the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya ("Libya"); all other staff were international. WHO Representatives in the Region termed the Americas are referred to as PAHO/WHO Representatives. In Europe, WHO Representatives also serve as Head of Country Office, and are nationals with the exception of Serbia ; there are also Heads of Country Office in Albania , the Russian Federation , Tajikistan , Turkey , and Uzbekistan . The WR is member of the UN system country team which is coordinated by the UN System Resident Coordinator . The country office consists of the WR, and several health and other experts, both foreign and local, as well as the necessary support staff. The main functions of WHO country offices include being the primary adviser of that country's government in matters of health and pharmaceutical policies. Financing and partnerships [ edit ] The WHO is financed by contributions from member states and outside donors. As of 2012 [update] , the largest annual assessed contributions from member states came from the United States ($110 million), Japan ($58 million), Germany ($37 million), United Kingdom ($31 million) and France ($31 million). The combined 2012–2013 budget has proposed a total expenditure of $3,959 million, of which $944 million (24%) will come from assessed contributions. This represented a significant fall in outlay compared to the previous 2009–2010 budget, adjusting to take account of previous underspends. Assessed contributions were kept the same. Voluntary contributions will account for $3,015 million (76%), of which $800 million is regarded as highly or moderately flexible funding, with the remainder tied to particular programmes or objectives. In recent years, the WHO's work has involved increasing collaboration with external bodies. As of 2002 [update] , a total of 473 non-governmental organizations (NGO) had some form of partnership with WHO. There were 189 partnerships with international NGOs in formal "official relations" – the rest being considered informal in character. Partners include the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and the Rockefeller Foundation . Controversies [ edit ] IAEA – Agreement WHA 12–40 [ edit ] Alexey Yablokov (left) and Vassili Nesterenko (farthest right) protesting in front of the World Health Organization headquarters in Geneva , Switzerland in 2008. Demonstration on Chernobyl disaster day near WHO in Geneva In 1959, the WHO signed Agreement WHA 12–40 with the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). A selective reading of this document (clause 3) can result in the understanding that the IAEA is able to prevent the WHO from conducting research or work on some areas, as seen hereafter. The agreement states here that the WHO recognizes the IAEA as having responsibility for peaceful nuclear energy without prejudice to the roles of the WHO of promoting health. However, the following paragraph adds that "whenever either organization proposes to initiate a programme or activity on a subject in which the other organization has or may have a substantial interest, the first party shall consult the other with a view to adjusting the matter by mutual agreement". The nature of this statement has led some pressure groups and activists (including Women in Europe for a Common Future ) to claim that the WHO is restricted in its ability to investigate the effects on human health of radiation caused by the use of nuclear power and the continuing effects of nuclear disasters in Chernobyl and Fukushima . They believe WHO must regain what they see as "independence". However as pointed out by Foreman in clause 2 it states. “2. In particular, and in accordance with the Constitution of the World Health Organization and the Statute of the International Atomic Energy Agency and its agreement with the United Nations together with the exchange of letters related thereto, and taking into account the respective co-ordinating responsibilities of both organizations, it is recognized by the World Health Organization that the International Atomic Energy Agency has the primary responsibility for encouraging, assisting and co- ordinating research and development and practical application of atomic energy for peaceful uses throughout the world without prejudice to the right of the World Health Organization to concern itself with promoting, developing, assisting and co-ordinating international health work, including research, in all its aspects.” Clearly suggesting that the WHO is free to do as it sees fit on nuclear, radiation and other matters which relate to health. Roman Catholic Church and AIDS [ edit ] Main article: Roman Catholic Church and AIDS In 2003, the WHO denounced the Roman Curia 's health department's opposition to the use of condoms , saying: "These incorrect statements about condoms and HIV are dangerous when we are facing a global pandemic which has already killed more than 20 million people, and currently affects at least 42 million." As of 2009 [update] , the Catholic Church remains opposed to increasing the use of contraception to combat HIV/AIDS. At the time, the World Health Assembly President, Guyana 's Health Minister Leslie Ramsammy , has condemned Pope Benedict's opposition to contraception, saying he was trying to "create confusion" and "impede" proven strategies in the battle against the disease. Intermittent preventive therapy [ edit ] The aggressive support of the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation for intermittent preventive therapy of malaria triggered a memo from the former WHO malaria chief Akira Kochi. Diet and sugar intake [ edit ] Some of the research undertaken or supported by WHO to determine how people's lifestyles and environments are influencing whether they live in better or worse health can be controversial, as illustrated by a 2003 joint WHO/FAO report on nutrition and the prevention of chronic non-communicable disease , which recommended that sugar should form no more than 10% of a healthy diet . The report led to lobbying by the sugar industry against the recommendation, to which the WHO/FAO responded by including in the report this statement: "The Consultation recognized that a population goal for free sugars of less than 10% of total energy is controversial". It also stood by its recommendation based upon its own analysis of scientific studies. In 2014, WHO reduced recommended sugar levels by half and said that sugar should make up no more than 5% of a healthy diet. 2009 swine flu pandemic [ edit ] Main article: 2009 flu pandemic In 2007, the WHO organized work on pandemic influenza vaccine development through clinical trials in collaboration with many experts and health officials. A pandemic involving the H1N1 influenza virus was declared by the then Director-General Margaret Chan in April 2009. Margret Chan declared in 2010 that the H1N1 has moved into the post-pandemic period. By the post-pandemic period critics claimed the WHO had exaggerated the danger, spreading "fear and confusion" rather than "immediate information". Industry experts countered that the 2009 pandemic had led to "unprecedented collaboration between global health authorities, scientists and manufacturers, resulting in the most comprehensive pandemic response ever undertaken, with a number of vaccines approved for use three months after the pandemic declaration. This response was only possible because of the extensive preparations undertaken during the last decade". 2013–2016 Ebola outbreak and reform efforts [ edit ] Following the 2014 Ebola outbreak in West Africa, the organization was heavily criticized for its bureaucracy, insufficient financing, regional structure, and staffing profile. An internal WHO report on the Ebola response pointed to underfunding and the lack of "core capacity" in health systems in developing countries as the primary weaknesses of the existing system. At the annual World Health Assembly in 2015, Director-General Margaret Chan announced a $100 million Contingency Fund for rapid response to future emergencies, of which it had received $26.9 million by April 2016 (for 2017 disbursement). WHO has budgeted an additional $494 million for its Health Emergencies Programme in 2016–17, for which it had received $140 million by April 2016. The program was aimed at rebuilding WHO capacity for direct action, which critics said had been lost due to budget cuts in the previous decade that had left the organization in an advisory role dependent on member states for on-the-ground activities. In comparison, billions of dollars have been spent by developed countries on the 2013–2016 Ebola epidemic and 2015–16 Zika epidemic. FCTC implementation database [ edit ] The WHO has a Framework Convention on Tobacco implementation database which is one of the only mechanisms to help enforce compliance with the FCTC. However, there have been reports of numerous discrepancies between it and national implementation reports on which it was built. As researchers Hoffman and Rizvi report "As of July 4, 2012, 361 (32·7%) of 1104 countries' responses were misreported: 33 (3·0%) were clear errors (eg, database indicated “yes” when report indicated “no”), 270 (24·5%) were missing despite countries having submitted responses, and 58 (5·3%) were, in our opinion, misinterpreted by WHO staff". IARC controversies [ edit ] Further information: International Agency for Research on Cancer The World Health Organization sub-department, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), has been criticized for the way it analyses the tendency of certain substances and activities to cause cancer and for having a politically motivated bias when it selects studies for its analysis. Ed Yong, a British science journalist, has criticized the agency and its "confusing" category system for misleading the public. Marcel Kuntz, a French director of research at the French National Centre for Scientific Research , criticized the agency for its classification of potentially carcinogenic substances. He claimed that this classification did not take into account the extent of exposure: for example, red meat is qualified as probably carcinogenic, but the quantity of consumed red meat at which it could become dangerous is not specified. Controversies have erupted multiple times when the IARC has classified many things as Class 2a (probable carcinogens), including cell phone signals, glyphosate , drinking hot beverages, and working as a barber. Block of Taiwanese participation [ edit ] Political pressure from China has led to Taiwan being barred from membership of the WHO and other UN-affiliated organizations, and in both 2017 and 2018 the WHO refused to allow Taiwanese delegates to attend the WHO annual assembly . On multiple occasions Taiwanese journalists have been denied access to report on the assembly. In May 2018, 172 members of the United States House of Representatives wrote to the Director General of the World Health Organization to argue for Taiwan's inclusion as an observer at the WHA. Travel expenses [ edit ] According to The Associated Press , the WHO routinely spends about $200 million a year on travel expenses, more than it spends to tackle mental health problems, HIV/AIDS , Tuberculosis and Malaria combined. In 2016, Margaret Chan , Director-General of WHO from November 2006 to June 2017, stayed in a $1000 per night hotel room while visiting West Africa . Robert Mugabe's role as a goodwill ambassador [ edit ] On 21 October 2017, the Director General Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus appointed former Zimbabwean president Robert Mugabe as a WHO Goodwill Ambassador to help promote the fight against non-communicable diseases. The appointment address praised Mugabe for his commitment to public health in Zimbabwe . The appointment attracted widespread condemnation and criticism in WHO member states and international organizations due to Robert Mugabe's poor record on human rights and presiding over a decline in Zimbabwe's public health. Due to the outcry, the following day the appointment was revoked. World headquarters [ edit ] The seat of the organization is in Geneva , Switzerland. It was designed by Swiss architect Jean Tschumi and inaugurated in 1966. In 2017, the organization launched an international competition to redesign and extend its headquarters. Early views [ edit ] On a 1966 stamp of the German Democratic Republic Stairwell , 1969 Internal courtyard , 1969 Reflecting pool , 1969 Exterior, 1969 Views 2013 [ edit ] WHO Headquarters from Southwest WHO Headquarters from South WHO Headquarters from East WHO Headquarters from North WHO Headquarters from West WHO Headquarters main entrance WHO Headquarters entrance hall WHO Headquarters main conference room See also [ edit ] Global health Global Mental Health Healthy city / Alliance for Healthy Cities , an international alliance Health For All Health promotion Health Sciences Online , virtual learning resources High 5s Project , a patient safety collaboration International Health Partnership International Labour Organization List of most polluted cities in the world by particulate matter concentration Open Learning for Development , virtual learning resources Public health Sustainable Development The Partnership for Maternal, Newborn and Child Health Timeline of global health Tropical disease United Nations Interagency Task Force on the Prevention and Control of NCDs WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control WHO Guidelines for drinking-water quality WHO Pesticide Evaluation Scheme Notes and references [ edit ] External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to World Health Organization . Wikiquote has quotations related to: World Health Organization Official website "Staff regulations and staff rules" (pdf) . WHO. February 2016. Coordinates : 46°13′56″N 06°08′03″E  /  46.23222°N 6.13417°E  / 46.23222; 6.13417

train

who is involved in the world health organization

As of 2016, the WHO has 194 member states : all of them Member States of the United Nations except for the Cook Islands and Niue. (A state becomes a full member of WHO by ratifying the treaty known as the Constitution of the World Health Organization.) As of 2013, it also had two associate members, Puerto Rico and Tokelau. Several other countries have been granted observer status. Palestine is an observer as a `` national liberation movement '' recognized by the League of Arab States under United Nations Resolution 3118. The Holy See also attends as an observer, as does the Order of Malta. In 2010, Taiwan was invited under the name of `` Chinese Taipei ''.

['38,622.57', '5 september']

tani ẹni tí ó wà nínú àjọ ìlera àgbáyé

Yes

['Àjọ Ìlera Àgbáyé ti agekuru re nje WHO jẹ́ àjọ Àgbájọ àwọn Orílẹ̀-èdè Aṣòkan tí wọ́n dá sílẹ̀ fún ètò ìlera gbogbo àgbáyé.']

['Àjọ Ìlera Àgbáyé ti agekuru re nje WHO jẹ́ àjọ Àgbájọ àwọn Orílẹ̀-èdè Aṣòkan tí wọ́n dá sílẹ̀ fún ètò ìlera gbogbo àgbáyé.']

['P1']

Àj? Ìlera Àgbáyé Àj? Ìlera Àgbáyé ti agekuru re nje WHO j?? àj? Àgbáj? àw?n Oríl??-èdè A?òkan tí w??n dá síl?? fún ètò ìlera gbogbo àgbáyé[1]. Erongba dida WHO sile ni "ki gbogbo eniyan le de ipele ilera to ga ju to see see".[2] Olú ilé i??? r?? wà ní Geneva, Swítsàlandì,[3] o si ni ile-ise agbegbe mefa ati ibi ise àád??j? kaakiri agbaye. W??n dáa WHO síl?? ní ?j?? keje O?ù k?rin ?dún 1948.[4][5] Ipade akoko ti apejo ilera agbaye, ajo ti o n sakoso WHO, waye ni ojo kerinlelogun osu keje odun naa. Àj? Ìlera Àgbáyé gba awon dukia, osise, ati ojuse Ajo Ilera ti Ajumose Orilede, ile-ise agbaye d'Hygiène Publique, ati isori ailera gbogboogbo mora.[6] Ise re bere ni odun 1951 leyin asopo ti oro inawo ati ise ona to lapere.[7] Ète àti èròngbà aáj? WHO ni láti mú kí ìlera pé káàkiri àgbáyé. W??n ma ? ran àw?n oríl??-èdè àgbáyé l??w?? láti k?jú àrùn, w??n sì ma ? ?e òfin nípa ètò ìlera láti mú kí ìlera péye. Àj? WHO kó ipa ribiribi nínú líle àrùn smallpox sígbó, nínú ì???gun ribiribi tí ìran ènìyàn ti ní lórí Àrùn Polio, àti nínú ?í?e ab??r?? ajé sára Àrùn Ebola. Àw?n nkan tí ó múmú láyà w?n l??w?? ni ??nà láti ségun àw?n àrùn tí ó sé ràn, pàápàá jù l? àrùn Àrùn HIV/AIDS, Ebola, COVID-19, àìsàn ibà àti ik?? ??gb?; àw?n àrùn tí ó sé ràn bi àrùn ?kàn àti àrùn j?j?r?; àti b???? b???? l?.

"WHO" redirects here. For other uses, see Who (disambiguation) . World Health Organization Flag of the World Health Organization Abbreviation WHO OMS Formation 7 April 1948 ; 70 years ago ( 1948-04-07 ) Type Specialized agency of the United Nations Legal status Active Headquarters Geneva , Switzerland Head Tedros Adhanom , Director-General Parent organization United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) Website www .who .int The World Health Organization ( WHO ) is a specialized agency of the United Nations that is concerned with international public health . It was established on 7 April 1948, and is headquartered in Geneva , Switzerland . The WHO is a member of the United Nations Development Group . Its predecessor, the Health Organization, was an agency of the League of Nations . The constitution of the World Health Organization had been signed by 63 countries on 7 April 1948, with the first meeting of the World Health Assembly finishing on 24 July 1948. It incorporated the Office International d'Hygiène Publique and the League of Nations Health Organization. Since its establishment, it has played a leading role in the eradication of smallpox . Its current priorities include communicable diseases , in particular HIV/AIDS , Ebola , malaria and tuberculosis ; the mitigation of the effects of non-communicable diseases such as sexual and reproductive health , development, and aging; nutrition, food security and healthy eating; occupational health; substance abuse; and driving the development of reporting, publications, and networking. The WHO is responsible for the World Health Report , the worldwide World Health Survey, and World Health Day . The current Director-General of WHO is Tedros Adhanom , who started his five-year term on 1 July 2017. Contents 1 History 1.1 Origins 1.2 Establishment 1.3 Operational history 1.4 Overall focus 1.5 Communicable diseases 1.6 Non-communicable diseases 1.7 Environmental health 1.8 Life course and life style 1.9 Surgery and trauma care 1.10 Emergency work 1.11 Health policy 1.12 Governance and support 1.12.1 Partnerships 1.12.2 Public health education and action 1.13 Data handling and publications 2 Structure 2.1 Membership 2.2 World Health Assembly and Executive Board 2.3 Regional offices 2.4 Director-General 2.5 Employees 2.6 Goodwill Ambassadors 2.7 Country and liaison offices 2.8 Financing and partnerships 3 Controversies 3.1 IAEA – Agreement WHA 12–40 3.2 Roman Catholic Church and AIDS 3.3 Intermittent preventive therapy 3.4 Diet and sugar intake 3.5 2009 swine flu pandemic 3.6 2013–2016 Ebola outbreak and reform efforts 3.7 FCTC implementation database 3.8 IARC controversies 3.9 Block of Taiwanese participation 3.10 Travel expenses 3.11 Robert Mugabe's role as a goodwill ambassador 4 World headquarters 4.1 Early views 4.2 Views 2013 5 See also 6 Notes and references 7 External links History [ edit ] Origins [ edit ] The International Sanitary Conferences , originally held on 23 June 1851, were the first predecessors of the WHO. A series of 14 conferences that lasted from 1851 to 1938, the International Sanitary Conferences worked to combat many diseases, chief among them cholera , yellow fever , and the bubonic plague . The conferences were largely ineffective until the seventh, in 1892; when an International Sanitary Convention that dealt with cholera was passed. Five years later, a convention for the plague was signed. In part as a result of the successes of the Conferences, the Pan-American Sanitary Bureau , and the Office International d'Hygiène Publique were soon founded in 1902 and 1907, respectively. When the League of Nations was formed in 1920, they established the Health Organization of the League of Nations. After World War II , the United Nations absorbed all the other health organizations, to form the WHO. Establishment [ edit ] During the 1945 United Nations Conference on International Organization, Szeming Sze , a delegate from China , conferred with Norwegian and Brazilian delegates on creating an international health organization under the auspices of the new United Nations. After failing to get a resolution passed on the subject, Alger Hiss , the Secretary General of the conference, recommended using a declaration to establish such an organization. Sze and other delegates lobbied and a declaration passed calling for an international conference on health. The use of the word "world", rather than "international", emphasized the truly global nature of what the organization was seeking to achieve. The constitution of the World Health Organization was signed by all 51 countries of the United Nations, and by 10 other countries, on 22 July 1946. It thus became the first specialized agency of the United Nations to which every member subscribed. Its constitution formally came into force on the first World Health Day on 7 April 1948, when it was ratified by the 26th member state. The first meeting of the World Health Assembly finished on 24 July 1948, having secured a budget of US$5 million (then GB£1,250,000 ) for the 1949 year. Andrija Stampar was the Assembly's first president, and G. Brock Chisholm was appointed Director-General of WHO, having served as Executive Secretary during the planning stages. Its first priorities were to control the spread of malaria , tuberculosis and sexually transmitted infections , and to improve maternal and child health , nutrition and environmental hygiene. Its first legislative act was concerning the compilation of accurate statistics on the spread and morbidity of disease . The logo of the World Health Organization features the Rod of Asclepius as a symbol for healing. Operational history [ edit ] Three former directors of the Global Smallpox Eradication Programme read the news that smallpox had been globally eradicated, 1980 In 1947 the WHO established an epidemiological information service via telex , and by 1950 a mass tuberculosis inoculation drive using the BCG vaccine was under way. In 1955, the malaria eradication programme was launched, although it was later altered in objective. 1965 saw the first report on diabetes mellitus and the creation of the International Agency for Research on Cancer . In 1958, Viktor Zhdanov , Deputy Minister of Health for the USSR , called on the World Health Assembly to undertake a global initiative to eradicate smallpox, resulting in Resolution WHA11.54. At this point, 2 million people were dying from smallpox every year. [ citation needed ] In 1966, the WHO moved its headquarters from the Ariana wing at the Palace of Nations to a newly constructed HQ elsewhere in Geneva. In 1967, the World Health Organization intensified the global smallpox eradication by contributing $2.4 million annually to the effort and adopted a new disease surveillance method. The initial problem the WHO team faced was inadequate reporting of smallpox cases. WHO established a network of consultants who assisted countries in setting up surveillance and containment activities. The WHO also helped contain the last European outbreak in Yugoslavia in 1972 . After over two decades of fighting smallpox , the WHO declared in 1979 that the disease had been eradicated – the first disease in history to be eliminated by human effort. Also in 1967, the WHO launched the Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases and the World Health Assembly voted to enact a resolution on Disability Prevention and Rehabilitation, with a focus on community-driven care. In 1974, the Expanded Programme on Immunization and the control programme of onchocerciasis was started, an important partnership between the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), and the World Bank . In 1977, the first list of essential medicines was drawn up, and a year later the ambitious goal of " health for all " was declared. In 1986, the WHO began its global programme on HIV/AIDS . Two years later preventing discrimination against sufferers was attended to and in 1996 UNAIDS was formed. In 1988, the Global Polio Eradication Initiative was established. In 1998, WHO's Director-General highlighted gains in child survival, reduced infant mortality , increased life expectancy and reduced rates of "scourges" such as smallpox and polio on the fiftieth anniversary of WHO's founding. He, did, however, accept that more had to be done to assist maternal health and that progress in this area had been slow. In 2000, the Stop TB Partnership was created along with the UN's formulation of the Millennium Development Goals . In 2001 the measles initiative was formed, and credited with reducing global deaths from the disease by 68% by 2007. In 2002, The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria was drawn up to improve the resources available. In 2006, the organization endorsed the world's first official HIV/AIDS Toolkit for Zimbabwe, which formed the basis for a global prevention, treatment and support plan to fight the AIDS pandemic . Overall focus [ edit ] The WHO's Constitution states that its objective "is the attainment by all people of the highest possible level of health". The WHO fulfills this objective through its functions as defined in its Constitution: (a) To act as the directing and coordinating authority on international health work; (b) To establish and maintain effective collaboration with the United Nations, specialized agencies, governmental health administrations, professional groups and such other organizations as may be deemed appropriate; (c) To assist Governments, upon request, in strengthening health services; (d) To furnish appropriate technical assistance and, in emergencies, necessary aid upon the request or acceptance of Governments; (e) To provide or assist in providing, upon the request of the United Nations, health services and facilities to special groups, such as the peoples of trust territories; (f) To establish and maintain such administrative and technical services as may be required, including epidemiological and statistical services; (g) to stimulate and advance work to eradicate epidemic, endemic and other diseases; (h) To promote, in co-operation with other specialized agencies where necessary, the prevention of accidental injuries; (i) To promote, in co-operation with other specialized agencies where necessary, the improvement of nutrition, housing, sanitation, recreation, economic or working conditions and other aspects of environmental hygiene; (j) To promote co-operation among scientific and professional groups which contribute to the advancement of health; (k) To propose conventions, agreements and regulations, and make recommendations with respect to international health matters and to perform. [ citation needed ] As of 2012 [update] , the WHO has defined its role in public health as follows: providing leadership on matters critical to health and engaging in partnerships where joint action is needed; shaping the research agenda and stimulating the generation, translation, and dissemination of valuable knowledge; setting norms and standards and promoting and monitoring their implementation; articulating ethical and evidence-based policy options; providing technical support, catalyzing change, and building sustainable institutional capacity; and monitoring the health situation and assessing health trends. CRVS (Civil Registration and Vital Statistics) to provide monitoring of vital events (birth, death, wedding, divorce). Communicable diseases [ edit ] The 2012–2013 WHO budget identified 5 areas among which funding was distributed. Two of those five areas related to communicable diseases : the first, to reduce the "health, social and economic burden" of communicable diseases in general; the second to combat HIV/AIDS , malaria and tuberculosis in particular. As of 2015, the WHO has worked within the UNAIDS network and strived to involve sections of society other than health to help deal with the economic and social effects of HIV/AIDS . In line with UNAIDS, WHO has set itself the interim task between 2009 and 2015 of reducing the number of those aged 15–24 years who are infected by 50%; reducing new HIV infections in children by 90%; and reducing HIV-related deaths by 25%. During the 1970s, WHO had dropped its commitment to a global malaria eradication campaign as too ambitious, it retained a strong commitment to malaria control. WHO's Global Malaria Programme works to keep track of malaria cases, and future problems in malaria control schemes. As of 2012, the WHO was to report as to whether RTS,S /AS01, were a viable malaria vaccine . For the time being, insecticide -treated mosquito nets and insecticide sprays are used to prevent the spread of malaria, as are antimalarial drugs – particularly to vulnerable people such as pregnant women and young children. Between 1990 and 2010, WHO's help has contributed to a 40% decline in the number of deaths from tuberculosis , and since 2005, over 46 million people have been treated and an estimated 7 million lives saved through practices advocated by WHO. These include engaging national governments and their financing, early diagnosis, standardizing treatment, monitoring of the spread and effect of tuberculosis and stabilising the drug supply. It has also recognized the vulnerability of victims of HIV/AIDS to tuberculosis. In 1988, WHO launched the Global Polio Eradication Initiative to eradicate polio . [ citation needed ] It has also been successful in helping to reduce cases by 99% since which partnered WHO with Rotary International , the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), and smaller organizations. As of 2011 [update] , it has been working to immunize young children and prevent the re-emergence of cases in countries declared "polio-free". In 2017, a study was conducted where why Polio Vaccines may not be enough to eradicate the Virus & conduct new technology. Polio is now on the verge of extinction, thanks to a Global Vaccination Drive. the World Health Organization (WHO) stated the eradication programme has saved millions from deadly disease. [ citation needed ] Non-communicable diseases [ edit ] Another of the thirteen WHO priority areas is aimed at the prevention and reduction of "disease, disability and premature deaths from chronic noncommunicable diseases , mental disorders , violence and injuries , and visual impairment ". The Division of Noncommunicable Diseases for Promoting Health through the Life-course Sexual and Reproductive Health has published the magazine, Entre Nous , across Europe since 1983. Environmental health [ edit ] The WHO estimates that 12.6 million people died as a result of living or working in an unhealthy environment in 2012 – this accounts for nearly 1 in 4 of total global deaths. Environmental risk factors, such as air, water and soil pollution, chemical exposures, climate change, and ultraviolet radiation, contribute to more than 100 diseases and injuries. This can result in a number of pollution-related diseases . Life course and life style [ edit ] WHO works to "reduce morbidity and mortality and improve health during key stages of life, including pregnancy, childbirth, the neonatal period , childhood and adolescence, and improve sexual and reproductive health and promote active and healthy aging for all individuals". It also tries to prevent or reduce risk factors for "health conditions associated with use of tobacco, alcohol, drugs and other psychoactive substances, unhealthy diets and physical inactivity and unsafe sex ". The WHO works to improve nutrition, food safety and food security and to ensure this has a positive effect on public health and sustainable development . Surgery and trauma care [ edit ] The WHO promotes road safety as a means to reduce traffic-related injuries. The WHO has also worked on global initiatives in surgery, including emergency and essential surgical care, trauma care, and safe surgery. The WHO Surgical Safety Checklist is in current use worldwide in the effort to improve patient safety. Emergency work [ edit ] The World Health Organization's primary objective in natural and man-made emergencies is to coordinate with member states and other stakeholders to "reduce avoidable loss of life and the burden of disease and disability." On 5 May 2014, WHO announced that the spread of polio was a world health emergency – outbreaks of the disease in Asia , Africa , and the Middle East were considered "extraordinary". On 8 August 2014, WHO declared that the spread of Ebola was a public health emergency; an outbreak which was believed to have started in Guinea had spread to other nearby countries such as Liberia and Sierra Leone . The situation in West Africa was considered very serious. Health policy [ edit ] WHO addresses government health policy with two aims: firstly, "to address the underlying social and economic determinants of health through policies and programmes that enhance health equity and integrate pro-poor, gender-responsive, and human rights-based approaches" and secondly "to promote a healthier environment, intensify primary prevention and influence public policies in all sectors so as to address the root causes of environmental threats to health". The organization develops and promotes the use of evidence-based tools, norms and standards to support member states to inform health policy options. It oversees the implementation of the International Health Regulations , and publishes a series of medical classifications ; of these, three are over-reaching "reference classifications": the International Statistical Classification of Diseases (ICD), the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) and the International Classification of Health Interventions (ICHI). Other international policy frameworks produced by WHO include the International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes (adopted in 1981), Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (adopted in 2003) and the Global Code of Practice on the International Recruitment of Health Personnel (adopted in 2010). In terms of health services, WHO looks to improve "governance, financing, staffing and management" and the availability and quality of evidence and research to guide policy. It also strives to "ensure improved access, quality and use of medical products and technologies". WHO – working with donor agencies and national governments – can improve their use of and their reporting about their use of research evidence. Governance and support [ edit ] The remaining two of WHO's thirteen identified policy areas relate to the role of WHO itself: "to provide leadership, strengthen governance and foster partnership and collaboration with countries, the United Nations system, and other stakeholders in order to fulfill the mandate of WHO in advancing the global health agenda"; and "to develop and sustain WHO as a flexible, learning organization, enabling it to carry out its mandate more efficiently and effectively". Partnerships [ edit ] The WHO along with the World Bank constitute the core team responsible for administering the International Health Partnership (IHP+). The IHP+ is a group of partner governments, development agencies, civil society and others committed to improving the health of citizens in developing countries . Partners work together to put international principles for aid effectiveness and development co-operation into practice in the health sector. The organization relies on contributions from renowned scientists and professionals to inform its work, such as the WHO Expert Committee on Biological Standardization , the WHO Expert Committee on Leprosy , and the WHO Study Group on Interprofessional Education & Collaborative Practice . WHO runs the Alliance for Health Policy and Systems Research, targeted at improving health policy and systems . WHO also aims to improve access to health research and literature in developing countries such as through the HINARI network. Public health education and action [ edit ] Each year, the organization marks World Health Day and other observances focusing on a specific health promotion topic. World Health Day falls on 7 April each year, timed to match the anniversary of WHO's founding. Recent themes have been vector-borne diseases (2014), healthy ageing (2012) and drug resistance (2011). The other official global public health campaigns marked by WHO are World Tuberculosis Day , World Immunization Week , World Malaria Day , World No Tobacco Day , World Blood Donor Day , World Hepatitis Day , and World AIDS Day . As part of the United Nations, the World Health Organization supports work towards the Millennium Development Goals . Of the eight Millennium Development Goals, three – reducing child mortality by two-thirds, to reduce maternal deaths by three-quarters, and to halt and begin to reduce the spread of HIV/AIDS – relate directly to WHO's scope; the other five inter-relate and affect world health. Data handling and publications [ edit ] The World Health Organization works to provide the needed health and well-being evidence through a variety of data collection platforms, including the World Health Survey covering almost 400,000 respondents from 70 countries, and the Study on Global Aging and Adult Health (SAGE) covering over 50,000 persons over 50 years old in 23 countries. The Country Health Intelligence Portal (CHIP), has also been developed to provide an access point to information about the health services that are available in different countries. The information gathered in this portal is used by the countries to set priorities for future strategies or plans, implement, monitor, and evaluate it. The WHO has published various tools for measuring and monitoring the capacity of national health systems and health workforces . The Global Health Observatory (GHO) has been the WHO's main portal which provides access to data and analyses for key health themes by monitoring health situations around the globe. The WHO Assessment Instrument for Mental Health Systems (WHO-AIMS), the WHO Quality Of Life Instrument (WHOQOL), and the Service Availability and Readiness Assessment (SARA) provide guidance for data collection. Collaborative efforts between WHO and other agencies, such as through the Health Metrics Network , also aim to provide sufficient high-quality information to assist governmental decision making. WHO promotes the development of capacities in member states to use and produce research that addresses their national needs, including through the Evidence-Informed Policy Network (EVIPNet). The Pan American Health Organization (PAHO/AMRO) became the first region to develop and pass a policy on research for health approved in September 2009. On 10 December 2013, a new WHO database, known as MiNDbank , went online. The database was launched on Human Rights Day , and is part of WHO's QualityRights initiative, which aims to end human rights violations against people with mental health conditions. The new database presents a great deal of information about mental health, substance abuse, disability, human rights, and the different policies, strategies, laws, and service standards being implemented in different countries. It also contains important international documents and information. The database allows visitors to access the health information of WHO member states and other partners. Users can review policies, laws, and strategies and search for the best practices and success stories in the field of mental health. The WHO regularly publishes a World Health Report , its leading publication, including an expert assessment of a specific global health topic. Other publications of WHO include the Bulletin of the World Health Organization , the Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal (overseen by EMRO), the Human Resources for Health (published in collaboration with BioMed Central ), and the Pan American Journal of Public Health (overseen by PAHO/AMRO). Structure [ edit ] The World Health Organization is a member of the United Nations Development Group . Membership [ edit ] Countries by World Health Organization membership status As of 2016 [update] , the WHO has 194 member states: all of them Member States of the United Nations except for the Cook Islands and Niue . (A state becomes a full member of WHO by ratifying the treaty known as the Constitution of the World Health Organization.) As of 2013 [update] , it also had two associate members, Puerto Rico and Tokelau . Several other countries have been granted observer status . Palestine is an observer as a "national liberation movement" recognized by the League of Arab States under United Nations Resolution 3118. The Holy See also attends as an observer, as does the Order of Malta . In 2010, Taiwan was invited under the name of " Chinese Taipei ". WHO Member States appoint delegations to the World Health Assembly , WHO's supreme decision-making body. All UN Member States are eligible for WHO membership, and, according to the WHO website, "other countries may be admitted as members when their application has been approved by a simple majority vote of the World Health Assembly". Liechtenstein is currently the only UN member not in the WHO membership. In addition, the UN observer organizations International Committee of the Red Cross and International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies have entered into "official relations" with WHO and are invited as observers. In the World Health Assembly they are seated alongside the other NGOs. World Health Assembly and Executive Board [ edit ] WHO Headquarters in Geneva The World Health Assembly (WHA) is the legislative and supreme body of WHO. Based in Geneva, it typically meets yearly in May. It appoints the Director-General every five years and votes on matters of policy and finance of WHO, including the proposed budget. It also reviews reports of the Executive Board and decides whether there are areas of work requiring further examination. The Assembly elects 34 members, technically qualified in the field of health, to the Executive Board for three-year terms. The main functions of the Board are to carry out the decisions and policies of the Assembly, to advise it and to facilitate its work. The World Health Assembly's President is . The current chairman of the executive board is Dr. Assad Hafeez . Regional offices [ edit ] Map of the WHO's Regional offices and their respective operating regions. Africa; HQ: Brazzaville , Republic of Congo Western Pacific; HQ: Manila , Philippines Eastern Mediterranean ; HQ: Cairo , Egypt South East Asia; HQ: New Delhi , India Europe; HQ: Copenhagen , Denmark Americas; HQ: Washington D.C., USA The regional divisions of WHO were created between 1949 and 1952, and are based on article 44 of the WHO's constitution, which allowed the WHO to "establish a [single] regional organization to meet the special needs of [each defined] area". Many decisions are made at regional level, including important discussions over WHO's budget, and in deciding the members of the next assembly, which are designated by the regions. Each region has a Regional Committee, which generally meets once a year, normally in the autumn. Representatives attend from each member or associative member in each region, including those states that are not fully recognized. For example, Palestine attends meetings of the Eastern Mediterranean Regional office . Each region also has a regional office. Each Regional Office is headed by a Regional Director, who is elected by the Regional Committee. The Board must approve such appointments, although as of 2004, it had never over-ruled the preference of a regional committee. The exact role of the board in the process has been a subject of debate, but the practical effect has always been small. Since 1999, Regional Directors serve for a once-renewable five-year term, and typically take their position on 1 February. Each Regional Committee of the WHO consists of all the Health Department heads, in all the governments of the countries that constitute the Region. Aside from electing the Regional Director, the Regional Committee is also in charge of setting the guidelines for the implementation, within the region, of the health and other policies adopted by the World Health Assembly . The Regional Committee also serves as a progress review board for the actions of WHO within the Region. [ citation needed ] The Regional Director is effectively the head of WHO for his or her Region. The RD manages and/or supervises a staff of health and other experts at the regional offices and in specialized centres. The RD is also the direct supervising authority—concomitantly with the WHO Director-General—of all the heads of WHO country offices, known as WHO Representatives, within the Region. [ citation needed ] Regional Offices of WHO Region Headquarters Notes Website Africa Brazzaville , Republic of Congo AFRO includes most of Africa, with the exception of Egypt , Sudan , Djibouti , Tunisia , Libya , Somalia and Morocco (all fall under EMRO). The Regional Director is Dr. Matshidiso Moeti, a Botswanan national. (Tenure: -Present). AFRO Europe Copenhagen , Denmark. EURO includes all of Europe (except Liechtenstein ) Israel , and all of the former USSR . The Regional Director is Dr. Zsuzsanna Jakab, a Hungarian national (Tenure: 2010 – present). EURO South-East Asia New Delhi , India North Korea is served by SEARO. The Regional Director is Dr. Poonam Khetrapal Singh, an Indian national (Tenure: 2014 – present). SEARO Eastern Mediterranean Cairo , Egypt The Eastern Mediterranean Regional Office serves the countries of Africa that are not included in AFRO, as well as all countries in the Middle East except for Israel. Pakistan is served by EMRO. The Regional Director is Dr. Ahmed Al-Mandhari, an Omani national (Tenure: 2018 – present). EMRO Western Pacific Manila , Philippines. WPRO covers all the Asian countries not served by SEARO and EMRO, and all the countries in Oceania. South Korea is served by WPRO. The Regional Director is Dr. Shin Young-soo, a South Korean national (Tenure: 2009 – present). WPRO The Americas Washington D.C. , USA. Also known as the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO), and covers the Americas . The WHO Regional Director is Dr. Carissa F. Etienne , a Dominican national (Tenure: 2013 – present). AMRO Director-General [ edit ] Directors-General of the WHO Name and Nationality Years of tenure Tedros Adhanom 2017 – present Margaret Chan 2007–2017 Anders Nordström * 2006–2007 Lee Jong-wook 2003–2006 Gro Harlem Brundtland 1998–2003 Hiroshi Nakajima 1988–1998 Halfdan T. Mahler 1973–1988 Marcolino Gomes Candau 1953–1973 Brock Chisholm 1948–1953 *Appointed acting Director-General following the death of Lee Jong-wook while in office The head of the organization is the Director-General, elected by the World Health Assembly . The term lasts for 5 years, and Director-Generals are typically appointed in May, when the Assembly meets. The current Director-General is Dr. Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus , who was appointed on 1 July 2017. Employees [ edit ] The WHO employs 8,500 people in 147 countries. In support of the principle of a tobacco-free work environment, the WHO does not recruit cigarette smokers. The organization has previously instigated the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control in 2003. Goodwill Ambassadors [ edit ] The WHO operates " Goodwill Ambassadors "; members of the arts, sports, or other fields of public life aimed at drawing attention to WHO's initiatives and projects. There are currently five Goodwill Ambassadors ( Jet Li , Nancy Brinker , Peng Liyuan , Yohei Sasakawa and the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra ) and a further ambassador associated with a partnership project ( Craig David ). Country and liaison offices [ edit ] The World Health Organization operates 147 country offices in all its regions. It also operates several liaison offices, including those with the European Union , United Nations and a single office covering the World Bank and International Monetary Fund . It also operates the International Agency for Research on Cancer in Lyon , France, and the WHO Centre for Health Development in Kobe , Japan. Additional offices include those in Pristina ; the West Bank and Gaza ; the US-Mexico Border Field Office in El Paso ; the Office of the Caribbean Program Coordination in Barbados ; and the Northern Micronesia office. There will generally be one WHO country office in the capital, occasionally accompanied by satellite-offices in the provinces or sub-regions of the country in question. The country office is headed by a WHO Representative (WR). As of 2010 [update] , the only WHO Representative outside Europe to be a national of that country was for the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya ("Libya"); all other staff were international. WHO Representatives in the Region termed the Americas are referred to as PAHO/WHO Representatives. In Europe, WHO Representatives also serve as Head of Country Office, and are nationals with the exception of Serbia ; there are also Heads of Country Office in Albania , the Russian Federation , Tajikistan , Turkey , and Uzbekistan . The WR is member of the UN system country team which is coordinated by the UN System Resident Coordinator . The country office consists of the WR, and several health and other experts, both foreign and local, as well as the necessary support staff. The main functions of WHO country offices include being the primary adviser of that country's government in matters of health and pharmaceutical policies. Financing and partnerships [ edit ] The WHO is financed by contributions from member states and outside donors. As of 2012 [update] , the largest annual assessed contributions from member states came from the United States ($110 million), Japan ($58 million), Germany ($37 million), United Kingdom ($31 million) and France ($31 million). The combined 2012–2013 budget has proposed a total expenditure of $3,959 million, of which $944 million (24%) will come from assessed contributions. This represented a significant fall in outlay compared to the previous 2009–2010 budget, adjusting to take account of previous underspends. Assessed contributions were kept the same. Voluntary contributions will account for $3,015 million (76%), of which $800 million is regarded as highly or moderately flexible funding, with the remainder tied to particular programmes or objectives. In recent years, the WHO's work has involved increasing collaboration with external bodies. As of 2002 [update] , a total of 473 non-governmental organizations (NGO) had some form of partnership with WHO. There were 189 partnerships with international NGOs in formal "official relations" – the rest being considered informal in character. Partners include the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and the Rockefeller Foundation . Controversies [ edit ] IAEA – Agreement WHA 12–40 [ edit ] Alexey Yablokov (left) and Vassili Nesterenko (farthest right) protesting in front of the World Health Organization headquarters in Geneva , Switzerland in 2008. Demonstration on Chernobyl disaster day near WHO in Geneva In 1959, the WHO signed Agreement WHA 12–40 with the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). A reading of this document can result in the understanding that the IAEA is able to prevent the WHO from conducting research or work on some areas, as seen hereafter. The agreement states that the WHO recognizes the IAEA as having responsibility for peaceful nuclear energy without prejudice to the roles of the WHO of promoting health. However, the following paragraph adds that "whenever either organization proposes to initiate a programme or activity on a subject in which the other organization has or may have a substantial interest, the first party shall consult the other with a view to adjusting the matter by mutual agreement". The nature of this statement has led some pressure groups and activists (including Women in Europe for a Common Future ) to claim that the WHO is restricted in its ability to investigate the effects on human health of radiation caused by the use of nuclear power and the continuing effects of nuclear disasters in Chernobyl and Fukushima . They believe WHO must regain what they see as "independence". Roman Catholic Church and AIDS [ edit ] Main article: Roman Catholic Church and AIDS In 2003, the WHO denounced the Roman Curia 's health department's opposition to the use of condoms , saying: "These incorrect statements about condoms and HIV are dangerous when we are facing a global pandemic which has already killed more than 20 million people, and currently affects at least 42 million." As of 2009 [update] , the Catholic Church remains opposed to increasing the use of contraception to combat HIV/AIDS. At the time, the World Health Assembly President, Guyana 's Health Minister Leslie Ramsammy , has condemned Pope Benedict's opposition to contraception, saying he was trying to "create confusion" and "impede" proven strategies in the battle against the disease. Intermittent preventive therapy [ edit ] The aggressive support of the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation for intermittent preventive therapy of malaria triggered a memo from the former WHO malaria chief Akira Kochi. Diet and sugar intake [ edit ] Some of the research undertaken or supported by WHO to determine how people's lifestyles and environments are influencing whether they live in better or worse health can be controversial, as illustrated by a 2003 joint WHO/FAO report on nutrition and the prevention of chronic non-communicable disease , which recommended that sugar should form no more than 10% of a healthy diet . The report led to lobbying by the sugar industry against the recommendation, to which the WHO/FAO responded by including in the report this statement: "The Consultation recognized that a population goal for free sugars of less than 10% of total energy is controversial". It also stood by its recommendation based upon its own analysis of scientific studies. In 2014, WHO reduced recommended sugar levels by half and said that sugar should make up no more than 5% of a healthy diet. 2009 swine flu pandemic [ edit ] Main article: 2009 flu pandemic In 2007, the WHO organized work on pandemic influenza vaccine development through clinical trials in collaboration with many experts and health officials. A pandemic involving the H1N1 influenza virus was declared by the then Director-General Margaret Chan in April 2009. Margret Chan declared in 2010 that the H1N1 has moved into the post-pandemic period. By the post-pandemic period critics claimed the WHO had exaggerated the danger, spreading "fear and confusion" rather than "immediate information". Industry experts countered that the 2009 pandemic had led to "unprecedented collaboration between global health authorities, scientists and manufacturers, resulting in the most comprehensive pandemic response ever undertaken, with a number of vaccines approved for use three months after the pandemic declaration. This response was only possible because of the extensive preparations undertaken during the last decade". 2013–2016 Ebola outbreak and reform efforts [ edit ] Following the 2014 Ebola outbreak in West Africa, the organization was heavily criticized for its bureaucracy, insufficient financing, regional structure, and staffing profile. An internal WHO report on the Ebola response pointed to underfunding and the lack of "core capacity" in health systems in developing countries as the primary weaknesses of the existing system. At the annual World Health Assembly in 2015, Director-General Margaret Chan announced a $100 million Contingency Fund for rapid response to future emergencies, of which it had received $26.9 million by April 2016 (for 2017 disbursement). WHO has budgeted an additional $494 million for its Health Emergencies Programme in 2016–17, for which it had received $140 million by April 2016. The program was aimed at rebuilding WHO capacity for direct action, which critics said had been lost due to budget cuts in the previous decade that had left the organization in an advisory role dependent on member states for on-the-ground activities. In comparison, billions of dollars have been spent by developed countries on the 2013–2016 Ebola epidemic and 2015–16 Zika epidemic. FCTC implementation database [ edit ] The WHO has a Framework Convention on Tobacco implementation database which is one of the only mechanisms to help enforce compliance with the FCTC. However, there have been reports of numerous discrepancies between it and national implementation reports on which it was built. As researchers Hoffman and Rizvi report "As of July 4, 2012, 361 (32·7%) of 1104 countries' responses were misreported: 33 (3·0%) were clear errors (eg, database indicated “yes” when report indicated “no”), 270 (24·5%) were missing despite countries having submitted responses, and 58 (5·3%) were, in our opinion, misinterpreted by WHO staff". IARC controversies [ edit ] Further information: International Agency for Research on Cancer The World Health Organization sub-department, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), has been criticized for the way it analyses the tendency of certain substances and activities to cause cancer and for having a politically motivated bias when it selects studies for its analysis. Ed Yong, a British science journalist, has criticized the agency and its "confusing" category system for misleading the public. Marcel Kuntz, a French director of research at the French National Centre for Scientific Research , criticized the agency for its classification of potentially carcinogenic substances. He claimed that this classification did not take into account the extent of exposure: for example, red meat is qualified as probably carcinogenic, but the quantity of consumed red meat at which it could become dangerous is not specified. Controversies have erupted multiple times when the IARC has classified many things as Class 2a (probable carcinogens), including cell phone signals, glyphosate , drinking hot beverages, and working as a barber. Block of Taiwanese participation [ edit ] Political pressure from China has led to Taiwan being barred from membership of the WHO and other UN-affiliated organizations, and in both 2017 and 2018 the WHO refused to allow Taiwanese delegates to attend the WHO annual assembly . On multiple occasions Taiwanese journalists have been denied access to report on the assembly. In May 2018, 172 members of the United States House of Representatives wrote to the Director General of the World Health Organization to argue for Taiwan's inclusion as an observer at the WHA. Travel expenses [ edit ] According to The Associated Press , the WHO routinely spends about $200 million a year on travel expenses, more than it spends to tackle mental health problems, HIV/AIDS , Tuberculosis and Malaria combined. In 2016, Margaret Chan , Director-General of WHO from November 2006 to June 2017, stayed in a $1000 per night hotel room while visiting West Africa . Robert Mugabe's role as a goodwill ambassador [ edit ] On 21 October 2017, the Director General Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus appointed former Zimbabwean president Robert Mugabe as a WHO Goodwill Ambassador to help promote the fight against non-communicable diseases. The appointment address praised Mugabe for his commitment to public health in Zimbabwe . The appointment attracted widespread condemnation and criticism in WHO member states and international organizations due to Robert Mugabe's poor record on human rights and presiding over a decline in Zimbabwe's public health. Due to the outcry, the following day the appointment was revoked. World headquarters [ edit ] The seat of the organization is in Geneva , Switzerland. It was designed by Swiss architect Jean Tschumi and inaugurated in 1966. In 2017, the organization launched an international competition to redesign and extend its headquarters. Early views [ edit ] On a 1966 stamp of the German Democratic Republic Stairwell , 1969 Internal courtyard , 1969 Reflecting pool , 1969 Exterior, 1969 Views 2013 [ edit ] WHO Headquarters from Southwest WHO Headquarters from South WHO Headquarters from East WHO Headquarters from North WHO Headquarters from West WHO Headquarters main entrance WHO Headquarters entrance hall WHO Headquarters main conference room See also [ edit ] Global health Global Mental Health Healthy city / Alliance for Healthy Cities , an international alliance Health For All Health promotion Health Sciences Online , virtual learning resources High 5s Project , a patient safety collaboration International Health Partnership International Labour Organization List of most polluted cities in the world by particulate matter concentration Open Learning for Development , virtual learning resources Public health Sustainable Development The Partnership for Maternal, Newborn and Child Health Timeline of global health Tropical disease United Nations Interagency Task Force on the Prevention and Control of NCDs WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control WHO Guidelines for drinking-water quality WHO Pesticide Evaluation Scheme Notes and references [ edit ] External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to World Health Organization . Wikiquote has quotations related to: World Health Organization Official website "Staff regulations and staff rules" (pdf) . WHO. February 2016. Coordinates : 46°13′56″N 06°08′03″E  /  46.23222°N 6.13417°E  / 46.23222; 6.13417

train

what is a dream and why do we dream

A dream is a succession of images, ideas, emotions, and sensations that usually occur involuntarily in the mind during certain stages of sleep. The content and purpose of dreams are not fully understood, though they have been a topic of scientific speculation, as well as a subject of philosophical and religious interest, throughout recorded history. Dream interpretation is the attempt at drawing meaning from dreams and searching for an underlying message. The scientific study of dreams is called oneirology.

['approximately 1,070 km (665 mi) east-southeast of cape hatteras, north carolina', '13']

kí ni àlá àti ìdí tá a fi ń lá á

Yes

['Àlá jẹ orisirisi àwọn àwòrán àti àwọn àwọn èrò tí ó sábà máa ń ṣẹlẹ̀ láì si nkan to sokunfá nínú ọkàn nígba tí oorun ba de àwọn ìpele kan.']

['Àlá jẹ orisirisi àwọn àwòrán àti àwọn àwọn èrò tí ó sábà máa ń ṣẹlẹ̀ láì si nkan to sokunfá nínú ọkàn nígba tí oorun ba de àwọn ìpele kan.']

['P1']

Àlá Àlá j? orisirisi àw?n àwòrán àti àw?n àw?n èrò tí ó sábà máa ? ??l?? láì si nkan to sokunfá nínú ?kàn nígba tí oorun ba de àw?n ìpele kan. Aw?n eniyan nlo bi wakati meji ninu ala ni al?, ati pe ala k??kan gbá to i??ju marun si oogun.[1] Itumo ati i?? ti ala ni ti j? koko-?r? fun im? ijinl?, ati iwulo ?sin jakejado itan adayeba . Itum? ala, ti n?e nipas? aw?n ara Babiloni ni odun egberun k?ta [2] ati paapa s?yìn nipa awon ara sumeri atij?, [3] [4] ?afihan ninu esin ?r? ni orisirisi aw?n a?a ati ki o ti dun a asiwaju ipa ninu ise itoju okan. [5] [6] Iwadi ijinle sayensi lori ala ni a npe ni "oneirologi" . [7] Pup? jul? iwadi ala ti ode oni fojusi bi o ti nse pelu ?p?l? ati pelu lori igbero ati idanwo aw?n idaw?le nipa i?? ala. A ko m? pato ibiti aw?n ala ti bere ninu ?p?l?, boya ipil??? kan wa fun aw?n ala tabi ti ?p?l?p? aw?n agbegbe ninu ?p?l? ni o nfa, tabi boya idi ala ni fun ara tabi ?kan. Itum? Jós??fù túm?? alá fáráò c. ?dun 1896–1902. Jacques Joseph Tissot (1836–1902). Kotodi opin centuri oogunodinkan, oniwadi ijinle omo ile Austria kan ti oruko re nje Sigmund Freud, oludasile imo bi a tin nse iwadi inuokan, so wipe ala sapejuwe ero okan alala, atipe, ero ala wa latari if? okan ti yio to di mimuse. O so siwajupe aw?n if? aim?kan pataki yi ni ibatan si aw?n iranti igba ewe ati aw?n iriri ewe.[8] Ogbeni Carl Jung ati aw?n miiran tubo salaye ero Freud pe akoonu ala ?afihan aw?n if? aim?kan alala.

train

where does algeria rank in terms of size on the globe

Algeria (/ ælˈdʒɪəriə / (listen) ; Arabic : الجزائر ‎ al - Jazā'ir, familary Algerian Arabic الدزاير al - dzāyīr ; French : Algérie), officially the People 's Democratic Republic of Algeria, is a country in the Maghreb (North west Africa) on the Mediterranean coast. The capital and most populous city is Algiers, located in the far north of the country. With an area of 2,381,741 square kilometres (919,595 sq mi), Algeria is the tenth - largest country in the world, and the largest in Africa since South Sudan became independent from Sudan in 2011. Algeria is bordered to the northeast by Tunisia, to the east by Libya, to the west by Morocco, to the southwest by the Western Saharan territory, Mauritania, and Mali, to the southeast by Niger, and to the north by the Mediterranean Sea. The country is a semi-presidential republic consisting of 48 provinces and 1,541 communes (counties).

['chief funmilayo ransome-kuti, mon ( /ˌfʊnmiˈlaɪjoʊ ˈrænsəm ˈkuːti/; 25 october 1900 – 13 april 1978)[1], otherwise known as funmilayo anikulapo-kuti', 'funmilayo ransome-kuti', 'alfred nobel', 'to those who have "done the most or the best work for fraternity between nations, for the abolition or reduction of standing armies and for the holding and promotion of peace congresses"']

ibo ni ilẹ̀ algeria wà lórí àgbáyé ní ti bí ilẹ̀ náà ṣe tóbi tó

Yes

['Àlgéríà (Arabiki: الجزائر, al-Gazā’ir), fun onibise Orílẹ̀-èdè Olómìnira Òṣèlú àwọn Ènìyàn ilẹ̀ Àlgéríà, je orile-ede ni Àríwá Áfríkà.']

['Àlgéríà je orile-ede ni Àríwá Áfríkà. Titobi re fe je 2,400,000 square kilometres (930,000 sq mi)']

['P1']

Àlgéríà Àlgéríà, fun onibise Oríl??-èdè Olómìnira Ò?èlú àw?n Ènìyàn il?? Àlgéríà, je orile-ede ni Àríwá Áfríkà. Ile re ni ti orile-ede ti o tobijulo ni Okun Mediterraneani, ekeji totobijulo ni orile Áfríkà[10] leyin Sudan, ati ikokanla totobijulo lagbaye.[11] Àlgéríà ni bode ni ariwailaorun mo pelu Tùnísíà, ni ilaorun pelu Libya, ni iwoorun pelu Moroko, ni guusuiwoorun pelu Apaiwoorun Sahara, Mauritania, ati Mali, ni guusuilaorun pelu Niger, ati ni ariwa pelu Okun Mediterraneani Sea. Titobi re fe je 2,400,000 ilopomeji kilomita (930,000 sq mi), be si ni iye awon eniyan re je 35,700,000 ni os?u? ki?ni?, o?du?n 2010.[12] Olú ìlú Algeria ni Algiers. Àlgéríà je omo egbe Iparapo awon Orile-ede, Isokan Afrika, ati OPEC. Bakanna o tun kopa ninu dida ikoenu owo Isokan Maghreb.

train

the silver band on the nigerian coat of arms represent

The coat of arms of Nigeria has a black shield with two white lines that form in a `` Y '' shape. The black shield represents Nigeria 's fertile soil, while the two horses or chargers on each side represent dignity. The eagle represents strength, while the green and white bands on the top of the shield represent the rich soil.

['portugal']

àlàfo fàdákà tó wà lára àmì ọ̀pá àṣẹ ilẹ̀ Nàìjíríà dúró fún

Yes

['Àmì ọ̀pá àṣẹ ilẹ̀ Nàìjíríà ni asa dudu pelu ila funfun meji ti won tenu po bi Y. Awon wonyi duro fun odo nla meji ni Naijiria: Odò Benue ati Odò Niger.']

['Awon wonyi duro fun odo nla meji ni Naijiria: Odò Benue ati Odò Niger.']

['P1']

Àmì ??pá à?? il?? Nàìjíríà Àmì ??pá à?? il?? Nàìjíríà ni asa dudu pelu ila funfun meji ti won tenu po bi Y. Awon wonyi duro fun odo nla meji ni Naijiria: Odò Benue ati Odò Niger.

Coat of arms of Nigeria Versions Version used from 1960 to 1979 Details Armiger Federal Republic of Nigeria Adopted 20 May 1960 Crest An eagle displayed Gules . Torse Argent and Vert Escutcheon Sable a Pall wavy argent Supporters Two horses Argent Compartment A grassy field proper, the yellow flowers at the base (incorrectly shown as red in the image) are Costus Spectabilis , Nigeria's national flower. Motto Unity and Faith, Peace and Progress The coat of arms of Nigeria has a black shield with two white lines that form in a " Y " shape. The black shield represents Nigeria's fertile soil, while the two horses or chargers on each side represent dignity. The eagle represents strength, while the green and white bands on the top of the shield represent the rich soil. The red flowers at the base are Costus spectabilis , Nigeria's national flower . This flower was chosen for inclusion in the coat of arms as it is found all over Nigeria and also stand for the beauty of the nation. The white wavy pall represents the Niger and the Benue . On the banderole around the base is Nigeria's national motto since 1978: "Unity and Faith, Peace and Progress" (formerly "Peace, Unity, Freedom"). Contents [ hide ] 1 Blazon 2 Gallery 2.1 Historical emblems 3 See also 4 References 5 External links Blazon [ edit ] Sable a Pall wavy argent , supported by two horses Argent , and set for a crest on a wreath, Argent and Vert , an eagle displayed Gules . Gallery [ edit ] Seal of the President Seal of the Vice President Seal of the House of Representatives Seal of the Senate Historical emblems [ edit ] Badge of the British West African Settlements Badge of the Lagos Colony Badge of the Oil Rivers Protectorate Badge of the Niger Coast Protectorate Badge of the Northern Nigeria Protectorate Badge of the Southern Nigeria Protectorate See also [ edit ] Seal of the President of Nigeria References [ edit ] External links [ edit ] Nigeria Heraldry History

train

how is ebola transmitted from animals to humans

The virus spreads through direct contact with body fluids, such as blood from infected humans or other animals. Spread may also occur from contact with items recently contaminated with bodily fluids. Spread of the disease through the air between primates, including humans, has not been documented in either laboratory or natural conditions. Semen or breast milk of a person after recovery from EVD may carry the virus for several weeks to months. Fruit bats are believed to be the normal carrier in nature, able to spread the virus without being affected by it. Other diseases such as malaria, cholera, typhoid fever, meningitis and other viral hemorrhagic fevers may resemble EVD. Blood samples are tested for viral RNA, viral antibodies or for the virus itself to confirm the diagnosis.

[]

báwo ni ebola ṣe máa ń ta látara ẹranko sí ènìyàn

Yes

['Ènìyàn lè kó kòkòrò àìlèfojúrí afàìsàn náà bí ó bá farakan ẹ̀jẹ̀ tàbí àwọn omi ara ẹranko tó ní àrùn náà (pàápàá jùlọ àwọn ọ̀bọ tàbí àwọn àdán ẹlẹ́nu gígùn pẹ̀lú ojú nlánlá). A kò tíì ṣe àkọsílẹ̀ àtànká àrùn náà nípasẹ̀ afẹ́fẹ́ ní àyíká adánidá. Àdán ẹlẹ́nu gígùn pẹ̀lú ojú nlánlá náà ni a gbàgbọ́ pé ó má a ngbé àrùn náà káàkiri, tí ó sì má a ntàn-án káàkiri láì jẹ́ pé àrùn náà pa òun fúnraararẹ̀ lára.']

['Ènìyàn lè kó kòkòrò àìlèfojúrí afàìsàn náà bí ó bá farakan ẹ̀jẹ̀ tàbí àwọn omi ara ẹranko tó ní àrùn náà (pàápàá jùlọ àwọn ọ̀bọ tàbí àwọn àdán ẹlẹ́nu gígùn pẹ̀lú ojú nlánlá).']

['P2']

Àrùn kòkòrò àìlèfojúrí afàìsàn Ebola Àrùn kòkòrò àìlèfojúrí afàìsàn Ebola 1976 àwòrán àw?n n????sì méjì tó dúró síwájú Mayinga N., ?nití ó ní àrùn kòkòrò àìlèfojúrì afàìsàn Ebola; ó kú l??yìn ?j?? dí?? sí àsìkò náà nítorí ??p??l?p?? ??j?? sísun láti inú wá. 1976 àwòrán àw?n n????sì méjì tó dúró síwájú Mayinga N., ?nití ó ní àrùn kòkòrò àìlèfojúrì afàìsàn Ebola; ó kú l??yìn ?j?? dí?? sí àsìkò náà nítorí ??p??l?p?? ??j?? sísun láti inú wá. Ìpíns??w?? àti àw?n òkunfà ìta Àrùn kòkòrò àìlèfojúrí afàìsàn Ebola (EVD) tàbí Ibà ?l??j?? sísun Ebola (EHF) j?? àrùn ??dá ènìyàn èyítí Kòkòrò àìlèfojúrí afàìsàn Ebola n ?e òkùnfa r??. Àw?n àmì àìsàn náà a má a b??r?? l?yìn ?j?? méjì sí ??s?? m?ta tí ènìyàn bá ?e aláàbápàdé kòkòrò àìlèfojúrí afàìsàn náà, p??lú ibà, ??fun dídùn, ìrora nínú i?an ara, àti orí fíf??. G??g?? bí ó ti má a nwáyé, inú ríru, èébì, àti ìgb?? gbuuru a má a t??l?? èyí, p??lú àì?edéédé i??? ??d?? àti àw?n kídìnrín. Lásìkò yìí, àw?n ènìyàn kan a má a b??r?? sí ní ì?òro ??j?? sísun.[1] Ènìyàn lè kó kòkòrò àìlèfojúrí afàìsàn náà bí ó bá farakan ??j?? tàbí àw?n omi ara ?ranko tó ní àrùn náà (pàápàá jùl? àw?n ??b? tàbí àw?n àdán ?l??nu gígùn p??lú ojú nlánlá).[1] A kò tíì ?e àk?síl?? àtànká àrùn náà nípas?? af??f?? ní àyíká adánidá.[2] Àdán ?l??nu gígùn p??lú ojú nlánlá náà ni a gbàgb?? pé ó má a ngbé àrùn náà káàkiri, tí ó sì má a ntàn-án káàkiri láì j?? pé àrùn náà pa òun fúnraarar?? lára. L??gán tí àkóràn àrùn náà bá ti bá ènìyàn kan, àrùn náà lè tàn káàkiri bákan náà láti ara ènìyàn kan sí èkejì. Àw?n ?kùnrin tó b?? l??w?? ewu àrùn náà ?ì lè kó àrùn bá ?lòmíràn nípas?? àt?? w?n fún bí o?ù méjì. Láti lè ?e ìwádìí àrùn náà, àw?n àrùn mìíràn tó ní àmì tó j? m?? èyí bíi ak? ibà, àrùn onígbáméjì k??l??rà àti àw?n ibà ??j?? sísun lára tó wáyé nípas?? kòkòrò àìlèfojúrí afàìsàn mìíràn ni a ó ò k??k?? mú kúrò. Láti lè j?ri sí òtít?? àrùn náà, a ó ?e ày??wò àw?n ??j?? tí a gbà síl?? fún àw?n èròjà agbóguntàrùn nínú ara tí n dójú ìjà k? àw?n kòkòrò àìlèfojúrí afàìsàn, fún RNA tí n dójú ìjà k? àw?n kòkòrò àìlèfojúrí afàìsàn, tàbí fún kòkòrò àìlèfojúrí afàìsàn náà fúnraar??.[1] Bí a ?e lè dènà àrùn náà ni dídin ìtànkáàkiri r?? kù láti ara àw?n ??b? àti ?l??d?? tó ti kó àrùn náà sí ara àw?n ènìyàn. A lè ?e èyí nípa ?í?e ày??wò irú àw?n ?ranko b???? fún àrùn náà, pípa w??n, àti sís? òkú w?n nù ní ??nà tí ó t?? bí a bá rí àrùn náà lára w?n. Síse ?ran dáradára àti wíw? a?? tó y? láti dáàbòbo ara nígbàtí a bá npa tàbi kun ?ran lè ?e ìrànw??, bákan náà sì ni wíw? a?? tó y? láti dáàbòbo ara àti fíf? ?w?? nígbàtí a bá wà ní àyíká ibi tí ?nití ó ní àrùn náà wà. Omi àti ?ran tó jáde láti ara ?nití ó ní àrùn náà ni a gb??d?? gbé tàbí dìmú p??lú ì???ra pàtàkì.[1] Kò sí ìwòsàn kan pàtó fún àrùn náà; lára àw?n akitiyan fún ríran àw?n ?nití àrùn yìí bá l??w?? ni fífún w?n ni, yálà àpòp?? omi iy?? àti ?úgà fún dídá omi tí ara pàdánù padà sínú ara (omi ?úgà àti iy?? tó dùn dí?? fún mímu) tàbi àw?n omi tí a ngba i?an ara fún ni.[1] Ìw??n iye ?niti nkú nípas?? àrùn náà ga púp??

train

what is the name of the virus that causes ebola

Ebola virus disease (EVD), also known as Ebola hemorrhagic fever (EHF) or simply Ebola, is a viral hemorrhagic fever of humans and other primates caused by ebolaviruses. Signs and symptoms typically start between two days and three weeks after contracting the virus with a fever, sore throat, muscular pain, and headaches. Then, vomiting, diarrhea and rash usually follow, along with decreased function of the liver and kidneys. At this time, some people begin to bleed both internally and externally. The disease has a high risk of death, killing between 25 and 90 percent of those infected, with an average of about 50 percent. This is often due to low blood pressure from fluid loss, and typically follows six to sixteen days after symptoms appear.

['in 1997', 'five']

kí ni orúkọ kòkòrò àrùn tó ń fa ébólá

Yes

['Àrùn kòkòrò àìlèfojúrí afàìsàn Ebola (EVD) tàbí Ibà ẹlẹ́jẹ̀ sísun Ebola (EHF) jẹ́ àrùn ẹ̀dá ènìyàn èyítí Kòkòrò àìlèfojúrí afàìsàn Ebola n ṣe òkùnfa rẹ̀.']

['Àrùn kòkòrò àìlèfojúrí afàìsàn Ebola (EVD) tàbí Ibà ẹlẹ́jẹ̀ sísun Ebola (EHF) jẹ́ àrùn ẹ̀dá ènìyàn èyítí Kòkòrò àìlèfojúrí afàìsàn Ebola n ṣe òkùnfa rẹ̀.']

['P1']

Àrùn kòkòrò àìlèfojúrí afàìsàn Ebola Àrùn kòkòrò àìlèfojúrí afàìsàn Ebola 1976 àwòrán àw?n n????sì méjì tó dúró síwájú Mayinga N., ?nití ó ní àrùn kòkòrò àìlèfojúrì afàìsàn Ebola; ó kú l??yìn ?j?? dí?? sí àsìkò náà nítorí ??p??l?p?? ??j?? sísun láti inú wá. 1976 àwòrán àw?n n????sì méjì tó dúró síwájú Mayinga N., ?nití ó ní àrùn kòkòrò àìlèfojúrì afàìsàn Ebola; ó kú l??yìn ?j?? dí?? sí àsìkò náà nítorí ??p??l?p?? ??j?? sísun láti inú wá. Ìpíns??w?? àti àw?n òkunfà ìta Àrùn kòkòrò àìlèfojúrí afàìsàn Ebola (EVD) tàbí Ibà ?l??j?? sísun Ebola (EHF) j?? àrùn ??dá ènìyàn èyítí Kòkòrò àìlèfojúrí afàìsàn Ebola n ?e òkùnfa r??. Àw?n àmì àìsàn náà a má a b??r?? l?yìn ?j?? méjì sí ??s?? m?ta tí ènìyàn bá ?e aláàbápàdé kòkòrò àìlèfojúrí afàìsàn náà, p??lú ibà, ??fun dídùn, ìrora nínú i?an ara, àti orí fíf??. G??g?? bí ó ti má a nwáyé, inú ríru, èébì, àti ìgb?? gbuuru a má a t??l?? èyí, p??lú àì?edéédé i??? ??d?? àti àw?n kídìnrín. Lásìkò yìí, àw?n ènìyàn kan a má a b??r?? sí ní ì?òro ??j?? sísun.[1] Ènìyàn lè kó kòkòrò àìlèfojúrí afàìsàn náà bí ó bá farakan ??j?? tàbí àw?n omi ara ?ranko tó ní àrùn náà (pàápàá jùl? àw?n ??b? tàbí àw?n àdán ?l??nu gígùn p??lú ojú nlánlá).[1] A kò tíì ?e àk?síl?? àtànká àrùn náà nípas?? af??f?? ní àyíká adánidá.[2] Àdán ?l??nu gígùn p??lú ojú nlánlá náà ni a gbàgb?? pé ó má a ngbé àrùn náà káàkiri, tí ó sì má a ntàn-án káàkiri láì j?? pé àrùn náà pa òun fúnraarar?? lára. L??gán tí àkóràn àrùn náà bá ti bá ènìyàn kan, àrùn náà lè tàn káàkiri bákan náà láti ara ènìyàn kan sí èkejì. Àw?n ?kùnrin tó b?? l??w?? ewu àrùn náà ?ì lè kó àrùn bá ?lòmíràn nípas?? àt?? w?n fún bí o?ù méjì. Láti lè ?e ìwádìí àrùn náà, àw?n àrùn mìíràn tó ní àmì tó j? m?? èyí bíi ak? ibà, àrùn onígbáméjì k??l??rà àti àw?n ibà ??j?? sísun lára tó wáyé nípas?? kòkòrò àìlèfojúrí afàìsàn mìíràn ni a ó ò k??k?? mú kúrò. Láti lè j?ri sí òtít?? àrùn náà, a ó ?e ày??wò àw?n ??j?? tí a gbà síl?? fún àw?n èròjà agbóguntàrùn nínú ara tí n dójú ìjà k? àw?n kòkòrò àìlèfojúrí afàìsàn, fún RNA tí n dójú ìjà k? àw?n kòkòrò àìlèfojúrí afàìsàn, tàbí fún kòkòrò àìlèfojúrí afàìsàn náà fúnraar??.[1] Bí a ?e lè dènà àrùn náà ni dídin ìtànkáàkiri r?? kù láti ara àw?n ??b? àti ?l??d?? tó ti kó àrùn náà sí ara àw?n ènìyàn. A lè ?e èyí nípa ?í?e ày??wò irú àw?n ?ranko b???? fún àrùn náà, pípa w??n, àti sís? òkú w?n nù ní ??nà tí ó t?? bí a bá rí àrùn náà lára w?n. Síse ?ran dáradára àti wíw? a?? tó y? láti dáàbòbo ara nígbàtí a bá npa tàbi kun ?ran lè ?e ìrànw??, bákan náà sì ni wíw? a?? tó y? láti dáàbòbo ara àti fíf? ?w?? nígbàtí a bá wà ní àyíká ibi tí ?nití ó ní àrùn náà wà. Omi àti ?ran tó jáde láti ara ?nití ó ní àrùn náà ni a gb??d?? gbé tàbí dìmú p??lú ì???ra pàtàkì.[1] Kò sí ìwòsàn kan pàtó fún àrùn náà; lára àw?n akitiyan fún ríran àw?n ?nití àrùn yìí bá l??w?? ni fífún w?n ni, yálà àpòp?? omi iy?? àti ?úgà fún dídá omi tí ara pàdánù padà sínú ara (omi ?úgà àti iy?? tó dùn dí?? fún mímu) tàbi àw?n omi tí a ngba i?an ara fún ni.[1] Ìw??n iye ?niti nkú nípas?? àrùn náà ga púp??

train

what is the treatment for african sleeping sickness

Prevention of severe disease involves screening the population at risk with blood tests for TbG. Treatment is easier when the disease is detected early and before neurological symptoms occur. Treatment of the first stage is with the medications pentamidine or suramin. Treatment of the second stage involves eflornithine or a combination of nifurtimox and eflornithine for TbG. While melarsoprol works for both stages, it is typically only used for TbR, due to serious side effects. Without treatment it typically results in death.

['rené descartes', 'within 2.5 au of the sun']

kí ni ìtọ́jú fún àìsàn oorun ilẹ̀ adúláwọ̀

Yes

['Láti dènà bíburújù àrùn náà, a nílò láti ṣe àyẹ̀wò gbogbo àwọn ènìyàn tó wà lábẹ́ ewu níní àrùn náà nípasẹ̀ àyẹ̀wò ẹ̀jẹ̀ fún kòkòrò àrùn ajọ̀fẹ́ T.b.g. Ìtọ́jú a má a rọrùn síi nígbàtí a bá ṣàkíyèsi àrùn náà lásìkò àti ṣáájú àkókò tí àwọn ààmì àìsàn iṣan ara yóò bẹ̀rẹ̀ sí farahàn. A má a ńṣe ìtọ́jú ipele èkíní pẹ̀lú àwọn egbògi tí a ńpè ní pentamidine tàbí suramin. Ìtọ́jú ipele kejì a má a wáyé nípasẹ̀ egbògi tí a ńpe ní eflornithine tàbí àdàpọ̀ nifurtimox àti eflornithine fún T.b.g. Bí o tilẹ̀ jẹ́ pé melarsoprol a má a ṣiṣẹ́ fún méjèèjì, a má a ńsába lòó fún T.b.r. nítorí àwọn ipa mìíràn tí egbògi náà má a ń ní lára ènìyàn.']

['A má a ńṣe ìtọ́jú ipele èkíní pẹ̀lú àwọn egbògi tí a ńpè ní pentamidine tàbí suramin. ']

['P3']

Àrùn oorun àsùnjù African trypanosomiasis tàbí àrùn oorun àsùnjù[1] j?? àrùn kòkòrò aj??f?? lára àw?n ènìyàn àti àw?n ?ranko mìíràn. A má a wáyé nípas?? kòkòrò àrùn aj??f?? tí ó j?? ara orí?i ìpín ?ranko tí a npè ní Trypanosoma brucei.[2] Àw?n orí?i méjì ni ó má a nkó àrùn bá ènìyàn, Trypanosoma brucei gambiense (T.b.g) àti Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense (T.b.r.).[1] T.b.g ni ó má a nfa méjìdínlógún nínú ?g?run ì???l?? àrùn náà tí a ti rí rí.[1] Bí e?in?in tí ?mú ni sun oorun àsùnjù tí a ?pè ní e?in?in tsetse, èyí tí ó ti ní àrùn náà lára t??l?? rí bá gé ni j? ni títàn káàkiri àw?n orí?i méjèèjì kòkòrò àrùn aj??f?? náà má a ?wáyé, èyí sì w??p?? ní àw?n ìgbèríko.[1] Ní ìb??r??, ní ipele èkíní nínú àrùn náà, ibà, orí-fíf??, ara-yíyún, àti ìrora oríìké-ara a má a wáyé.[1] Èyí a má a b??r?? l??yìn ??s?? kan sí m?ta tí e?in?in náà bá ti gé ni j?.[3] L??yìn ??s?? dí?? sí o?ù dí??, ipele kejì a má a b??r?? p??lú àìm? ohun tí ènìyàn ??e m??, àìlèronú bí ó ti t??, àìlègbé ?w?? tàbí ?s??, àti àìrí oorun sùn.[1][3] A má a ??e ìdánim?? orí?i àìsàn náà nípa wíwá kòkòrò àrùn aj??f?? náà nínú ??j?? tí a pèsè fún àb??wò tàbí nínú omi-ara tí a gbà láti àw?n oríìké-ara.[3] A má a ? nílò láti fa omi jáde láti inú ??pá-??yìn láti lè m? ìyàt?? laarin ipele èkíní àti èkejì àrùn náà.[3] Láti dènà bíburújù àrùn náà, a nílò láti ?e ày??wò gbogbo àw?n ènìyàn tó wà láb?? ewu níní àrùn náà nípas?? ày??wò ??j?? fún kòkòrò àrùn aj??f?? T.b.g.[1] Ìt??jú a má a r?rùn síi nígbàtí a bá ?àkíyèsi àrùn náà lásìkò àti ?áájú àkókò tí àw?n ààmì àìsàn i?an ara yóò b??r?? sí farahàn.[1] A má a ??e ìt??jú ipele èkíní p??lú àw?n egbògi tí a ?pè ní pentamidine tàbí suramin.[1] Ìt??jú ipele kejì a má a wáyé nípas?? egbògi tí a ?pe ní eflornithine tàbí àdàp?? nifurtimox àti eflornithine fún T.b.g.[3] Bí o til?? j?? pé melarsoprol a má a ?i??? fún méjèèjì, a má a ?sába lòó fún T.b.r. nítorí àw?n ipa mìíràn tí egbògi náà má a ? ní lára ènìyàn.[1] Àrùn náà a má a wáyé láti ìgbà dé ìgbà ní àw?n agbègbè tí ó wà ní Gúsù Aginjù Sahara ní Afrika, níbití àw?n ènìyàn tí ó wà láb?? ewu ti p?? tó àád??rin mílí??nù (70 million) ní oríl??-èdè m??rìndílógójì.[4] Ní ?dún 2010 ó fa ikú àw?n ènìyàn tí ó tó 9,000, èyí tí ó wál?? láti iye ènìyàn tí ó tó 34,000 ní ?dún 1990.[5] Àw?n ènìyàn tí ó tó 30,000 ni ó ní àrùn náà báyìí, p??lú àkóràn 7000 titun ní ?dún 2012.[1] Iye tí ó ju ìw??n ?g?san nínú ?g?run (80%) l? lára àw?n ènìyàn w??nyí ni w??n wà ní Oríl??-èdè Olómìnira ti Kongo.[1] Orí?i m?ta àjàkál?? àrùn náà ni ó ti wáyé láìp??: ??kan láti ?dún 1896 sí 1906 ní oríl??-èdè Uganda àti Adágùn omi Kongo nìkan, àti méjì ní ?dún 1920 àti 1970 ní ??p??l?p?? àw?n oríl??-èdè Afrika mìíràn.[1] Àw?n ?ranko mìíràn g??g?? bíi maalu, lè kó àrùn náà, kí w??n sì ní àkóràn àìsàn náà.[1]

For other uses, see Sleeping sickness (disambiguation) . African trypanosomiasis Synonyms African sleeping sickness Trypanosoma forms in a blood smear Specialty Infectious disease Symptoms Stage 1 : Fevers, headaches, itchiness, joint pains Stage 2 : Trouble sleeping , confusion , poor coordination Usual onset 1–3 weeks post exposure Causes Trypanosoma brucei spread by tsetse flies Diagnostic method Blood smear , lumbar puncture Medication Pentamidine , suramin , eflornithine Prognosis Fatal without treatment Frequency 11,000 Deaths 3,500 African trypanosomiasis , also known as sleeping sickness , is an insect-borne parasitic disease of humans and other animals. It is caused by protozoa of the species Trypanosoma brucei . There are two types that infect humans, Trypanosoma brucei gambiense (TbG) and Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense (TbR). TbG causes over 98% of reported cases. Both are usually transmitted by the bite of an infected tsetse fly and are most common in rural areas. Initially, in the first stage of the disease, there are fevers, headaches, itchiness and joint pains. This begins one to three weeks after the bite. Weeks to months later the second stage begins with confusion, poor coordination, numbness and trouble sleeping. Diagnosis is via finding the parasite in a blood smear or in the fluid of a lymph node. A lumbar puncture is often needed to tell the difference between first and second stage disease. Prevention of severe disease involves screening the population at risk with blood tests for TbG. Treatment is easier when the disease is detected early and before neurological symptoms occur. Treatment of the first stage is with the medications pentamidine or suramin . Treatment of the second stage involves eflornithine or a combination of nifurtimox and eflornithine for TbG. While melarsoprol works for both stages, it is typically only used for TbR, due to serious side effects. Without treatment it typically results in death. The disease occurs regularly in some regions of sub-Saharan Africa with the population at risk being about 70 million in 36 countries. An estimated 11,000 people are currently infected with 2,800 new infections in 2015. In 2015 it caused around 3,500 deaths, down from 34,000 in 1990. More than 80% of these cases are in the Democratic Republic of the Congo . Three major outbreaks have occurred in recent history: one from 1896 to 1906 primarily in Uganda and the Congo Basin and two in 1920 and 1970 in several African countries. It is classified as a neglected tropical disease . Other animals, such as cows, may carry the disease and become infected in which case it is known as animal trypanosomiasis . Contents [ hide ] 1 Signs and symptoms 2 Cause 2.1 Trypanosoma brucei 2.2 Vector 3 Mechanism 4 Diagnosis 5 Prevention 6 Treatment 6.1 First stage 6.2 Second stage 7 Epidemiology 8 Prognosis 9 History 10 Research 10.1 Funding 11 Other animals 12 References 13 External links Signs and symptoms [ edit ] African trypanosomiasis symptoms occur in two stages. The first stage, known as the hemolymphatic phase, is characterized by fever, headaches, joint pains, and itching. Fever is intermittent, with attacks lasting from a day to a week, separated by intervals of a few days to a month or longer. Invasion of the circulatory and lymphatic systems by the parasites is associated with severe swelling of lymph nodes , often to tremendous sizes. Winterbottom's sign , the tell-tale swollen lymph nodes along the back of the neck, may appear. Occasionally, a chancre (red sore) will develop at the location of the tsetse fly bite. If left untreated, the disease overcomes the host's defenses and can cause more extensive damage, broadening symptoms to include anemia , endocrine, cardiac , and kidney dysfunctions . The second phase of the disease, the neurological phase , begins when the parasite invades the central nervous system by passing through the blood–brain barrier . Disruption of the sleep cycle is a leading symptom of this stage and is the one that gave the disease the name 'sleeping sickness.' Infected individuals experience a disorganized and fragmented 24-hour rhythm of the sleep-wake cycle, resulting in daytime sleep episodes and nighttime periods of wakefulness. Other neurological symptoms include confusion , tremor , general muscle weakness, hemiparesis , and paralysis of a limb. Parkinson -like movements might arise due to non-specific movement disorders and speech disorders. Individuals may also exhibit psychiatric symptoms such as irritability, psychotic reactions, aggressive behaviour, or apathy which can sometimes dominate the clinical diagnosis. Without treatment, the disease is invariably fatal, with progressive mental deterioration leading to coma, systemic organ failure, and death. An untreated infection with T. b. rhodesiense will cause death within months whereas an untreated infection with T. b. gambiense will cause death after several years. Damage caused in the neurological phase is irreversible. Cause [ edit ] The life cycle of the Trypanosoma brucei parasites. Trypanosoma brucei gambiense accounts for the majority of African trypanosomiasis cases, with humans as the main reservoir needed for the transmission, while Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense is mainly zoonotic, with the occasional human infection. African Trypanosomiasis is dependent on the interaction of the parasite (trypanosome) with the tsetse flies (vector), as well as the host (human for Trypanosoma brucei gambiense , and animals for Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense ). The risk of contracting African Trypanosomiasis is dependent on coming in contact with an infected tsetse fly . Trypanosoma brucei [ edit ] There are two subspecies of the parasite that are responsible for starting the disease in humans. Trypanosoma brucei gambiense causes the diseases in west and central Africa , whereas Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense has a limited geographical range and is responsible for causing the disease in east and southern Africa. In addition, a third subspecies of the parasite known as Trypanosoma brucei brucei is responsible for affecting animals but not humans. Humans are the main reservoir for T. b. gambiense but this species can also be found in pigs and other animals. Wild game animals and cattle are the main reservoir of T. b. rhodesiense . These parasites primarily infect individuals in sub-Saharan Africa because that is where the vector (tsetse fly) is located. The two human forms of the disease also vary greatly in intensity. T. b. gambiense causes a chronic condition that can remain in a passive phase for months or years before symptoms emerge and the infection can last about 3 years before death occurs. T. b. rhodesiense is the acute form of the disease, and death can occur within months since the symptoms emerge within weeks and it is more virulent and faster developing than T. b. gambiense . Furthermore, trypanosomes are surrounded by a coat that is composed of variant surface glycoproteins (VSG). These proteins act to protect the parasite from any lytic factors that are present in human plasma. The host's immune system recognizes the glycoproteins present on the coat of the parasite leading to the production of different antibodies (IgM and IgG). These antibodies will then act to destroy the parasites that circulate around the blood. However, from the several parasites present in the plasma, a small number of them will experience changes in their surface coats resulting in the formation of new VSGs. Thus, the antibodies produced by the immune system will no longer recognize the parasite leading to proliferation until new antibodies are created to combat the novel VSGs. Eventually the immune system will no longer be able to fight off the parasite due to the constant changes in VSGs and infection will arise. Vector [ edit ] The tsetse fly (genus Glossina ) is a large, brown, biting fly that serves as both a host and vector for the trypanosome parasites. While taking blood from a mammalian host, an infected tsetse fly injects metacyclic trypomastigotes into skin tissue. From the bite, parasites first enter the lymphatic system and then pass into the bloodstream. Inside the mammalian host, they transform into bloodstream trypomastigotes, and are carried to other sites throughout the body, reach other body fluids (e.g., lymph, spinal fluid), and continue to replicate by binary fission . The entire life cycle of African trypanosomes is represented by extracellular stages. A tsetse fly becomes infected with bloodstream trypomastigotes when taking a blood meal on an infected mammalian host. In the fly's midgut, the parasites transform into procyclic trypomastigotes, multiply by binary fission, leave the midgut, and transform into epimastigotes. The epimastigotes reach the fly's salivary glands and continue multiplication by binary fission. The entire life cycle of the fly takes about three weeks. In addition to the bite of the tsetse fly , the disease can be transmitted by: Mother-to-child infection: the trypanosome can sometimes cross the placenta and infect the fetus. Laboratories: accidental infections, for example, through the handling of blood of an infected person and organ transplantation, although this is uncommon. Blood transfusion Sexual contact (This may be possible) Horse-flies ( Tabanidae ) and stable flies ( Muscidae ) possibly play a role in transmission of nagana (the animal form of sleeping sickness) and the human disease form. Mechanism [ edit ] Tryptophol is a chemical compound that induces sleep in humans. It is produced by the trypanosomal parasite in sleeping sickness. Diagnosis [ edit ] Two areas from a blood smear from a patient with African trypanosomiasis, thin blood smear stained with Giemsa : Typical trypomastigote stages (the only stages found in patients), with a posterior kinetoplast, a centrally located nucleus, an undulating membrane, and an anterior flagellum. The two Trypanosoma brucei subspecies that cause human trypanosomiasis , T. b. gambiense and T. b. rhodesiense , are indistinguishable morphologically. The trypanosomes' length range is 14 to 33 µm, Source: CDC The gold standard for diagnosis is identification of trypanosomes in a patient sample by microscopic examination. Patient samples that can be used for diagnosis include chancre fluid, lymph node aspirates, blood, bone marrow , and, during the neurological stage, cerebrospinal fluid . Detection of trypanosome-specific antibodies can be used for diagnosis, but the sensitivity and specificity of these methods are too variable to be used alone for clinical diagnosis. Further, seroconversion occurs after the onset of clinical symptoms during a T. b. rhodesiense infection, so is of limited diagnostic use. [ citation needed ] Trypanosomes can be detected from patient samples using two different preparations. A wet preparation can be used to look for the motile trypanosomes. Alternatively, a fixed (dried) smear can be stained using Giemsa 's or Field 's technique and examined under a microscope. Often, the parasite is in relatively low abundance in the sample, so techniques to concentrate the parasites can be used prior to microscopic examination. For blood samples, these include centrifugation followed by examination of the buffy coat ; mini anion-exchange/centrifugation; and the quantitative buffy coat (QBC) technique. For other samples, such as spinal fluid, concentration techniques include centrifugation followed by examination of the sediment. [ citation needed ] Three serological tests are also available for detection of the parasite: the micro-CATT, wb-CATT, and wb-LATEX. The first uses dried blood, while the other two use whole blood samples. A 2002 study found the wb-CATT to be the most efficient for diagnosis, while the wb-LATEX is a better exam for situations where greater sensitivity is required. Prevention [ edit ] See also: Tsetse fly § Control techniques Currently there are few medically related prevention options for African Trypanosomiasis (i.e. no vaccine exists for immunity). Although the risk of infection from a tsetse fly bite is minor (estimated at less than 0.1%), the use of insect repellants, wearing long-sleeved clothing, avoiding tsetse-dense areas, implementing bush clearance methods and wild game culling are the best options to avoid infection available for local residents of affected areas. At the 25th ISCTRC (International Scientific Council for Trypanosomiasis Research and Control) in Mombasa, Kenya, in October 1999, the idea of an African-wide initiative to control tsetse and trypanosomiasis populations was discussed. During the 36th summit of the Organization for African Unity in Lome, Togo, in July 2000, a resolution was passed to form the Pan African Tsetse and Trypanosomiasis Eradication Campaign (PATTEC). The campaign works to eradicate the tsetse vector population levels and subsequently the protozoan disease, by use of insecticide-impregnated targets, fly traps, insecticide-treated cattle, ultra-low dose aerial/ground spraying (SAT) of tsetse resting sites and the sterile insect technique (SIT). The use of SIT in Zanzibar proved effective in eliminating the entire population of tsetse flies but was expensive and is relatively impractical to use in many of the endemic countries afflicted with African trypanosomiasis. Regular active surveillance, involving detection and prompt treatment of new infections, and tsetse fly control is the backbone of the strategy used to control sleeping sickness. Systematic screening of at-risk communities is the best approach, because case-by-case screening is not practical in endemic regions. Systematic screening may be in the form of mobile clinics or fixed screening centres where teams travel daily to areas of high infection rates. Such screening efforts are important because early symptoms are not evident or serious enough to warrant patients with gambiense disease to seek medical attention, particularly in very remote areas. Also, diagnosis of the disease is difficult and health workers may not associate such general symptoms with trypanosomiasis. Systematic screening allows early-stage disease to be detected and treated before the disease progresses, and removes the potential human reservoir. A single case of sexual transmission of West African sleeping sickness has been reported. Treatment [ edit ] First stage [ edit ] The current treatment for first-stage disease is intravenous or intramuscular pentamidine for T. b. gambiense or intravenous suramin for T. b. rhodesiense . Second stage [ edit ] For T. b. gambiense a regiment involving the combination of nifurtimox and eflornithine , nifurtimox-eflornithine combination treatment (NECT), or eflornithine alone appear to be more effective and result in fewer side effects. These treatments may replace melarsoprol when available with the combination being first line. NECT has the benefit of requiring less injections of eflornithine. Intravenous melarsoprol was previously the standard treatment for second-stage (neurological phase) disease and is effective for both types. Melarsoprol is the only treatment for second stage T. b. rhodesiense ; however, it causes death in 5% of people who take it. Resistance to melarsoprol can occur. Epidemiology [ edit ] Deaths per 100,000 population due to African trypanosomiasis by country in 2002. As of 2010 it caused around 9,000 deaths, down from 34,000 in 1990. As of 2000, the disability-adjusted life-years (9 to 10 years) lost due to sleeping sickness are 2.0 million. From 2010-2014, there was an estimated 55 million people at risk for gambiense African Trypanosomiasis and over 6 million people at risk for rhodesiense African Trypanosomiasis. In 2014, the World Health Organization reported 3,797 cases of Human African Trypanosomiasis when the predicted number of cases were to be 5,000. The number of total reported cases in 2014 is an 86% reduction to the total number of cases reported in 2000. The disease has been recorded as occurring in 37 countries, all in sub-Saharan Africa. It occurs regularly in southeast Uganda and western Kenya, and killed more than 48,000 Africans in 2008. The Democratic Republic of the Congo is the most affected country in the world, accounting for 75% of the Trypanosoma brucei gambiense cases. The population at risk being about 69 million with one third of this number being at a 'very high' to 'moderate' risk and the remaining two thirds at a 'low' to 'very low' risk. The number of people being affected by the disease has declined. At this rate, sleeping sickness elimination is a possibility. The World Health Organization plans to eradicate sleeping sickness by the year 2020. Prognosis [ edit ] If untreated, T. b. gambiense almost always results in death, with only a few individuals shown in a long-term 15 year follow-up to have survived after refusing treatment. T. b. rhodesiense , being a more acute and severe form of the disease, is consistently fatal if not treated. Disease progression greatly varies depending on disease form. For individuals which are infected by T. b. gambiense , which accounts for 98% of all of the reported cases, a person can be infected for months or even years without signs or symptoms until the advanced disease stage, where it is too late to be treated successfully. For individuals affected by T. b. rhodesiense , which accounts for 2% of all reported cases, symptoms appear within weeks or months of the infection. Disease progression is rapid and invades the central nervous system, causing death within a short amount of time. History [ edit ] The condition has been present in Africa for thousands of years. Because of a lack of travel between indigenous people, sleeping sickness in humans had been limited to isolated pockets. This changed after Arab slave traders entered central Africa from the east, following the Congo River , bringing parasites along. Gambian sleeping sickness travelled up the Congo River, and then further east. An Arab writer of the 14th century left the following description in the case of a sultan of the Malli [ sic ] Kingdom: "His end was to be overtaken by the sleeping sickness ( illat an-nawm ) which is a disease that frequently befalls the inhabitants of these countries especially their chieftains. Sleep overtakes one of them in such a manner that it is hardly possible to awake him." The British naval surgeon John Atkins described the disease on his return from West Africa in 1734: "The Sleepy Distemper (common among the Negroes) gives no other previous Notice, than a want of Appetite 2 or 3 days before; their sleeps are sound, and Sense and Feeling very little; for pulling, drubbing or whipping will scarce stir up Sense and Power enough to move; and the Moment you cease beating the smart is forgot, and down they fall again into a state of Insensibility, drivling constantly from the Mouth as in deep salivation; breathe slowly, but not unequally nor snort. Young people are more subject to it than the old; and the Judgement generally pronounced is Death, the Prognostik seldom failing. If now and then one of them recovers, he certainly loses the little Reason he had, and turns Ideot..." In 1903, David Bruce recognized the tsetse fly as the arthropod vector. In 1901, a devastating epidemic erupted in Uganda , killing more than 250,000 people, including about two-thirds of the population in the affected lakeshore areas. According to The Cambridge History of Africa , "It has been estimated that up to half the people died of sleeping-sickness and smallpox in the lands on either bank of the lower river Congo ." The causative agent and vector were identified in 1903 by David Bruce , and the subspecies of the protozoa were differentiated in 1910. Bruce had earlier shown that T. brucei was the cause of a similar disease in horses and cattle that was transmitted by the tse-tse fly ( Glossina morsitans ). The first effective treatment, atoxyl , an arsenic -based drug developed by Paul Ehrlich and Kiyoshi Shiga , was introduced in 1910, but blindness was a serious side effect. The British-led Sleeping Sickness Commission collecting tsetse flies , Uganda and Nyasaland , 1908-1913 Suramin was first synthesized by Oskar Dressel and Richard Kothe in 1916 for Bayer . It was introduced in 1920 to treat the first stage of the disease. By 1922, Suramin was generally combined with tryparsamide (another pentavalent organoarsenic drug), the first drug to enter the nervous system and be useful in the treatment of the second stage of the gambiense form. Tryparsamide was announced in the Journal of Experimental Medicine in 1919 and tested in the Belgian Congo by Louise Pearce of the Rockefeller Institute in 1920. It was used during the grand epidemic in West and Central Africa on millions of people and was the mainstay of therapy until the 1960s. American medical missionary Arthur Lewis Piper was active in using tryparsamide to treat sleeping sickness in the Belgian Congo in 1925. Pentamidine , a highly effective drug for the first stage of the disease, has been used since 1937. During the 1950s, it was widely used as a prophylactic agent in western Africa, leading to a sharp decline in infection rates. At the time, eradication of the disease was thought to be at hand. [ citation needed ] The organoarsenical melarsoprol (Arsobal) developed in the 1940s is effective for patients with second-stage sleeping sickness. However, 3–10% of those injected have reactive encephalopathy (convulsions, progressive coma, or psychotic reactions), and 10–70% of such cases result in death; it can cause brain damage in those who survive the encephalopathy. However, due to its effectiveness, melarsoprol is still used today. Resistance to melarsoprol is increasing, and combination therapy with nifurtimox is currently under research. [ citation needed ] Eflornithine (difluoromethylornithine or DFMO), the most modern treatment, was developed in the 1970s by Albert Sjoerdsma and underwent clinical trials in the 1980s. The drug was approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration in 1990. Aventis , the company responsible for its manufacture, halted production in 1999. In 2001, Aventis, in association with Médecins Sans Frontières and the World Health Organization , signed a long-term agreement to manufacture and donate the drug. [ citation needed ] In addition to sleeping sickness, previous names have included negro lethargy, maladie du sommeil (Fr), Schlafkrankheit (Gr), African lethargy, and Congo trypanosomiasis. Research [ edit ] The genome of the parasite has been sequenced and several proteins have been identified as potential targets for drug treatment. Analysis of the genome also revealed the reason why generating a vaccine for this disease has been so difficult. T. brucei has over 800 genes that make proteins the parasite "mixes and matches" to evade immune system detection. Using a genetically modified form of a bacterium that occurs naturally in the gut of the vectors is being studied as a method of controlling the disease. Recent findings indicate that the parasite is unable to survive in the bloodstream without its flagellum . This insight gives researchers a new angle with which to attack the parasite. Trypanosomiasis vaccines are undergoing research. Additionally, the Drugs for Neglected Disease Initiative has contributed to the African sleeping sickness research effort by developing a compound called fexinidazole . This project was originally started in April 2007 and is currently in a pivotal study in clinical phase II/III. The goal is to have the drug succeed and be proven effective against stage one and stage two HAT caused by T. b. gambiense , as well as HAT caused by T. b. rhodesiense . Funding [ edit ] For current funding statistics, human African trypanosomiasis is grouped with kinetoplastid infections. Kinetoplastids refer to a group of flagellate protozoa. Kinetoplastid infections include African sleeping sickness, Chagas' disease, and Leishmaniasis. All together, these three diseases accounted for 4.4 million disability adjusted life years (DALYs) and an additional 70,075 recorded deaths yearly. For kinetoplastid infections, the total global research and development funding was approximately $136.3 million in 2012. Each of the three diseases, African sleeping sickness, Chagas' disease, and Leishmaniasis each received approximately a third of the funding, which was about $36.8 million US dollars, $38.7 million US dollars, and $31.7 million US dollars, respectively. For sleeping sickness, funding was split into basic research, drug discovery, vaccines, and diagnostics. The greatest amount of funding was directed towards basic research of the disease; approximately $21.6 million US dollars were directed towards that effort. As for therapeutic development, approximately $10.9 billion were invested. The top funder for kinetoplastid infection research and development are public sources. About 62% of the funding comes from high-income countries while 9% comes from low- and middle-income countries. High-income countries public funding is largest contributors to the neglected disease research effort. However, in recent years, funding from high-income countries has been steadily decreasing; in 2007, high-income countries provided 67.5% of the total funding whereas, in 2012, high-income countries public funds only provided 60% of the total funding for kinetoplastid infections. This downwards trend leaves a gap for other funders, such as philanthropic foundations and private pharmaceutical companies to fill. Much of the progress that has been made in African sleeping sickness and neglected disease research as a whole is a result of the other non-public funders. One of these major sources of funding has come from foundations, which have increasingly become more committed to neglected disease drug discovery in the 21st century. In 2012, philanthropic sources provided 15.9% of the total funding. The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation has been a leader in providing funding for neglected disease drug development. They have provided $444.1 million US dollars towards neglected disease research in 2012. To date, they have donated over $1.02 billion US dollars towards the neglected disease discovery efforts. For kinetoplastid infections specifically, they have donated an average of $28.15 million US dollars annually between the years 2007 to 2011. They have labeled human African trypanosomiasis a high-opportunity target meaning it is a disease that presents the greatest opportunity for control, elimination, and eradication, through the development on new drugs, vaccines, public-health programs, and diagnostics. They are the second highest funding source for neglected diseases, immediately behind the US National Institutes of Health. At a time where public funding is decreasing and government grants for scientific research are harder to obtain, the philanthropic world has stepped in to push the research forward. Another important component of increased interest and funding has come from industry. In 2012, they contributed 13.1% total to the kinetoplastid research and development effort, and have additionally played an important role by contributing to public-private partnerships (PPP) as well as product-development partnerships (PDP). A public-private partnership is an arrangement between one or more public entities and one or more private entities that exists to achieve a specific health outcome or to produce a health product. The partnership can exist in numerous ways; they may share and exchange funds, property, equipment, human resources, and intellectual property. These public-private partnerships and product-development partnerships have been established to address challenges in pharmaceutical industry, especially related to neglected disease research. These partnerships can help increase the scale of the effort towards therapeutic development by using different knowledge, skills, and expertise from different sources. These types of partnerships have been shown to be more effective than industry or public groups working independently. Other animals [ edit ] Trypanosoma of both the rhodesiense and gambiense types can affect other animals such as cattle and wild animals. In animals it is known as animal trypanosomiasis . References [ edit ] External links [ edit ] Wikipedia's health care articles can be viewed offline with the Medical Wikipedia app . Classification D ICD - 10 : B56 ICD - 9-CM : 086.5 MeSH : D014353 DiseasesDB : 29277 External resources MedlinePlus : 001362 eMedicine : med/2140 Patient UK : African trypanosomiasis "Sleeping sickness" . Médecins Sans Frontières . Archived from the original on 23 October 2013. Links to pictures of Sleeping Sickness (Hardin MD/ University of Iowa ) archived 2006-02-19. Hale Carpenter, G.D. (1920). A Naturalist on Lake Victoria, with an Account of Sleeping Sickness and the Tse-tse Fly . Unwin. OCLC 2649363 .

train

what type of pathogen is african sleeping sickness

African trypanosomiasis, also known as sleeping sickness, is an insect - borne parasitic disease of humans and other animals. It is caused by protozoa of the species Trypanosoma brucei. There are two types that infect humans, Trypanosoma brucei gambiense (TbG) and Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense (TbR). TbG causes over 98 % of reported cases. Both are usually transmitted by the bite of an infected tsetse fly and are most common in rural areas.

['australopithecines']

irú àrùn wo ni àrùn oorun ilẹ̀ adúláwọ̀

Yes

['A má a wáyé nípasẹ̀ kòkòrò àrùn ajọ̀fẹ́ tí ó jẹ́ ara oríṣi ìpín ẹranko tí a npè ní Trypanosoma brucei. Àwọn oríṣi méjì ni ó má a nkó àrùn bá ènìyàn, Trypanosoma brucei gambiense (T.b.g) àti Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense (T.b.r.). T.b.g ni ó má a nfa méjìdínlógún nínú ọgọrun ìṣẹ̀lẹ̀ àrùn náà tí a ti rí rí. Bí eṣinṣin tí ńmú ni sun oorun àsùnjù tí a ńpè ní eṣinṣin tsetse, èyí tí ó ti ní àrùn náà lára tẹ́lẹ̀ rí bá gé ni jẹ ni títàn káàkiri àwọn oríṣi méjèèjì kòkòrò àrùn ajọ̀fẹ́ náà má a ńwáyé, èyí sì wọ́pọ̀ ní àwọn ìgbèríko.']

['A má a wáyé nípasẹ̀ kòkòrò àrùn ajọ̀fẹ́ tí ó jẹ́ ara oríṣi ìpín ẹranko tí a npè ní Trypanosoma brucei. ']

['P1']

Àrùn oorun àsùnjù African trypanosomiasis tàbí àrùn oorun àsùnjù[1] j?? àrùn kòkòrò aj??f?? lára àw?n ènìyàn àti àw?n ?ranko mìíràn. A má a wáyé nípas?? kòkòrò àrùn aj??f?? tí ó j?? ara orí?i ìpín ?ranko tí a npè ní Trypanosoma brucei.[2] Àw?n orí?i méjì ni ó má a nkó àrùn bá ènìyàn, Trypanosoma brucei gambiense (T.b.g) àti Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense (T.b.r.).[1] T.b.g ni ó má a nfa méjìdínlógún nínú ?g?run ì???l?? àrùn náà tí a ti rí rí.[1] Bí e?in?in tí ?mú ni sun oorun àsùnjù tí a ?pè ní e?in?in tsetse, èyí tí ó ti ní àrùn náà lára t??l?? rí bá gé ni j? ni títàn káàkiri àw?n orí?i méjèèjì kòkòrò àrùn aj??f?? náà má a ?wáyé, èyí sì w??p?? ní àw?n ìgbèríko.[1] Ní ìb??r??, ní ipele èkíní nínú àrùn náà, ibà, orí-fíf??, ara-yíyún, àti ìrora oríìké-ara a má a wáyé.[1] Èyí a má a b??r?? l??yìn ??s?? kan sí m?ta tí e?in?in náà bá ti gé ni j?.[3] L??yìn ??s?? dí?? sí o?ù dí??, ipele kejì a má a b??r?? p??lú àìm? ohun tí ènìyàn ??e m??, àìlèronú bí ó ti t??, àìlègbé ?w?? tàbí ?s??, àti àìrí oorun sùn.[1][3] A má a ??e ìdánim?? orí?i àìsàn náà nípa wíwá kòkòrò àrùn aj??f?? náà nínú ??j?? tí a pèsè fún àb??wò tàbí nínú omi-ara tí a gbà láti àw?n oríìké-ara.[3] A má a ? nílò láti fa omi jáde láti inú ??pá-??yìn láti lè m? ìyàt?? laarin ipele èkíní àti èkejì àrùn náà.[3] Láti dènà bíburújù àrùn náà, a nílò láti ?e ày??wò gbogbo àw?n ènìyàn tó wà láb?? ewu níní àrùn náà nípas?? ày??wò ??j?? fún kòkòrò àrùn aj??f?? T.b.g.[1] Ìt??jú a má a r?rùn síi nígbàtí a bá ?àkíyèsi àrùn náà lásìkò àti ?áájú àkókò tí àw?n ààmì àìsàn i?an ara yóò b??r?? sí farahàn.[1] A má a ??e ìt??jú ipele èkíní p??lú àw?n egbògi tí a ?pè ní pentamidine tàbí suramin.[1] Ìt??jú ipele kejì a má a wáyé nípas?? egbògi tí a ?pe ní eflornithine tàbí àdàp?? nifurtimox àti eflornithine fún T.b.g.[3] Bí o til?? j?? pé melarsoprol a má a ?i??? fún méjèèjì, a má a ?sába lòó fún T.b.r. nítorí àw?n ipa mìíràn tí egbògi náà má a ? ní lára ènìyàn.[1] Àrùn náà a má a wáyé láti ìgbà dé ìgbà ní àw?n agbègbè tí ó wà ní Gúsù Aginjù Sahara ní Afrika, níbití àw?n ènìyàn tí ó wà láb?? ewu ti p?? tó àád??rin mílí??nù (70 million) ní oríl??-èdè m??rìndílógójì.[4] Ní ?dún 2010 ó fa ikú àw?n ènìyàn tí ó tó 9,000, èyí tí ó wál?? láti iye ènìyàn tí ó tó 34,000 ní ?dún 1990.[5] Àw?n ènìyàn tí ó tó 30,000 ni ó ní àrùn náà báyìí, p??lú àkóràn 7000 titun ní ?dún 2012.[1] Iye tí ó ju ìw??n ?g?san nínú ?g?run (80%) l? lára àw?n ènìyàn w??nyí ni w??n wà ní Oríl??-èdè Olómìnira ti Kongo.[1] Orí?i m?ta àjàkál?? àrùn náà ni ó ti wáyé láìp??: ??kan láti ?dún 1896 sí 1906 ní oríl??-èdè Uganda àti Adágùn omi Kongo nìkan, àti méjì ní ?dún 1920 àti 1970 ní ??p??l?p?? àw?n oríl??-èdè Afrika mìíràn.[1] Àw?n ?ranko mìíràn g??g?? bíi maalu, lè kó àrùn náà, kí w??n sì ní àkóràn àìsàn náà.[1]

"Sleeping sickness" and "Sleep fever" redirect here. For other uses, see Sleeping sickness (disambiguation) . African trypanosomiasis Synonyms African sleeping sickness Trypanosoma forms in a blood smear Specialty Infectious disease Symptoms Stage 1 : Fevers, headaches, itchiness, joint pains Stage 2 : Trouble sleeping , confusion , poor coordination Usual onset 1–3 weeks post exposure Causes Trypanosoma brucei spread by tsetse flies Diagnostic method Blood smear , lumbar puncture Medication Pentamidine , suramin , eflornithine Prognosis Fatal without treatment Frequency 11,000 Deaths 3,500 African trypanosomiasis , also known as sleeping sickness , is an insect-borne parasitic disease of humans and other animals. It is caused by protozoa of the species Trypanosoma brucei . There are two types that infect humans, Trypanosoma brucei gambiense (TbG) and Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense (TbR). TbG causes over 98% of reported cases. Both are usually transmitted by the bite of an infected tsetse fly and are most common in rural areas. Initially, in the first stage of the disease, there are fevers, headaches, itchiness and joint pains. This begins one to three weeks after the bite. Weeks to months later the second stage begins with confusion, poor coordination, numbness, and trouble sleeping. Diagnosis is via finding the parasite in a blood smear or in the fluid of a lymph node. A lumbar puncture is often needed to tell the difference between first and second stage disease. Prevention of severe disease involves screening the population at risk with blood tests for TbG. Treatment is easier when the disease is detected early and before neurological symptoms occur. Treatment of the first stage is with the medications pentamidine or suramin . Treatment of the second stage involves eflornithine or a combination of nifurtimox and eflornithine for TbG. While melarsoprol works for both stages, it is typically only used for TbR, due to serious side effects. Without treatment it typically results in death. The disease occurs regularly in some regions of sub-Saharan Africa with the population at risk being about 70 million in 36 countries. An estimated 11,000 people are currently infected with 2,800 new infections in 2015. In 2015 it caused around 3,500 deaths, down from 34,000 in 1990. More than 80% of these cases are in the Democratic Republic of the Congo . Three major outbreaks have occurred in recent history: one from 1896 to 1906 primarily in Uganda and the Congo Basin and two in 1920 and 1970 in several African countries. It is classified as a neglected tropical disease . Other animals, such as cows, may carry the disease and become infected in which case it is known as animal trypanosomiasis . Contents 1 Signs and symptoms 2 Cause 2.1 Trypanosoma brucei 2.2 Vector 3 Mechanism 4 Diagnosis 5 Prevention 6 Treatment 6.1 First stage 6.2 Second stage 7 Epidemiology 8 Prognosis 9 History 10 Research 10.1 Funding 11 Other animals 12 References 13 External links Signs and symptoms [ edit ] African trypanosomiasis symptoms occur in two stages. The first stage, known as the hemolymphatic phase, is characterized by fever, headaches, joint pains, and itching. Fever is intermittent, with attacks lasting from a day to a week, separated by intervals of a few days to a month or longer. Invasion of the circulatory and lymphatic systems by the parasites is associated with severe swelling of lymph nodes , often to tremendous sizes. Winterbottom's sign , the tell-tale swollen lymph nodes along the back of the neck, may appear. Occasionally, a chancre (red sore) will develop at the location of the tsetse fly bite. If left untreated, the disease overcomes the host's defenses and can cause more extensive damage, broadening symptoms to include anemia , endocrine, cardiac , and kidney dysfunctions . The second phase of the disease, the neurological phase , begins when the parasite invades the central nervous system by passing through the blood–brain barrier . Disruption of the sleep cycle is a leading symptom of this stage and is the one that gave the disease the name 'sleeping sickness.' Infected individuals experience a disorganized and fragmented 24-hour rhythm of the sleep-wake cycle, resulting in daytime sleep episodes and nighttime periods of wakefulness. Other neurological symptoms include confusion , tremor , general muscle weakness, hemiparesis , and paralysis of a limb. Parkinson -like movements might arise due to non-specific movement disorders and speech disorders. Individuals may also exhibit psychiatric symptoms such as irritability, psychotic reactions, aggressive behaviour, or apathy which can sometimes dominate the clinical diagnosis. Without treatment, the disease is invariably fatal, with progressive mental deterioration leading to coma, systemic organ failure, and death. An untreated infection with T. b. rhodesiense will cause death within months whereas an untreated infection with T. b. gambiense will cause death after several years. Damage caused in the neurological phase is irreversible. Cause [ edit ] The life cycle of the Trypanosoma brucei parasites. Trypanosoma brucei gambiense accounts for the majority of African trypanosomiasis cases, with humans as the main reservoir needed for the transmission, while Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense is mainly zoonotic, with the occasional human infection. African Trypanosomiasis is dependent on the interaction of the parasite (trypanosome) with the tsetse flies (vector), as well as the host (human for Trypanosoma brucei gambiense , and animals for Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense ). The risk of contracting African Trypanosomiasis is dependent on coming in contact with an infected tsetse fly . Trypanosoma brucei [ edit ] There are two subspecies of the parasite that are responsible for starting the disease in humans. Trypanosoma brucei gambiense causes the diseases in west and central Africa , whereas Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense has a limited geographical range and is responsible for causing the disease in east and southern Africa. In addition, a third subspecies of the parasite known as Trypanosoma brucei brucei is responsible for affecting animals but not humans. Humans are the main reservoir for T. b. gambiense but this species can also be found in pigs and other animals. Wild game animals and cattle are the main reservoir of T. b. rhodesiense . These parasites primarily infect individuals in sub-Saharan Africa because that is where the vector (tsetse fly) is located. The two human forms of the disease also vary greatly in intensity. T. b. gambiense causes a chronic condition that can remain in a passive phase for months or years before symptoms emerge and the infection can last about 3 years before death occurs. T. b. rhodesiense is the acute form of the disease, and death can occur within months since the symptoms emerge within weeks and it is more virulent and faster developing than T. b. gambiense . Furthermore, trypanosomes are surrounded by a coat that is composed of variant surface glycoproteins (VSG). These proteins act to protect the parasite from any lytic factors that are present in human plasma. The host's immune system recognizes the glycoproteins present on the coat of the parasite leading to the production of different antibodies (IgM and IgG). These antibodies will then act to destroy the parasites that circulate around the blood. However, from the several parasites present in the plasma, a small number of them will experience changes in their surface coats resulting in the formation of new VSGs. Thus, the antibodies produced by the immune system will no longer recognize the parasite leading to proliferation until new antibodies are created to combat the novel VSGs. Eventually the immune system will no longer be able to fight off the parasite due to the constant changes in VSGs and infection will arise. Vector [ edit ] The tsetse fly (genus Glossina ) is a large, brown, biting fly that serves as both a host and vector for the trypanosome parasites. While taking blood from a mammalian host, an infected tsetse fly injects metacyclic trypomastigotes into skin tissue. From the bite, parasites first enter the lymphatic system and then pass into the bloodstream. Inside the mammalian host, they transform into bloodstream trypomastigotes, and are carried to other sites throughout the body, reach other body fluids (e.g., lymph, spinal fluid), and continue to replicate by binary fission . The entire life cycle of African trypanosomes is represented by extracellular stages. A tsetse fly becomes infected with bloodstream trypomastigotes when taking a blood meal on an infected mammalian host. In the fly's midgut, the parasites transform into procyclic trypomastigotes, multiply by binary fission, leave the midgut, and transform into epimastigotes. The epimastigotes reach the fly's salivary glands and continue multiplication by binary fission. The entire life cycle of the fly takes about three weeks. In addition to the bite of the tsetse fly , the disease can be transmitted by: Mother-to-child infection: the trypanosome can sometimes cross the placenta and infect the fetus. Laboratories: accidental infections, for example, through the handling of blood of an infected person and organ transplantation, although this is uncommon. Blood transfusion Sexual contact (This may be possible) Horse-flies ( Tabanidae ) and stable flies ( Muscidae ) possibly play a role in transmission of nagana (the animal form of sleeping sickness) and the human disease form. Mechanism [ edit ] Tryptophol is a chemical compound that induces sleep in humans. It is produced by the trypanosomal parasite in sleeping sickness. Diagnosis [ edit ] Two areas from a blood smear from a patient with African trypanosomiasis, thin blood smear stained with Giemsa : Typical trypomastigote stages (the only stages found in patients), with a posterior kinetoplast, a centrally located nucleus, an undulating membrane, and an anterior flagellum. The two Trypanosoma brucei subspecies that cause human trypanosomiasis , T. b. gambiense and T. b. rhodesiense , are indistinguishable morphologically. The trypanosomes' length range is 14 to 33 µm, Source: CDC The gold standard for diagnosis is identification of trypanosomes in a patient sample by microscopic examination. Patient samples that can be used for diagnosis include chancre fluid, lymph node aspirates, blood, bone marrow , and, during the neurological stage, cerebrospinal fluid . Detection of trypanosome-specific antibodies can be used for diagnosis, but the sensitivity and specificity of these methods are too variable to be used alone for clinical diagnosis. Further, seroconversion occurs after the onset of clinical symptoms during a T. b. rhodesiense infection, so is of limited diagnostic use. [ citation needed ] Trypanosomes can be detected from patient samples using two different preparations. A wet preparation can be used to look for the motile trypanosomes. Alternatively, a fixed (dried) smear can be stained using Giemsa 's or Field 's technique and examined under a microscope. Often, the parasite is in relatively low abundance in the sample, so techniques to concentrate the parasites can be used prior to microscopic examination. For blood samples, these include centrifugation followed by examination of the buffy coat ; mini anion-exchange/centrifugation; and the quantitative buffy coat (QBC) technique. For other samples, such as spinal fluid, concentration techniques include centrifugation followed by examination of the sediment. [ citation needed ] Three serological tests are also available for detection of the parasite: the micro-CATT, wb-CATT, and wb-LATEX. The first uses dried blood, while the other two use whole blood samples. A 2002 study found the wb-CATT to be the most efficient for diagnosis, while the wb-LATEX is a better exam for situations where greater sensitivity is required. Prevention [ edit ] See also: Tsetse fly § Control techniques Currently there are few medically related prevention options for African Trypanosomiasis (i.e. no vaccine exists for immunity). Although the risk of infection from a tsetse fly bite is minor (estimated at less than 0.1%), the use of insect repellants, wearing long-sleeved clothing, avoiding tsetse-dense areas, implementing bush clearance methods and wild game culling are the best options to avoid infection available for local residents of affected areas. At the 25th ISCTRC (International Scientific Council for Trypanosomiasis Research and Control) in Mombasa, Kenya, in October 1999, the idea of an African-wide initiative to control tsetse and trypanosomiasis populations was discussed. During the 36th summit of the Organization for African Unity in Lome, Togo, in July 2000, a resolution was passed to form the Pan African Tsetse and Trypanosomiasis Eradication Campaign (PATTEC). The campaign works to eradicate the tsetse vector population levels and subsequently the protozoan disease, by use of insecticide-impregnated targets, fly traps, insecticide-treated cattle, ultra-low dose aerial/ground spraying (SAT) of tsetse resting sites and the sterile insect technique (SIT). The use of SIT in Zanzibar proved effective in eliminating the entire population of tsetse flies but was expensive and is relatively impractical to use in many of the endemic countries afflicted with African trypanosomiasis. Regular active surveillance, involving detection and prompt treatment of new infections, and tsetse fly control is the backbone of the strategy used to control sleeping sickness. Systematic screening of at-risk communities is the best approach, because case-by-case screening is not practical in endemic regions. Systematic screening may be in the form of mobile clinics or fixed screening centres where teams travel daily to areas of high infection rates. Such screening efforts are important because early symptoms are not evident or serious enough to warrant patients with gambiense disease to seek medical attention, particularly in very remote areas. Also, diagnosis of the disease is difficult and health workers may not associate such general symptoms with trypanosomiasis. Systematic screening allows early-stage disease to be detected and treated before the disease progresses, and removes the potential human reservoir. A single case of sexual transmission of West African sleeping sickness has been reported. Treatment [ edit ] First stage [ edit ] The current treatment for first-stage disease is intravenous or intramuscular pentamidine for T. b. gambiense or intravenous suramin for T. b. rhodesiense . Second stage [ edit ] For T. b. gambiense a regimen involving the combination of nifurtimox and eflornithine , nifurtimox-eflornithine combination treatment (NECT), or eflornithine alone appear to be more effective and result in fewer side effects. These treatments may replace melarsoprol when available with the combination being first line. NECT has the benefit of requiring less injections of eflornithine. Intravenous melarsoprol was previously the standard treatment for second-stage (neurological phase) disease and is effective for both types. Melarsoprol is the only treatment for second stage T. b. rhodesiense ; however, it causes death in 5% of people who take it. Resistance to melarsoprol can occur. Epidemiology [ edit ] Deaths per 100,000 population due to African trypanosomiasis by country in 2002. As of 2010 it caused around 9,000 deaths, down from 34,000 in 1990. As of 2000, the disability-adjusted life-years (9 to 10 years) lost due to sleeping sickness are 2.0 million. From 2010-2014, there was an estimated 55 million people at risk for gambiense African Trypanosomiasis and over 6 million people at risk for rhodesiense African Trypanosomiasis. In 2014, the World Health Organization reported 3,797 cases of Human African Trypanosomiasis when the predicted number of cases were to be 5,000. The number of total reported cases in 2014 is an 86% reduction to the total number of cases reported in 2000. The disease has been recorded as occurring in 37 countries, all in sub-Saharan Africa. It occurs regularly in southeast Uganda and western Kenya, and killed more than 48,000 Africans in 2008. The Democratic Republic of the Congo is the most affected country in the world, accounting for 75% of the Trypanosoma brucei gambiense cases. The population at risk being about 69 million with one third of this number being at a 'very high' to 'moderate' risk and the remaining two thirds at a 'low' to 'very low' risk. The number of people being affected by the disease has declined. At this rate, sleeping sickness elimination is a possibility. The World Health Organization plans to eradicate sleeping sickness by the year 2020. Trypanosoma brucei gambiense 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Angola 1498 2094 2406 1796 1274 2441 6726 8275 6610 5351 4546 4577 3621 3115 2280 1727 1105 648 517 247 211 154 70 69 36 35 19 Benin 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 20 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Burkina Faso 27 27 20 17 18 13 12 1 15 15 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 Cameroon 86 69 21 3 20 21 17 10 54 32 27 14 32 33 17 3 15 7 13 24 16 15 7 6 7 6 6 Central African Republic 308 197 362 262 368 676 492 730 1068 869 988 718 572 539 738 666 460 654 1194 1054 395 132 381 59 194 147 124 Chad 20 221 149 65 214 315 178 122 134 187 153 138 715 222 483 190 276 97 196 510 232 276 197 195 95 67 53 Congo 580 703 727 829 418 475 474 142 201 91 111 894 1005 717 873 398 300 189 182 87 87 61 39 20 21 36 18 Côte d'Ivoire 365 349 456 260 206 326 240 185 121 104 188 92 97 68 74 42 29 13 14 8 8 10 9 7 6 3 0 Democratic Republic of the Congo 7515 5825 7757 11384 19021 18182 19342 25094 26318 18684 16951 17300 13816 11459 10339 10249 8013 8155 7318 7178 5624 5590 5968 5647 3205 2351 1769 Equatorial Guinea 63 36 45 30 85 37 46 67 62 28 16 17 32 23 22 17 13 15 11 7 8 1 2 3 0 0 3 Gabon 80 45 33 80 61 20 32 11 6 38 45 30 26 26 49 53 31 30 24 14 22 17 9 17 10 9 10 Ghana 3 6 16 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 Guinea 52 29 24 27 26 33 38 88 99 68 52 72 132 130 95 94 48 69 90 79 68 57 70 78 33 29 107 Mali 0 0 0 27 17 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Nigeria 24 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 27 14 14 26 31 10 21 3 0 0 0 2 3 2 0 0 0 1 South Sudan 67 58 28 62 69 56 157 737 1726 1312 1801 1919 3121 3061 1742 1853 789 469 623 373 199 272 317 117 63 45 17 Togo 2 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Uganda 2066 1328 2042 1764 1469 1062 981 1123 971 1036 948 310 604 517 378 311 290 120 198 99 101 44 20 9 9 4 4 Total 12756 10987 14088 16607 23266 23671 28736 36585 37385 27862 25841 26095 23799 19941 17100 15624 11372 10466 10380 9680 6973 6632 7091 6228 3679 2733 2131 Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Kenya 91 8 4 2 1 0 2 5 14 22 15 10 11 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 Malawi 228 195 143 53 31 15 8 7 10 11 35 38 43 70 48 41 58 50 49 39 29 23 18 35 32 30 37 Mozambique 3 7 24 10 16 No data No data No data No data No data No data No data 1 No data 1 No data No data No data No data No data No data No data No data No data No data No data No data Uganda 1417 832 606 503 342 497 178 217 283 283 300 426 329 338 335 473 261 119 138 129 112 84 71 43 70 28 10 United Republic of Tanzania 187 177 366 262 319 422 400 354 299 288 350 277 228 113 159 186 127 126 59 14 5 1 4 1 1 2 3 Zambia 7 No data 4 1 1 1 3 No data No data 15 9 4 5 15 9 7 6 10 13 4 8 3 6 6 12 8 2 Zimbabwe No data No data No data No data 1 No data No data 9 No data No data No data No data No data No data No data 3 No data No data 0 3 2 4 9 1 3 3 1 Total 1933 1219 1147 831 710 935 591 583 606 619 709 755 617 536 552 707 453 305 259 187 154 111 101 85 115 68 52 Prognosis [ edit ] If untreated, T. b. gambiense almost always results in death, with only a few individuals shown in a long-term 15 year follow-up to have survived after refusing treatment. T. b. rhodesiense , being a more acute and severe form of the disease, is consistently fatal if not treated. Disease progression greatly varies depending on disease form. For individuals which are infected by T. b. gambiense , which accounts for 98% of all of the reported cases, a person can be infected for months or even years without signs or symptoms until the advanced disease stage, where it is too late to be treated successfully. For individuals affected by T. b. rhodesiense , which accounts for 2% of all reported cases, symptoms appear within weeks or months of the infection. Disease progression is rapid and invades the central nervous system, causing death within a short amount of time. History [ edit ] The condition has been present in Africa for thousands of years. Because of a lack of travel between indigenous people, sleeping sickness in humans had been limited to isolated pockets. This changed after Arab slave traders entered central Africa from the east, following the Congo River , bringing parasites along. Gambian sleeping sickness travelled up the Congo River, and then further east. An Arab writer of the 14th century left the following description in the case of a sultan of the Malli [ sic ] Kingdom: "His end was to be overtaken by the sleeping sickness ( illat an-nawm ) which is a disease that frequently befalls the inhabitants of these countries especially their chieftains. Sleep overtakes one of them in such a manner that it is hardly possible to awake him." The British naval surgeon John Atkins described the disease on his return from West Africa in 1734: "The Sleepy Distemper (common among the Negroes) gives no other previous Notice, than a want of Appetite 2 or 3 days before; their sleeps are sound, and Sense and Feeling very little; for pulling, drubbing or whipping will scarce stir up Sense and Power enough to move; and the Moment you cease beating the smart is forgot, and down they fall again into a state of Insensibility, drivling constantly from the Mouth as in deep salivation; breathe slowly, but not unequally nor snort. Young people are more subject to it than the old; and the Judgement generally pronounced is Death, the Prognostik seldom failing. If now and then one of them recovers, he certainly loses the little Reason he had, and turns Ideot..." In 1903, David Bruce recognized the tsetse fly as the arthropod vector. In 1901, a devastating epidemic erupted in Uganda , killing more than 250,000 people, including about two-thirds of the population in the affected lakeshore areas. According to The Cambridge History of Africa , "It has been estimated that up to half the people died of sleeping-sickness and smallpox in the lands on either bank of the lower river Congo ." The causative agent and vector were identified in 1903 by David Bruce , and the subspecies of the protozoa were differentiated in 1910. Bruce had earlier shown that T. brucei was the cause of a similar disease in horses and cattle that was transmitted by the tse-tse fly ( Glossina morsitans ). The first effective treatment, atoxyl , an arsenic -based drug developed by Paul Ehrlich and Kiyoshi Shiga , was introduced in 1910, but blindness was a serious side effect. The British-led Sleeping Sickness Commission collecting tsetse flies , Uganda and Nyasaland , 1908-1913 Suramin was first synthesized by Oskar Dressel and Richard Kothe in 1916 for Bayer . It was introduced in 1920 to treat the first stage of the disease. By 1922, Suramin was generally combined with tryparsamide (another pentavalent organoarsenic drug), the first drug to enter the nervous system and be useful in the treatment of the second stage of the gambiense form. Tryparsamide was announced in the Journal of Experimental Medicine in 1919 and tested in the Belgian Congo by Louise Pearce of the Rockefeller Institute in 1920. It was used during the grand epidemic in West and Central Africa on millions of people and was the mainstay of therapy until the 1960s. American medical missionary Arthur Lewis Piper was active in using tryparsamide to treat sleeping sickness in the Belgian Congo in 1925. Pentamidine , a highly effective drug for the first stage of the disease, has been used since 1937. During the 1950s, it was widely used as a prophylactic agent in western Africa, leading to a sharp decline in infection rates. At the time, eradication of the disease was thought to be at hand. [ citation needed ] The organoarsenical melarsoprol (Arsobal) developed in the 1940s is effective for patients with second-stage sleeping sickness. However, 3–10% of those injected have reactive encephalopathy (convulsions, progressive coma, or psychotic reactions), and 10–70% of such cases result in death; it can cause brain damage in those who survive the encephalopathy. However, due to its effectiveness, melarsoprol is still used today. Resistance to melarsoprol is increasing, and combination therapy with nifurtimox is currently under research. [ citation needed ] Eflornithine (difluoromethylornithine or DFMO), the most modern treatment, was developed in the 1970s by Albert Sjoerdsma and underwent clinical trials in the 1980s. The drug was approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration in 1990. Aventis , the company responsible for its manufacture, halted production in 1999. In 2001, Aventis, in association with Médecins Sans Frontières and the World Health Organization , signed a long-term agreement to manufacture and donate the drug. [ citation needed ] In addition to sleeping sickness, previous names have included negro lethargy, maladie du sommeil (Fr), Schlafkrankheit (Gr), African lethargy, and Congo trypanosomiasis. Research [ edit ] The genome of the parasite has been sequenced and several proteins have been identified as potential targets for drug treatment. Analysis of the genome also revealed the reason why generating a vaccine for this disease has been so difficult. T. brucei has over 800 genes that make proteins the parasite "mixes and matches" to evade immune system detection. Using a genetically modified form of a bacterium that occurs naturally in the gut of the vectors is being studied as a method of controlling the disease. Recent findings indicate that the parasite is unable to survive in the bloodstream without its flagellum . This insight gives researchers a new angle with which to attack the parasite. Trypanosomiasis vaccines are undergoing research. Additionally, the Drugs for Neglected Disease Initiative has contributed to the African sleeping sickness research effort by developing a compound called fexinidazole . This project was originally started in April 2007 and is currently in a pivotal study in clinical phase II/III. The goal is to have the drug succeed and be proven effective against stage one and stage two HAT caused by T. b. gambiense , as well as HAT caused by T. b. rhodesiense . Funding [ edit ] For current funding statistics, human African trypanosomiasis is grouped with kinetoplastid infections. Kinetoplastids refer to a group of flagellate protozoa. Kinetoplastid infections include African sleeping sickness, Chagas' disease, and Leishmaniasis. All together, these three diseases accounted for 4.4 million disability adjusted life years (DALYs) and an additional 70,075 recorded deaths yearly. For kinetoplastid infections, the total global research and development funding was approximately $136.3 million in 2012. Each of the three diseases, African sleeping sickness, Chagas' disease, and Leishmaniasis each received approximately a third of the funding, which was about $36.8 million US dollars, $38.7 million US dollars, and $31.7 million US dollars, respectively. For sleeping sickness, funding was split into basic research, drug discovery, vaccines, and diagnostics. The greatest amount of funding was directed towards basic research of the disease; approximately $21.6 million US dollars were directed towards that effort. As for therapeutic development, approximately $10.9 billion were invested. The top funder for kinetoplastid infection research and development are public sources. About 62% of the funding comes from high-income countries while 9% comes from low- and middle-income countries. High-income countries public funding is largest contributors to the neglected disease research effort. However, in recent years, funding from high-income countries has been steadily decreasing; in 2007, high-income countries provided 67.5% of the total funding whereas, in 2012, high-income countries public funds only provided 60% of the total funding for kinetoplastid infections. This downwards trend leaves a gap for other funders, such as philanthropic foundations and private pharmaceutical companies to fill. Much of the progress that has been made in African sleeping sickness and neglected disease research as a whole is a result of the other non-public funders. One of these major sources of funding has come from foundations, which have increasingly become more committed to neglected disease drug discovery in the 21st century. In 2012, philanthropic sources provided 15.9% of the total funding. The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation has been a leader in providing funding for neglected disease drug development. They have provided $444.1 million US dollars towards neglected disease research in 2012. To date, they have donated over $1.02 billion US dollars towards the neglected disease discovery efforts. For kinetoplastid infections specifically, they have donated an average of $28.15 million US dollars annually between the years 2007 to 2011. They have labeled human African trypanosomiasis a high-opportunity target meaning it is a disease that presents the greatest opportunity for control, elimination, and eradication, through the development of new drugs, vaccines, public-health programs, and diagnostics. They are the second highest funding source for neglected diseases, immediately behind the US National Institutes of Health. At a time where public funding is decreasing and government grants for scientific research are harder to obtain, the philanthropic world has stepped in to push the research forward. Another important component of increased interest and funding has come from industry. In 2012, they contributed 13.1% total to the kinetoplastid research and development effort, and have additionally played an important role by contributing to public-private partnerships (PPP) as well as product-development partnerships (PDP). A public-private partnership is an arrangement between one or more public entities and one or more private entities that exists to achieve a specific health outcome or to produce a health product. The partnership can exist in numerous ways; they may share and exchange funds, property, equipment, human resources, and intellectual property. These public-private partnerships and product-development partnerships have been established to address challenges in pharmaceutical industry, especially related to neglected disease research. These partnerships can help increase the scale of the effort towards therapeutic development by using different knowledge, skills, and expertise from different sources. These types of partnerships have been shown to be more effective than industry or public groups working independently. Other animals [ edit ] Trypanosoma of both the rhodesiense and gambiense types can affect other animals such as cattle and wild animals. In animals it is known as animal trypanosomiasis . References [ edit ] External links [ edit ] Wikipedia's health care articles can be viewed offline with the Medical Wikipedia app . Classification D ICD - 10 : B56 ICD - 9-CM : 086.5 MeSH : D014353 DiseasesDB : 29277 External resources MedlinePlus : 001362 eMedicine : med/2140 Patient UK : African trypanosomiasis "Sleeping sickness" . Médecins Sans Frontières . Archived from the original on 23 October 2013. Links to pictures of Sleeping Sickness (Hardin MD/ University of Iowa ) archived 2006-02-19. Hale Carpenter, G.D. (1920). A Naturalist on Lake Victoria, with an Account of Sleeping Sickness and the Tse-tse Fly . Unwin. OCLC 2649363 .

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what does the color of guyana flag mean

The flag of Guyana, known as The Golden Arrowhead, has been the national flag of Guyana since May 1966 when the country became independent from the United Kingdom. It was designed by Whitney Smith, an American vexillologist (though originally without the black and white fimbriations, which were later additions suggested by the College of Arms in the United Kingdom). The proportions of the national flag are 3 : 5. The colours are symbolic, with green for agriculture and forests, white for rivers and water, gold for mineral wealth, black for endurance, and red for zeal and dynamism.

['constitution of medina']

kí ni àwọ̀ àsíá guyana túmọ̀ sí

Yes

['Àsíá yìí jẹ́ aláwọ̀ márùn ùn; Pupa, Funfun, Èsúrú, Dúdú àti awọ̀ Ewéko. Áwọ̀ pupa tí ó dúró fún àyípadà dáradára, àwọ̀ funfun tí ó dúró fún odò àti omi kanga tí ó mọ́ , ésúrú tí ó dúró fún wààrà àti ọrọ̀ orílẹ̀-èdè náà, Dúdú dúró fún ìfaradà àwọn ọmọ orílẹ̀-èdè náà àti àwọ̀ ewéko tí ọ ó dúró fún ètò ọ̀gbìn tí ọ́ fi ẹsẹ̀ múlẹ̀.']

['Àsíá yìí jẹ́ aláwọ̀ márùn ùn; Pupa, Funfun, Èsúrú, Dúdú àti awọ̀ Ewéko. Áwọ̀ pupa tí ó dúró fún àyípadà dáradára, àwọ̀ funfun tí ó dúró fún odò àti omi kanga tí ó mọ́ , ésúrú tí ó dúró fún wààrà àti ọrọ̀ orílẹ̀-èdè náà, Dúdú dúró fún ìfaradà àwọn ọmọ orílẹ̀-èdè náà àti àwọ̀ ewéko tí ọ ó dúró fún ètò ọ̀gbìn tí ọ́ fi ẹsẹ̀ múlẹ̀.']

['P1']

Àsìá il?? Gùyánà Àsìá il?? Gùyánà J?? àsíá oríl??-édé, ó j?? àmì òpá á?? àti ogun. Àsíá yìí j?? aláw?? márùn ùn; Pupa, Funfun, Èsúrú, Dúdú àti aw?? Ewéko. Áw?? pupa tí ó dúró fún àyípadà dáradára, àw?? funfun tí ó dúró fún odò àti omi kanga tí ó m?? , ésúrú tí ó dúró fún wààrà àti ?r?? oríl??-èdè náà, Dúdú dúró fún ìfaradà àw?n ?m? oríl??-èdè náà àti àw?? ewéko tí ? ó dúró fún ètò ??gbìn tí ?? fi ?s?? múl??.

Guyana Name The Golden Arrowhead Use National flag Proportion 3:5 Adopted 26 May 1966 Design A green field with the black-edged red isosceles triangle based on the hoist-side superimposed on the larger white-edged golden triangle, also based on the hoist-side, pointed toward the fly-side. Designed by Whitney Smith Variant flag of Guyana Use National ensign Proportion 1:2 Design An elongated version of the above. Variant flag of Guyana Proportion 7:11 Design British Civil Air Ensign combined with national flag of Guyana. May be flown at airports and from landed aircraft. The flag of Guyana , known as The Golden Arrowhead , has been the national flag of Guyana since May 1966 when the country became independent from the United Kingdom . It was designed by Whitney Smith , an American vexillologist (though originally without the black and white fimbriations , which were later additions suggested by the College of Arms in the United Kingdom). The proportions of the national flag are 3:5. The colours are symbolic , with green for agriculture and forests , white for rivers and water , gold for mineral wealth, black for endurance , and red for zeal and dynamism. Contents [ hide ] 1 Other flags 2 Presidential Standards 3 Joint Services 4 References 5 External links Other flags [ edit ] The civil air ensign is a copy of the British Civil Air Ensign , with the Guyanese flag in the canton . The naval ensign of Guyana is a version of the national flag, with proportions of 1:2. As part of the British Empire , Guyana's flag was a British Blue Ensign with the colonial badge in the fly. An unofficial red version was used at sea. The first flag was introduced in 1875 and was changed slightly in 1906 and 1955. Like all British Ensigns, the colonial flags of Guyana were all ratio 1:2. 1875–1906 1906–1919 1919–1955 1955–1966 Presidential Standards [ edit ] The Presidential Standard of Guyana came into effect by Proclamation issued on 23 February 1970. Subsequent Presidents have amended this Proclamation to replace the description of the flag contained, to reflect the Presidential Standard they wish to introduce for the duration of their Presidency. Presidential Standard of Guyana 1970-1980. Current Standard as of 26 May 2015 Presidential Standard of Guyana 1980-1985 under President L.F.S. Burnham Presidential Standard of Guyana 1985-1992 under President H. Desmond Hoyte Presidential Standard of Guyana 1992-1997 under President Cheddi B. Jagan Joint Services [ edit ] Guyana Defence Force Guyana Police Force Guyana Prison Service References [ edit ] External links [ edit ] Guyana at Flags of the World

train

what is the flag of germany look like

The flag of Germany or German Flag (German : Flagge Deutschlands) is a tricolour consisting of three equal horizontal bands displaying the national colours of Germany : black, red, and gold (German : Schwarz - Rot - Gold). The flag was first adopted as the national flag of modern Germany in 1919, during the short - lived Weimar Republic, until 1933.

['for all']

báwo ni àsíá ilẹ̀ jámánì ṣe rí

Yes

['Àsìá ilẹ̀ Jẹ́mánì pinsi awometa to ni ida gbooro to dogba meta to ni awo onibibibi ile Germany: dudu, pupa ati wura.']

['Àsìá ilẹ̀ Jẹ́mánì pinsi awometa to ni ida gbooro to dogba meta to ni awo onibibibi ile Germany: dudu, pupa ati wura.']

['P1']

Àsìá il?? J??mánì Àsìá il?? J??mánì pinsi awometa to ni ida gbooro to dogba meta to ni awo onibibibi ile J??mánì: dudu, pupa ati wura.

Federal Republic of Germany Name Bundesflagge und Handelsflagge Use Civil and state flag , civil ensign Proportion 3:5 Adopted 23 May 1949 (modified in 1999) Design A horizontal tricolour of black , red , and gold , in that order. Variant flag of Federal Republic of Germany Name Bundesdienstflagge und Dienstflagge der Landstreitkräfte der Bundeswehr Use State flag and ensign , war flag Proportion 3:5 Adopted 7 June 1950 Variant flag of Federal Republic of Germany Name Dienstflagge der Seestreitkräfte der Bundeswehr Use Naval ensign Proportion 3:5 Adopted 9 May 1956 Common unofficial flag variant with the coat of arms of Germany The flag of Germany or German Flag ( German : Flagge Deutschlands ) is a tricolour consisting of three equal horizontal bands displaying the national colours of Germany : black , red , and gold ( German : Schwarz-Rot-Gold ). The flag was first adopted as the national flag of modern Germany in 1919, during the short-lived Weimar Republic , until 1933. Germany has two competing traditions of national colours, black-red-gold and black-white-red, which have played an important role in the modern history of Germany. The black-red-gold tricolour's first appearance anywhere in a German-ethnicity sovereign state within what today comprises Germany occurred in 1778 , and achieved prominence during the 1848 Revolutions . Already before the actual revolution, the Bundestag adopted the colors on March 9th, 1848. The Frankfurt Parliament of 1848/1849 followed with an imperial law in December. The flag was so common that it was not even mentioned in the constitution of March 1849. After its restoration, in 1850/1851, the Bundestag made no further use of black-red-gold until 1863. The North German Confederation adopted, in its constitution, the colors black-white-red. With the formation of the short-lived Weimar Republic after World War I , the tricolour was adopted as the national flag of Germany. Sixteen years later following World War II , the tricolour was again designated as the flag of both West and East Germany divided states in 1949. The two flags were identical until 1959, when the East German flag was augmented with the coat of arms of East Germany . Since reunification on 3 October 1990, the black-red-gold tricolour has become the flag of a reunified Federal Republic of Germany. After the Austro-Prussian War in 1866, the Prussian -dominated North German Confederation adopted a tricolour of black-white-red as its flag. This flag later became the flag of the German Empire , formed following the unification of Germany under the Prussian king who became emperor in 1871, and was used until 1918 with the end of the First World War. Black, white, and red were reintroduced as the German national colours with the establishment of Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler in 1933, replacing German republican colours with imperial colours until the end of World War II. The colours of the modern flag are associated with the republican democracy first proposed in 1848, formed after World War I , and represent German unity and freedom. During the Weimar Republic , the black-red-gold colours were the colours of the democratic, centrist, and republican political parties, as seen in the name of Reichsbanner Schwarz-Rot-Gold , formed by members of the Social Democratic , the Centre , and the Democratic parties to defend the republic against extremists on the right and left. Contents 1 Origins 2 Flag variants 2.1 Civil flag 2.2 Government flag 2.3 Vertical flags 2.4 Military flags 3 Design 3.1 Color 4 Flag days 5 History 5.1 Medieval period 5.2 Principality of Reuss-Greiz 5.3 Napoleonic Wars 5.4 German Confederation 5.5 Revolution and the Frankfurt Parliament 5.6 North German Confederation and the German Empire (1866–1918) 5.7 Weimar Republic (1918–1933) 5.8 Nazi Germany and World War II (1933–1945) 5.9 After World War II (1945–1949) 5.10 Divided Germany (1949–89) 5.11 1989–present 6 See also 7 References 8 External links Origins [ edit ] The German association with the colours black, red, and gold surfaced in the radical 1840s, when the black-red-gold flag was used to symbolize the movement against the Conservative European Order that was established after Napoleon's defeat. There are many theories in circulation regarding the origins of the colour scheme used in the 1848 flag. It has been proposed that the colours were those of the Jena Students' League ( Jenaer Burschenschaft ), one of the radically minded Burschenschaften banned by Metternich in the Carlsbad Decrees ; the colours are mentioned in their canonical order in the seventh verse of August Daniel von Binzer 's student song Zur Auflösung der Jenaer Burschenschaft ("On the Dissolution of the Jena Students' League") quoted by Johannes Brahms in his Academic Festival Overture . Another claim goes back to the uniforms (mainly black with red facings and gold buttons) of the Lützow Free Corps, comprising mostly university students and formed during the struggle against the occupying forces of Napoleon. Whatever the true explanation, these colours soon came to be regarded as the national colours of Germany during this brief period, and especially after their reintroduction during the Weimar period , they have become synonymous with liberalism in general. The colors also appear in the medieval Reichsadler Flag variants [ edit ] See also: Flags of Germany Civil flag [ edit ] The German Unity Flag is a national memorial to German reunification that was raised on 3 October 1990. It flies in front of the Reichstag building in Berlin (seat of the German parliament ). The German national flag or Bundesflagge (English: Federal flag ), containing only the black-red-gold tricolour, was introduced as part of the (West) German constitution in 1949. Following the creation of separate government and military flags in later years, the plain tricolour is now used as the German civil flag and civil ensign . This flag is also used by non-federal authorities to show their connection to the federal government, e.g. the authorities of the German states use the German national flag together with their own flag . Government flag [ edit ] Bundesdienstflagge at the German Embassy, Canberra , Australia The government flag of Germany is officially known as the Dienstflagge der Bundesbehörden (state flag of the federal authorities) or Bundesdienstflagge for short. Introduced in 1950, the government flag is the civil flag defaced with the Bundesschild ("Federal Shield"), which overlaps with up to one fifth of the black and gold bands. The Bundesschild is a variant of the coat of arms of Germany , whose main differences are the illustration of the eagle and the shape of the shield: the Bundesschild is rounded at the base, whereas the standard coat of arms is pointed. The government flag may only be used by federal government authorities and its use by others is an offence, punishable with a fine. However, public use of flags similar to the Bundesdienstflagge (e.g. using the actual coat of arms instead of the Bundesschild ) is tolerated, and such flags are sometimes seen at international sporting events. Vertical flags [ edit ] Civil flag (hanging) Government flag (hanging) In addition to the normal horizontal format, many public buildings in Germany use vertical flags. Most town halls fly their town flag together with the national flag in this way; many town flags in Germany exist only in vertical form. The proportions of these vertical flags are not specified. In 1996, a layout for the vertical version of the government flag was established, that co-incidentally matched the pattern of the "conventional" black-red-gold flag of the Fürstentum Reuß-Gera from 1806-1918: the Bundesschild is displayed in the centre of the flag, overlapping with up to one fifth of the black and gold bands. When hung like a banner or draped, the black band should be on the left, as illustrated. When flown from a vertical flagpole, the black band must face the staff. Military flags [ edit ] Since the German armed forces ( Bundeswehr ) are a federal authority, the Bundesdienstflagge is also used as the German war flag on land. In 1956, the Dienstflagge der Seestreitkräfte der Bundeswehr (Flag of the German Navy ) was introduced: the government flag ending in swallowtail . This naval flag is also used as a navy jack . Design [ edit ] Specifications for the flag of Germany Article 22 of the German constitution, the Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany , states: The federal flag shall be black, red and gold. Following specifications set by the (West) German government in 1950, the flag displays three bars of equal width and has a width–length ratio of 3:5; the tricolor used during the Weimar Republic had a ratio of 2:3. The exact colors used for the German flag were not officially defined at the time of the flag's adoption and have changed since then. The federal cabinet introduced a corporate design for the German government on 2 June 1999, which currently uses the following colors: Colour scheme Black Red Gold RAL 9005 Jet black 3020 Traffic red 1021 Rapeseed yellow HKS 0, 0, 0 5.0PB 3.0/12 6.0R 4.5/14 CMYK 0.0.0.100 0.100.100.0 0.12.100.5 Pantone Black 485 7405* Web color #000000 #FF0000 #FFCC00 Decimal RGB 0,0,0 255,0,0 255,204,0 * The value given here is an alternative to the following more-complicated combination: Yellow (765 g), Red 032 (26 g), Black (11 g), Transp. White (198 g) A version of the German flag where the golden band is of a metallic golden colour. This version was sometimes used in official publications before the introduction of the federal government's corporate design in 1999. Also note the slightly brighter red. Color [ edit ] Vexillology rarely distinguishes between gold and yellow; in heraldry , they are both Or . For the German flag, such a distinction is made: the color used in the flag is gold, not yellow. When the black–red–gold tricolor was adopted by the Weimar Republic as its flag, it was attacked by conservatives , monarchists , and the far right , who referred to the colors with spiteful nicknames such as Schwarz–Rot–Gelb (black–red–yellow), Schwarz–Rot–Senf (black–red–mustard), or even Schwarz–Rot–Scheiße (black–red–shit). When the Nazis came to power in 1933, the black–white–red colors of pre-1918 Imperial Germany were swiftly reintroduced, and their propaganda machine continued to discredit the Schwarz–Rot–Gold , using the same derogatory terms as previously used by the monarchists. On 16 November 1959, the Federal Court of Justice ( Bundesgerichtshof ) stated that the usage of "black–red–yellow" and the like had "through years of Nazi agitation, attained the significance of a malicious slander against the democratic symbols of the state" and was now an offence. As summarised by heraldist Arnold Rabbow in 1968, "the German colors are black–red–yellow but they are called black–red–gold." Flag days [ edit ] Following federal decree on 22 March 2005, the flag must be flown from public buildings on the following dates. Not all of these days are public holidays. The Stadtweinhaus in Münster with banners displayed in mourning (note the black ribbons atop each staff) after the death of former German president Johannes Rau in 2006. Date Name Reason 27 January Commemoration Day for the Victims of National Socialism Tag des Gedenkens an die Opfer des Nationalsozialismus Anniversary of the liberation of Auschwitz concentration camp (1945), observed by the United Nations as International Holocaust Remembrance Day (half-staff) 1 May International Workers' Day Tag der Arbeit Established for German labour unions to demonstrate for the promotion of workers' welfare. 9 May Europe Day Europatag Anniversary of the Schuman Declaration , leading to the European Union (1950) 23 May Basic Law Day Grundgesetztag Anniversary of the German Basic Law (1949) 17 June Jahrestag des 17. Juni 1953 Anniversary of the Uprising of 1953 in East Germany 20 July Jahrestag des 20. Juli 1944 Anniversary of the July 20 plot , the failed assassination attempt on Adolf Hitler by Claus von Stauffenberg (1944) 3 October German Unity Day Tag der Deutschen Einheit Anniversary of German reunification (1990) The 2nd Sunday before Advent National day of mourning Volkstrauertag In memory of all killed during wartime (half-staff) Source: Federal Government of Germany Election days for the Bundestag and the European Parliament are also flag days in some states, in addition to other state-specific flag days. The public display of flags to mark other events, such as the election of the president or the death of a prominent politician (whereupon flags would be at half-staff), can be declared at the discretion of the Federal Ministry of the Interior . When flags are required to be flown at half-staff, vertical flags are not lowered. A black mourning ribbon is instead attached, either atop the staff (if hung from a pole) or to each end of the flag's supporting cross-beams (if flown like a banner). History [ edit ] Medieval period [ edit ] See also: Flags of the Holy Roman Empire Banners of the Holy Roman Emperor 14th century 15th–19th century War flag of the Holy Roman Empire (13th–14th century) The Holy Roman Empire (800/962 – 1806, known as the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation after 1512) did not have a national flag, but black and gold were used as colors of the Holy Roman Emperor and featured in the imperial banner: a black eagle on a golden background. After the late 13th or early 14th century, the claws and beak of the eagle were colored red. From the early 15th century, a double-headed eagle was used. Principality of Reuss-Greiz [ edit ] After Prince Heinrich XI began rule over the Reuss elder line , in 1778 the first-ever black-red-gold tricolor flag was adopted within a German sovereign state. When Heinrich XI, Prince Reuss of Greiz was appointed by Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor to rule the then-new Principality of Reuss-Greiz on May 12, 1778, the flag adopted by the Fürstentum Reuß-Greiz was the first-ever appearance of the black-red-gold tricolour in its modern arrangement in any sovereign state within what today comprises Germany - the Reuss elder line that ruled the principality used a flag whose proportions were close to a "nearly square"-shape 4:5 hoist/fly ratio, instead of the modern German flag's 3:5 figure. In 1804, Napoleon Bonaparte declared the First French Empire . In response to this, Holy Roman Emperor Francis II of the Habsburg dynasty declared his personal domain to be the Austrian Empire and became Francis I of Austria. Taking the colours of the banner of the Holy Roman Emperor, the flag of the Austrian Empire was black and gold. Francis II was the last Holy Roman Emperor, with Napoleon forcing the empire's dissolution in 1806. After this point, these colours continued to be used as the flag of Austria until 1918. Early Hanseatic flags Lübeck Hamburg The colours red and white were also significant during this period. When the Holy Roman Empire took part in the Crusades , a war flag was flown alongside the black-gold imperial banner. This flag, known as the "Saint George Flag", was a white cross on a red background: the reverse of the St George's Cross used as the flag of England , and similar to the flag of Denmark . Red and white were also colors of the Hanseatic League (13th–17th century). Hanseatic trading ships were identifiable by their red-white pennants, and most Hanseatic cities adopted red and white as their city colours (see Hanseatic flags ). Red and white still feature as the colours of many former Hanseatic cities such as Hamburg or Bremen . In northern Italy , during the Guelph and Ghibelline conflict of the 12th–14th century, the armies of the Ghibelline (pro-imperial) communes adopted the war banner of the Holy Roman Emperor (white cross on red) as their own, while the Guelf (anti-imperial) communes reversed the colours (red cross on white). These two schemes are prevalent in the modern civic heraldry of northern Italian towns and remains a revealing indicator of their past factional leanings. Traditionally Ghibelline towns like Pavia , Novara , Como , and Asti continue to sport the Ghibelline cross. The Guelf cross can be found on the civic arms of traditionally Guelf towns like Genoa , Milan , Vercelli , Alessandria , Reggio , and Bologna . Napoleonic Wars [ edit ] With the end of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, many of its dukes and princes joined the Confederation of the Rhine , a confederation of Napoleonic client states. These states preferred to use their own flags. The confederation had no flag of its own; instead it used the blue-white-red flag of France and the Imperial Standard of its protector, Napoleon . During the Napoleonic Wars , the German struggle against the occupying French forces was significantly symbolised by the colours of black, red, and gold, which became popular after their use in the uniforms of the Lützow Free Corps , a volunteer unit of the Prussian Army . This unit had uniforms in black with red facings and gold buttons. The colour choice had pragmatic origins, even though black-red-gold were the former colours used by the Holy Roman Empire. Members of the corps were required to supply their own clothing: in order to present a uniform appearance it was easiest to dye all clothes black. Gold-coloured buttons were widely available, and pennons used by the lancers in the unit were red and black. At the time, the colours represented: Out of the blackness (black) of servitude through bloody (red) battles to the golden (gold) light of freedom. As the members of this unit came from all over Germany and were mostly university students and academics, the Lützow Free Corps and their colours gained considerable exposure among the German people. German Confederation [ edit ] The 1815–16 Congress of Vienna led to the creation of the German Confederation , a loose union of all remaining German states after the Napoleonic Wars. The Confederation was created as a replacement for the now-extinct Holy Roman Empire, with Francis I of Austria —the last Holy Roman Emperor—as its president. The confederation did not have a flag of its own, although the black-red-gold tricolour is sometimes mistakenly attributed to it. The flag adopted by the Jena Urburschenschaft Upon returning from the war, veterans of the Lützow Free Corps founded the Urburschenschaft fraternity in Jena in June 1815. The Jena Urburschenschaft eventually adopted a flag with three equal horizontal bands of red, black, and red, with gold trim and a golden oak branch across the black band, following the colours of the uniforms of the Free Corps. Since the students who served in the Lützow Free Corps came from various German states, the idea of a unified German state began to gain momentum within the Urburschenschaft and similar Burschenschaften that were subsequently formed throughout the Confederation. On 18 October 1817, the fourth anniversary of the Battle of Leipzig , hundreds of fraternity members and academics from across the Confederation states met in Wartburg in Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach (in modern Thuringia ), calling for a free and unified German nation. The gold-red-black flag of the Jena Urburschenschaft featured prominently at this Wartburg festival . Therefore, the colours black, red, and gold eventually became symbolic of this desire for a unified German state. Austria, in its determination to maintain the status quo, enacted the Carlsbad Decrees of 1819 that banned all student organisations, officially putting an end to the Burschenschaften . Hambach Festival (May 1832), contemporary lithograph In May 1832, around 30,000 people demonstrated at the Hambach Festival for freedom, unity, and civil rights. The colours black, red, and gold had become a well established symbol for the liberal, democratic and republican movement within the German states since the Wartburg Festival, and flags in these colours were flown en masse at the Hambach Festival. While contemporary illustrations showed prominent use of a gold-red-black tricolour (an upside-down version of the modern German flag), surviving flags from the event were in black-red-gold. Such an example is the Ur-Fahne , the flag flown from Hambach Castle during the festival: a black-red-gold tricolour where the red band contains the inscription Deutschlands Wiedergeburt (Germany's rebirth). This flag is now on permanent display at the castle. Revolution and the Frankfurt Parliament [ edit ] Revolutionaries in Berlin (March 1848) War ensign of the Reichsflotte (1848–1852) In the Springtime of the Peoples during the Revolutions of 1848 , revolutionaries took to the streets, many flying the tricolour. Liberals took power and, after prolonged deliberation, a national assembly was formulated. This Frankfurt Parliament declared the black-red-gold as the official colours of Germany and passed a law stating its civil ensign was the black-red-yellow tricolour. Also, a naval war ensign used these colours. In 1850, the Frankfurt Parliament collapsed, and the German Confederation was restored under Austrian presidency, who suppressed the actions of the failed Frankfurt Parliament, including the tricolour. Afterwards, the most pressing issue was whether or not to include Austria in any future German nation, as Austria's status as a multi-ethnic empire complicated the dream of a united Greater Germany—the grossdeutsch solution. Alternatively, there was the kleindeutsch (Lesser German) solution for a Germany that encompassed only German lands and excluded Austria. The Prussian–Austrian duality within the Confederation eventually led to the Austro-Prussian War in 1866. During the war, the southern states allied with Austria adopted the black-red-gold tricolour as their flag, and the 8th German Army Corps also wore black-red-gold armbands. The Kingdom of Prussia and its predominately north German allies defeated Austria and made way for the realisation of the Lesser German solution a few years later. North German Confederation and the German Empire (1866–1918) [ edit ] Following the dissolution of the German Confederation, Prussia formed its unofficial successor, the North German Confederation , in 1866 with the signing of the Confederation Treaty in August 1866 and then the ratification of the Constitution of 1867 . This coalition consisted of Prussia, the largest member state, and 21 other north German states. 2:3 Flag of the North German Confederation (1866–1871) and the German Empire (1871–1918). In use at the beginning of the Weimar Republic (1918–1919), and by the foreign services (1922–1933). A version with a slightly different aspect ratio was used as the German national flag from March 1933 to August 1935. The question regarding what flag should be adopted by the new confederation was first raised by the shipping sector and its desire to have an internationally recognisable identity. Virtually all international shipping that belonged to the confederation originated from either Prussia or the three former Hanseatic city-states of Bremen , Hamburg , and Lübeck . Based on this, Adolf Soetbeer, secretary of the Hamburg Chamber of Commerce, suggested in the Bremer Handelsblatt on 22 September 1866 that any planned flag should combine the colours of Prussia (black and white) with the Hanseatic colours (red and white). In the following year, the constitution of the North German Confederation was enacted, where a horizontal black-white-red tricolour was declared to be both the civil and war ensign. King Wilhelm I of Prussia was satisfied with the colour choice: the red and white were also taken to represent the Margraviate of Brandenburg , the Imperial elector state that was a predecessor of the Kingdom of Prussia. The absence of gold from the flag also made it clear that this German state did not include the "black and gold" monarchy of Austria. Following the Franco-Prussian War , the remaining southern German states allied with the North German Confederation, leading to the unification of Germany and the elevation of the Prussian monarch to Emperor of this new state in 1871. In its constitution , the German Empire retained black, white, and red as its national colours, with the tricolour previously used by the North German Confederation officially adopted as its flag in 1892. The black-white-red tricolour remained the flag of Germany until the end of the German Empire in 1918, in the final days of World War I . Weimar Republic (1918–1933) [ edit ] 2:3 Flag of Weimar Germany (1919–1933) Following the declaration of the German republic in 1918 and the ensuing revolutionary period , the so-called Weimar Republic was founded in August 1919. To form a continuity between the anti-autocratic movement of the 19th century and the new democratic republic, the old black-red-gold tricolour was designated as the national German flag in the Weimar Constitution in 1919. Only the tiny German principalities of Reuss-Greiz , Reuss-Gera , and Waldeck-Pyrmont and its republican successor had upheld the tradition and had always continued to use the German colours of black , red , and or (gold) in their flag. As a civil ensign, the black-white-red tricolour was retained, albeit with the new tricolour in the top left corner. "Let the old flags fly", election poster for the monarchist and nationalist DNVP , 1932. This change was not welcomed by many people in Germany, who saw this new flag as a symbol of humiliation following Germany's defeat in the First World War. In the Reichswehr , the old colours continued to be used in various forms. Many conservatives wanted the old colours to return, while monarchists and the far right were far more vocal with their objections, referring to the new flag with various derogatory names ( see Color above ). As a compromise, the old black-white-red flag was reintroduced in 1922 to represent German diplomatic missions abroad. The symbols of Imperial Germany became symbols of monarchist and nationalist protest and were often used by monarchist and nationalist organisations (e.g. Stahlhelm, Bund der Frontsoldaten ). This included the Reichskriegsflagge (war flag of the Reich), which has been revived in the present for similar use. Many nationalist political parties during the Weimar period—such as the German National People's Party (see poster) and the National Socialist German Workers Party (Nazi Party)—used the imperial colours, a practice that has continued today with the National Democratic Party of Germany . On 24 February 1924, the organisation Reichsbanner Schwarz-Rot-Gold was founded in Magdeburg by the member parties of the Weimar Coalition ( Centre , DDP , SPD ) and the trade unions . This organisation was formed to protect the fragile democracy of the Weimar Republic, which was under constant pressure by both the far right and far left. Through this organisation, the black-red-gold flag became not only a symbol of German democracy, but also of resistance to political extremism. This was summarised by the organisation's first chairman, Otto Hörsing , who described their task as a "struggle against the swastika and the Soviet star ". In the face of the increasingly violent conflicts between the communists and Nazis, the growing polarisation of the German population and a multitude of other factors, mainly the drastic economic sinking, extreme hyperinflation and corruption of the republic, the Weimar Republic collapsed in 1933 with the Nazi seizure of power ( Machtergreifung ) and the appointment of Adolf Hitler as German chancellor . Nazi Germany and World War II (1933–1945) [ edit ] See also: Reichskriegsflagge and List of German flags § Nazi Germany 3:5 National flag of Germany (1933–1935), jointly with the swastika flag. 3:5 National flag of Germany and marine jack of Germany (1935–1945) After the Nazi Party came to power on 30 January 1933, the black-red-gold flag was swiftly scrapped; a ruling on 12 March established two legal national flags: the reintroduced black-white-red imperial tricolour and the flag of the Nazi Party . On 15 September 1935, one year after the death of Reich President Paul von Hindenburg and Hitler's elevation to the position of Führer , the dual flag arrangement was ended, with the exclusive use of the Nazi flag as the national flag of Germany. One reason may have been the " Bremen incident" of 26 July 1935, in which a group of demonstrators in New York City boarded the ocean liner SS Bremen , tore the Nazi Party flag from the jackstaff , and tossed it into the Hudson River . When the German ambassador protested, US officials responded that the German national flag had not been harmed, only a political party symbol. The new flag law was announced at the annual party rally in Nuremberg, where Hermann Göring claimed the old black-white-red flag, while honoured, was the symbol of a bygone era and under threat of being used by "reactionaries". The design of the Nazi flag was introduced by Hitler as the party flag in mid-1920: a flag with a red background, a white disk and a black swastika (Hakenkreuz) in the middle. In Mein Kampf , Hitler explained the process by which the Nazi flag design was created: It was necessary to use the same colours as Imperial Germany, because in Hitler's opinion they were "revered colours expressive of our homage to the glorious past and which once brought so much honour to the German nation." The most important requirement was that "the new flag ... should prove effective as a large poster" because "in hundreds of thousands of cases a really striking emblem may be the first cause of awakening interest in a movement." Nazi propaganda clarified the symbolism of the flag: the red colour stood for the social, white for the movement's national thinking and the swastika for the victory of the Aryan peoples over Jewry. Several designs by a number of different authors were considered, but the one adopted in the end was Hitler's personal design. Albert Speer stated in his memoirs that "in only two other designs did he (Adolf Hitler) execute the same care as he did his Obersalzberg house : that of the Reich War Flag and his own standard of Chief of State ". An off-centred disk version of the swastika flag was used as the civil ensign on German-registered civilian ships and was used as the jack on Kriegsmarine (the name of the German Navy , 1933–1945) warships. The flags for use on sea had a through and through image, so the "left-facing" and "right-facing" version were each present on one side while the national flag was right-facing on both sides. From 1933 to at least 1938, the Nazis sometimes "sanctified" swastika flags by touching them with the Blutfahne (blood flag), the swastika flag used by Nazi paramilitaries during the failed Beer Hall Putsch in 1923. This ceremony took place at every Nuremberg Rally . It is unknown whether this tradition was continued after the last Nuremberg rally in 1938. At the end of World War II , the first law enacted by the Allied Control Council abolished all Nazi symbols and repealed all relevant laws. The possession of swastika flags is forbidden in several countries since then, with the importation or display of them forbidden particularly in Germany . After World War II (1945–1949) [ edit ] 2:3 The C-Pennant (1946–1949) After the defeat of Germany in World War II, the country was placed under Allied administration . Although there was neither a national German government nor a German flag, German ships were required by international law to have a national ensign of some kind. As a provisional civil ensign of Germany, the Council designated the international signal pennant Charlie representing the letter C ending in a swallowtail , known as the C-Pennant ( C-Doppelstander ). The Council ruled that "no ceremony shall be accorded this flag which shall not be dipped in salute to warships or merchant ships of any nationality". Similarly, the Japanese civil ensign used immediately following World War II was the signal pennant for the letter E ending in a swallowtail, and the Ryūkyūan civil ensign was a swallowtailed letter D signal pennant. West of the Oder–Neisse line , the German states were reorganised along the lines of the zones of occupation , and new state governments were established. Within the American zone, the northern halves of the former states of Württemberg and Baden were merged to form Württemberg-Baden in 1946. As its flag, Württemberg-Baden adopted the black-red-gold tricolour. The choice of these colours was not based on the historical use of the tricolour, but the simple addition of gold to Württemberg's colours of red and black. Coincidentally, Baden's colours were red and yellow, so the colour choice could be mistaken for a combination of the two flags. In 1952, Württemberg-Baden became part of the modern German state of Baden-Württemberg , whose flag is black and gold. Two other states that were created after the war, Rhineland-Palatinate (French zone) and Lower Saxony (British zone), chose to use the black-red-gold tricolour as their flag, defaced with the state's coat of arms. These two states were formed from parts of other states, and no colour combinations from these previous states were accepted as a new state flag. This led to the use of the black-red-gold for two reasons: the colours did not relate particularly to any one of the previous states, and using the old flag from the Weimar Republic was intended to be a symbol of the new democracy. Divided Germany (1949–89) [ edit ] See also: Flag of East Germany Two variants of Josef Wirmer 's 1944 "Resistance" design, created by his brother, Ernst. The bottom flag was proposed by conservative parties as a flag for West Germany (1948). 3:5 Flag of the Federal Republic of Germany (1949–present) Flag of the German Democratic Republic (1949–59) 3:5 Flag of the German Democratic Republic (1959–90) Flag of the United Team of Germany , as used from the 1960 to 1968 Olympics GDR flag at a 1955 boxing international With relations deteriorating between the Soviet Union and the United States , the three western Allies met in March 1948 to merge their zones of occupation and allow the formation of what became the Federal Republic of Germany, commonly known as West Germany . Meanwhile, the eastern Soviet zone became the German Democratic Republic, commonly known as East Germany . During the preparation of the new constitution for West Germany, discussions regarding its national symbols took place in August 1948 during a meeting at Herrenchiemsee . Although there were objections to the creation of a national flag before reunification with the east, it was decided to proceed. This decision was primarily motivated by the proposed constitution by the eastern SED in November 1946, where black-red-gold were suggested as the colours for a future German republic. While there were other suggestions for the new flag for West Germany, the final choice was between two designs, both using black-red-gold. The Social Democrats proposed the re-introduction of the old Weimar flag, while the conservative parties such as the CDU / CSU and the German Party proposed a suggestion by Ernst Wirmer, a member of the Parlamentarischer Rat (parliamentary council) and future advisor of chancellor Konrad Adenauer . Wirmer suggested a variant of the 1944 "Resistance" flag (using the black-red-gold scheme in a Nordic Cross pattern) designed by his brother and 20 July co-conspirator Josef. The tricolour was ultimately selected, largely to illustrate the continuity between the Weimar Republic and this new German state. With the enactment of the (West) German constitution on 23 May 1949, the black-red-gold tricolour was adopted as the flag for the Federal Republic of Germany. In 1955, the inhabitants of the French-administered Saar Protectorate voted to join West Germany. Since its establishment as a separate French protectorate in 1947, the Saar had a white Nordic cross on a blue and red background as its flag. To demonstrate the commitment of the Saar to be a part of West Germany, a new flag was selected on 9 July 1956: the black-red-gold tricolour defaced with the new coat of arms , also proposed on this day. This flag came into force on 1 January 1957, upon the establishment of the Saarland as a state of West Germany. While the use of black-red-gold had been suggested in the Soviet zone in 1946, the Second People's Congress in 1948 decided to adopt the old black-white-red tricolour as a national flag for East Germany. This choice was based on the use of these colours by the National Committee for a Free Germany , a German anti- Nazi organisation that operated in the Soviet Union in the last two years of the war. In 1949, following a suggestion from Friedrich Ebert, Jr. , the black-red-gold tricolour was instead selected as the flag of the German Democratic Republic upon the formation of this state on 7 October 1949. From 1949 to 1959, the flags of both West and East Germany were identical. On 1 October 1959, the East German government changed its flag with the addition of its coat of arms . In West Germany, these changes were seen as a deliberate attempt to divide the two Germanys. Displaying this flag in West Germany and West Berlin—where it became known as the Spalterflagge (divider-flag)—was seen as a breach of the constitution and subsequently banned until the late 1960s. From 1956 to 1964, West and East Germany attended the Winter and Summer Olympic Games as a single team, known as the United Team of Germany . After the East German national flag was changed in 1959, neither country accepted the flag of the other. As a compromise, a new flag was used by the United Team of Germany from 1960 to 1964, featuring the black-red-gold tricolour defaced with white Olympic rings in the red stripe. In 1968 the teams from the two German states entered separately, but both used the same German Olympic flag. From 1972 to 1988, the separate West and East German teams used their respective national flags. 1989–present [ edit ] German football fans during the 2006 FIFA World Cup . It was the first time that so many flags could be seen at the same time in the history of the federal republic. Some flags seen here contain the federal coat of arms and must not be confused with the Bundesdienstflagge , which displays the Bundesschild and may only be used by government authorities. Flag of unified Germany (1990–present) After the fall of the Berlin Wall in November 1989, many East Germans cut the coat of arms out of their flags, as Hungarians had done in 1956 and as Romanians would soon do during the fall of Ceaușescu . The widespread act of removing the coat of arms from the East German flag implied the plain black-red-gold tricolour as symbol for a united and democratic Germany. Finally, on 3 October 1990, as the area of the German Democratic Republic was absorbed into the Federal Republic of Germany, the black-red-gold tricolour became the flag of a reunified Germany . In 1998, the Foundation for the Reappraisal of the SED Dictatorship was formed. The duty of this organisation, directly responsible to the federal government, is to examine the consequences of the former East German regime. As its logo, the foundation used an East German flag with the Communist coat of arms cut out. The old black-white-red tricolour of the German Empire is still used by monarchists and those members of German royalty who long for the peaceful reintroduction of a German democratic monarchy. This use of the old flag is almost completely overshadowed by its prevalent use by the far right; since the swastika is illegal in Germany, the far right have been forced to forego any Nazi flags and instead use the old tricolour, which the Nazis themselves banned in 1935. In Germany, the use of the flag and other national symbols has been relatively low for most of the time since the Second World War—a reaction against the widespread use of flags by the Nazi Party and against the nationalistic furor of the Nazis in general. During the 2006 FIFA World Cup , which took place in Germany, public use of the national flag increased dramatically. Although this explosion in the flag's popularity was initially greeted by many Germans with a mixture of surprise and apprehension, the decades-old fear that German flag-waving and national pride was inextricably associated with its Nazi past was dismissed by the end of the tournament by Germans and non-Germans alike. See also [ edit ] Germany portal List of German flags Flags of German states Coat of arms of Germany National colours of Germany Hanseatic flags Flag of Prussia Reichskriegsflagge References [ edit ] External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Flags of Germany ( category ) Germany at Flags of the World All medieval flags of Germany Imperial German Empire Army Colours

train

the green colour of the nigeria flag stands for

The flag of Nigeria was designed in 1959 and first officially hoisted on 1 October 1960. The flag is a vertical 1 : 2 triband of green, white, green. The two green stripes represent Nigeria 's natural wealth, while the white band represents peace.

['causes low blood pressure']

àwọ̀ ewé inú àsíá orílẹ̀-èdè Nàìjíríà dúró fún

Yes

['Àwọ̀ àsíá náà jẹ́ aláwọ̀ ewé-funfun-aláwọ̀ ewé, tí aláwọ̀-ewé náà dúró fún iṣẹ́-àgbè, tí funfun sì dúró fún àlàáfíà àti ìṣọ̀kan.']

['aláwọ̀-ewé náà dúró fún iṣẹ́-àgbè.']

['P1']

Àsíá il?? Nàìjíríà Àsíá il?? Nàìjíríà tí Michael Taiwo Akinkunmi ?e ní w??n gbà w?lé g??g?? bí i èyí tó máa ?ojú Nàìjíríà láti òru ?j?? kìíní o?ù k?wàá ?dún 1960, ?j?? tí Nàìjíríà gba òmìnira. W??n fi ??r?? àsíá yìí ?e ìdíje, tí àw?n ènìyàn ?gb??rún m??tà sì dá sí. Àsíá tí Akinkunmi ?e ni w??n gba w?lé láàárín àw?n èyí tí gbogbo àw?n tó kópa nínú ìdíje náà ?e. Àw?? àsíá náà j?? aláw?? ewé-funfun-aláw?? ewé, tí aláw??-ewé náà dúró fún i???-àgbè, tí funfun sì dúró fún àlàáfíà àti ì???kan.

Nigeria Use National flag Proportion 1:2 Adopted 1 October 1960 (57 years ago) Design A vertical bicolour triband of green, white and green Designed by Micheal Taiwo Akinkunmi Variant flag of Nigeria Use State flag Proportion 1:2 Design A vertical bicolour triband of green, white and green; charged with the Coat of arms in the centre Variant flag of Nigeria Use Civil ensign Proportion 1:2 Design A red field with the national flag, in the canton Variant flag of Nigeria Use State ensign Proportion 1:2 Design A blue field with the national flag, in the canton Variant flag of Nigeria Use Naval ensign Proportion 1:2 Design A white field with the national flag in the canton, with the Naval seal in the fly. Variant flag of Nigeria Use Air force ensign Proportion 1:2 Design A sky-blue field with the national flag in the canton, with the air force roundel in the fly. The flag of Nigeria was designed in 1959 and first officially hoisted on 1 October 1960. The flag is a vertical 1:2 triband of green, white, green. The two green stripes represent Nigeria's natural wealth, while the white band represents peace. Contents [ hide ] 1 Design 2 Flag specifications 2.1 Colour specifications 3 Gallery 3.1 Government flags 3.2 Historical flags 3.3 Subnational flags 4 See also 5 References 6 External links Design [ edit ] The national flag is an adaptation of the winning entry from Michael Taiwo Akinkunmi in a competition held in 1959. The original submission had a red radiating sun badge in the centre triptych of one white vertical with a green vertical on each side. After the badge was removed by the judges, the flag has remained unchanged. Like other countries, Nigeria has special ensigns for civil and naval vessels. Some of its states also have flags. Akinkunmi was a twenty-three year-old student at the time he designed the flag. He was studying at Norwich Technical College in London, England, when he saw an advertisement in a newspaper that submissions were being accepted for the design of a new national flag of Nigeria. In 1959 Akinkunmi's design was chosen as the winner and, with adaptations, was first officially used on 1 October 1960, Nigeria's Independence Day. Flag specifications [ edit ] Colour specifications [ edit ] Colour scheme Green White RAL None 9003 Signal white CMYK 100.0.39.47 0.0.0.0 Hexadecimals #008753 #FFFFFF Decimals 0,135,83 255,255,255 Gallery [ edit ] Government flags [ edit ] Flag of the President of Nigeria Flag of the President as Commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces Former flag of the President, adopted in 1963 Flag of the Nigerian Defence Forces Naval ensign of Nigeria (1960-1998) Akinkunmi's original proposal Historical flags [ edit ] Flag of the Royal Niger Company (1887-1888) Flag of the Royal Niger Company (1888-1899) Flag of the British West African Settlements Flag of the Lagos Colony (1886-1906) Flag of the Oil Rivers Protectorate Flag of the Niger Coast Protectorate Flag of the Northern Nigeria Protectorate (1900-1914) Flag of the Southern Nigeria Protectorate (1900-1914) Flag of the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria (1914-1960) Subnational flags [ edit ] Flag of Osun State See also [ edit ] Nigeria portal Heraldry portal Coat of arms of Nigeria Flag of Rhodesia References [ edit ] External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Flags of Nigeria . Nigeria at Flags of the World Worldstatesmen.org – Nigeria

train

the nigerian flag was design in what year

The Flag of Nigeria was designed in 1959 and first officially hoisted on 1 October 1960. The flag is a vertical 1 : 2 triband of green, white, green. The two green stripes represent Nigeria 's natural wealth, while the white band represents peace.

['within the pelvic region immediately behind and almost overlying the bladder, and in front of the sigmoid colon']

ọdún wo ni wọ́n ṣe àsíá nàìjíríà?

Yes

['Àsíá ilẹ̀ Nàìjíríà tí Michael Taiwo Akinkunmi ṣe ní wọ́n gbà wọlé gẹ́gẹ́ bí i èyí tó máa ṣojú Nàìjíríà láti òru ọjọ́ kìíní oṣù kẹwàá ọdún 1960, ọjọ́ tí Nàìjíríà gba òmìnira.']

['Àsíá ilẹ̀ Nàìjíríà tí Michael Taiwo Akinkunmi ṣe ní wọ́n gbà wọlé gẹ́gẹ́ bí i èyí tó máa ṣojú Nàìjíríà láti òru ọjọ́ kìíní oṣù kẹwàá ọdún 1960, ọjọ́ tí Nàìjíríà gba òmìnira.']

['P1']

Àsíá il?? Nàìjíríà Àsíá il?? Nàìjíríà tí Michael Taiwo Akinkunmi ?e ní w??n gbà w?lé g??g?? bí i èyí tó máa ?ojú Nàìjíríà láti òru ?j?? kìíní o?ù k?wàá ?dún 1960, ?j?? tí Nàìjíríà gba òmìnira. W??n fi ??r?? àsíá yìí ?e ìdíje, tí àw?n ènìyàn ?gb??rún m??tà sì dá sí. Àsíá tí Akinkunmi ?e ni w??n gba w?lé láàárín àw?n èyí tí gbogbo àw?n tó kópa nínú ìdíje náà ?e. Àw?? àsíá náà j?? aláw?? ewé-funfun-aláw?? ewé, tí aláw??-ewé náà dúró fún i???-àgbè, tí funfun sì dúró fún àlàáfíà àti ì???kan.

Nigeria Use National flag Proportion 1:2 Adopted 1 October 1960 Design A vertical bicolour triband of green, white and green Designed by Micheal Taiwo Akinkunmi Variant flag of Nigeria Use State flag Proportion 1:2 Design A vertical bicolour triband of green, white and green; charged with the Coat of arms in the centre Variant flag of Nigeria Use Civil ensign Proportion 1:2 Design A red field with the national flag, in the canton Variant flag of Nigeria Use State ensign Proportion 1:2 Design A blue field with the national flag, in the canton Variant flag of Nigeria Use Naval ensign Proportion 1:2 Design A white field with the national flag in the canton, with the Naval seal in the fly. Variant flag of Nigeria Use Air force ensign Proportion 1:2 Design A sky-blue field with the national flag in the canton, with the air force roundel in the fly. The Flag of Nigeria was designed in 1959 and first officially hoisted on 1 October 1960. The flag is a vertical 1:2 triband of green, white, green. The two green stripes represent Nigeria's natural wealth, while the white band represents peace. Contents [ hide ] 1 Design 2 Flag specifications 2.1 Colour specifications 3 Gallery 3.1 Government flags 3.2 Historical flags 3.3 Subnational flags 4 See also 5 References 6 External links Design [ edit ] The national flag is an adaptation of the winning entry from Michael Taiwo Akinkunmi in a competition held in 1959. The original submission had a red radiating sun badge in the centre triptych of one white vertical with a green vertical on each side. After the badge was removed by the judges, the flag has remained unchanged. Like other countries, Nigeria has special ensigns for civil and naval vessels. Some of its states also have flags. Akinkunmi was a twenty-three year-old student at the time he designed the flag. He was studying at Norwich Technical College in London, England, when he saw an advertisement in a newspaper that submissions were being accepted for the design of a new national flag of Nigeria. In 1959 Akinkunmi's design was chosen as the winner and, with adaptations, was first officially used on 1 October 1960, Nigeria's Independence Day. Flag specifications [ edit ] Colour specifications [ edit ] Colour scheme Green White RAL None 9003 Signal white CMYK 100.0.39.47 0.0.0.0 Hexadecimals #008753 #FFFFFF Decimals 0,135,83 255,255,255 Gallery [ edit ] Government flags [ edit ] Flag of the President of Nigeria Flag of the President as Commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces Former flag of the President, adopted in 1963 Flag of the Nigerian Defence Forces Naval ensign of Nigeria (1960-1998) Akinkunmi's original proposal Historical flags [ edit ] Flag of the Royal Niger Company (1887-1888) Flag of the Royal Niger Company (1888-1899) Flag of the British West African Settlements Flag of the Lagos Colony (1886-1906) Flag of the Oil Rivers Protectorate Flag of the Niger Coast Protectorate Flag of the Northern Nigeria Protectorate (1900-1914) Flag of the Southern Nigeria Protectorate (1900-1914) Flag of the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria (1914-1960) Subnational flags [ edit ] Flag of Osun State See also [ edit ] Nigeria portal Heraldry portal Coat of arms of Nigeria Flag of Rhodesia References [ edit ] External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Flags of Nigeria . Nigeria at Flags of the World Worldstatesmen.org – Nigeria

train

what is the meaning of the nigerian flag

The flag of Nigeria was designed in 1959 and first officially hoisted on 1 October 1960. The flag has three vertical bands of green, white, green. The two green stripes represent Nigeria 's natural wealth, while the white band represents peace.

['sodium']

kí ni ìtumọ̀ àsíá nàìjíríà

Yes

['Àwọ̀ àsíá náà jẹ́ aláwọ̀ ewé-funfun-aláwọ̀ ewé, tí aláwọ̀-ewé náà dúró fún iṣẹ́-àgbè, tí funfun sì dúró fún àlàáfíà àti ìṣọ̀kan.']

['Àwọ̀ àsíá náà jẹ́ aláwọ̀ ewé-funfun-aláwọ̀ ewé, tí aláwọ̀-ewé náà dúró fún iṣẹ́-àgbè, tí funfun sì dúró fún àlàáfíà àti ìṣọ̀kan.']

['P1']

Àsíá il?? Nàìjíríà Àsíá il?? Nàìjíríà tí Michael Taiwo Akinkunmi ?e ní w??n gbà w?lé g??g?? bí i èyí tó máa ?ojú Nàìjíríà láti òru ?j?? kìíní o?ù k?wàá ?dún 1960, ?j?? tí Nàìjíríà gba òmìnira. W??n fi ??r?? àsíá yìí ?e ìdíje, tí àw?n ènìyàn ?gb??rún m??tà sì dá sí. Àsíá tí Akinkunmi ?e ni w??n gba w?lé láàárín àw?n èyí tí gbogbo àw?n tó kópa nínú ìdíje náà ?e. Àw?? àsíá náà j?? aláw?? ewé-funfun-aláw?? ewé, tí aláw??-ewé náà dúró fún i???-àgbè, tí funfun sì dúró fún àlàáfíà àti ì???kan.

Nigeria Use National flag Proportion 1:2 Adopted 1 October 1960 Design A vertical bicolour triband of green, white and green Designed by Micheal Taiwo Akinkunmi Variant flag of Nigeria Use State flag Proportion 1:2 Design A vertical bicolour triband of a green, white and green; charged with the coat of arms in the centre Variant flag of Nigeria Use Civil ensign Proportion 1:2 Design A red field with the national flag, in the canton Variant flag of Nigeria Use State ensign Proportion 1:2 Design A blue field with the national flag, in the canton Variant flag of Nigeria Use Naval ensign Proportion 1:2 Design A white field with the national flag in the canton, with the Naval seal in the fly. Variant flag of Nigeria Use Air force ensign Proportion 1:2 Design A sky-blue field with the national flag in the canton, with the air force roundel in the fly. The flag of Nigeria was designed in 1959 and first officially hoisted on 1 October 1960. The flag has three vertical bands of green, white, green. The two green stripes represent Nigeria's natural wealth, while the white band represents peace. Contents [ hide ] 1 Design 2 Colour specifications 3 Government flags 4 Historical flags 5 Subnational flags 6 See also 7 References 8 External links Design [ edit ] The flag is an adaptation of the winning entry from Michael Taiwo Akinkunmi in a competition held in 1959. Akinkunmi was a 23-year-old student at the time he designed the flag. He was studying at Norwich Technical College in London, England, when he saw an advertisement in a newspaper that submissions were being accepted for the design of a new national flag of Nigeria. The original submission had a red radiating sun badge in the central white vertical band with a green vertical band on each side. After the badge was removed by the judges, the flag has remained unchanged. It was first officially used on 1 October 1960, the day Nigeria was granted independence from the United Kingdom . Like other countries, Nigeria has special ensigns for civil and naval vessels. Some of its states also have flags. Colour specifications [ edit ] Colour scheme Green White RAL None 9003 Signal white CMYK 100.0.39.47 0.0.0.0 Hexadecimals #008753 #FFFFFF Decimals 0,135,83 255,255,255 Government flags [ edit ] Flag of the President of Nigeria Flag of the President as Commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces Former flag of the President, adopted in 1963 Flag of the Nigerian Defence Forces Naval ensign of Nigeria (1960—98) Akinkunmi's original proposal Historical flags [ edit ] See also: Flag of Nigeria (1914–1960) Flag of the Royal Niger Company (1887—88) Flag of the Royal Niger Company (1888—99) Flag of the British West African Settlements Flag of the Lagos Colony (1886—1906) Flag of the Oil Rivers Protectorate Flag of the Niger Coast Protectorate Flag of the Northern Nigeria Protectorate (1900—14) Flag of the Southern Nigeria Protectorate (1900—14) Flag of the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria (1914—60) Subnational flags [ edit ] Flag of Osun State See also [ edit ] Nigeria portal Heraldry portal Coat of arms of Nigeria Flag of Rhodesia References [ edit ] External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Flags of Nigeria . Nigeria at Flags of the World http://www.flagscorner.com/nigeria-flag/ Worldstatesmen.org – Nigeria

train

who designed the nigerian flag and in what year

The national flag is an adaptation of the winning entry from Michael Taiwo Akinkunmi in a competition held in 1959. The original submission had a red radiating sun badge in the centre triptych of one white vertical with a green vertical on each side. After the badge was removed by the judges, the flag has remained unchanged. Like other countries, Nigeria has special ensigns for civil and naval vessels. Some of its states also have flags.

['declaration of the rights of man and of the citizen', 'france', 'émigrés']

ta ló ṣe àdàkọ àsíá nàìjíríà, ọdún wo sì ni?

Yes

['Àsíá ilẹ̀ Nàìjíríà tí Michael Taiwo Akinkunmi ṣe ní wọ́n gbà wọlé gẹ́gẹ́ bí i èyí tó máa ṣojú Nàìjíríà láti òru ọjọ́ kìíní oṣù kẹwàá ọdún 1960, ọjọ́ tí Nàìjíríà gba òmìnira.']

['Àsíá ilẹ̀ Nàìjíríà tí Michael Taiwo Akinkunmi ṣe ní wọ́n gbà wọlé gẹ́gẹ́ bí i èyí tó máa ṣojú Nàìjíríà láti òru ọjọ́ kìíní oṣù kẹwàá ọdún 1960.']

['P1']

Àsíá il?? Nàìjíríà Àsíá il?? Nàìjíríà tí Michael Taiwo Akinkunmi ?e ní w??n gbà w?lé g??g?? bí i èyí tó máa ?ojú Nàìjíríà láti òru ?j?? kìíní o?ù k?wàá ?dún 1960, ?j?? tí Nàìjíríà gba òmìnira. W??n fi ??r?? àsíá yìí ?e ìdíje, tí àw?n ènìyàn ?gb??rún m??tà sì dá sí. Àsíá tí Akinkunmi ?e ni w??n gba w?lé láàárín àw?n èyí tí gbogbo àw?n tó kópa nínú ìdíje náà ?e. Àw?? àsíá náà j?? aláw?? ewé-funfun-aláw?? ewé, tí aláw??-ewé náà dúró fún i???-àgbè, tí funfun sì dúró fún àlàáfíà àti ì???kan.

Nigeria Use National flag Proportion 1:2 Adopted 1 October 1960 Design A vertical bicolour triband of green, white and green Designed by Micheal Taiwo Akinkunmi Variant flag of Nigeria Use State flag Proportion 1:2 Design A vertical bicolour triband of green, white and green; charged with the Coat of arms in the centre Variant flag of Nigeria Use Civil ensign Proportion 1:2 Design A red field with the national flag, in the canton Variant flag of Nigeria Use State ensign Proportion 1:2 Design A blue field with the national flag, in the canton Variant flag of Nigeria Use Naval ensign Proportion 1:2 Design A white field with the national flag in the canton, with the Naval seal in the fly. Variant flag of Nigeria Use Air force ensign Proportion 1:2 Design A sky-blue field with the national flag in the canton, with the air force roundel in the fly. The Flag of Nigeria was designed in 1959 and first officially hoisted on 1 October 1960. The flag is a vertical 1:2 triband of green, white, green. The two green stripes represent Nigeria's natural wealth, while the white band represents peace. Contents [ hide ] 1 Design 2 Flag specifications 2.1 Colour specifications 3 Gallery 3.1 Government flags 3.2 Historical flags 3.3 Subnational flags 4 See also 5 References 6 External links Design [ edit ] The national flag is an adaptation of the winning entry from Michael Taiwo Akinkunmi in a competition held in 1959. The original submission had a red radiating sun badge in the centre triptych of one white vertical with a green vertical on each side. After the badge was removed by the judges, the flag has remained unchanged. Like other countries, Nigeria has special ensigns for civil and naval vessels. Some of its states also have flags. Akinkunmi was a twenty-three year-old student at the time he designed the flag. He was studying at Norwich Technical College in London, England, when he saw an advertisement in a newspaper that submissions were being accepted for the design of a new national flag of Nigeria. In 1959 Akinkunmi's design was chosen as the winner and, with adaptations, was first officially used on 1 October 1960, Nigeria's Independence Day. Flag specifications [ edit ] Colour specifications [ edit ] Colour scheme Green White RAL None 9003 Signal white CMYK 100.0.39.47 0.0.0.0 Hexadecimals #008753 #FFFFFF Decimals 0,135,83 255,255,255 Gallery [ edit ] Government flags [ edit ] Flag of the President of Nigeria Flag of the President as Commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces Former flag of the President, adopted in 1963 Flag of the Nigerian Defence Forces Naval ensign of Nigeria (1960-1998) Akinkunmi's original proposal Historical flags [ edit ] Flag of the Royal Niger Company (1887-1888) Flag of the Royal Niger Company (1888-1899) Flag of the British West African Settlements Flag of the Lagos Colony (1886-1906) Flag of the Oil Rivers Protectorate Flag of the Niger Coast Protectorate Flag of the Northern Nigeria Protectorate (1900-1914) Flag of the Southern Nigeria Protectorate (1900-1914) Flag of the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria (1914-1960) Subnational flags [ edit ] Flag of Osun State See also [ edit ] Nigeria portal Heraldry portal Coat of arms of Nigeria Flag of Rhodesia References [ edit ] External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Flags of Nigeria . Nigeria at Flags of the World Worldstatesmen.org – Nigeria

train

what is the defining element of a society

A society is a group of people involved in persistent social interaction, or a large social group sharing the same geographical or social territory, typically subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations. Societies are characterized by patterns of relationships (social relations) between individuals who share a distinctive culture and institutions ; a given society may be described as the sum total of such relationships among its constituent of members. In the social sciences, a larger society often evinces stratification or dominance patterns in subgroups.

['the argyle diamond mine in australia', 'mandela']

kí ni ohun tó ń ṣàpèjúwe àwùjọ

Yes

['Kò sí ẹ̀dá alààyè tó dá wà láì ní Olùbátan tàbí alájogbé. Orísirísi ènìyàn ló parapọ̀ di àwùjọ-bàbá, ìyá, ará, ọ̀rẹ́, olùbátan ati bẹ́ẹ̀ bẹ́ẹ̀ lọ. Bí ìyá ṣe ń bí ọmọ, tí bàbá ń wo ọmọ àti bí ọ̀rẹ́ àti ojúlùmọ̀ ṣe ń báni gbé, bẹ́ẹ̀ ni ìbá gbépọ̀ ẹ̀dá n gbòòrò si. Gbogbo àwọn wọ̀nyí náà ló parapọ̀ di àwùjọ-ẹ̀dá. Àti ẹ̀ni tí a bá tan, àti ẹni tí a kò tan mọ́, gbogbo wa náà la parapọ̀ di àwùjọ-ẹ̀dá.']

[]

['P1']

Àwùj? ??k?? nípa àwùj?-??dá j?? ??k?? kan pàtàkì tí kò ?e é f?w?? r?? s??yìn. Kò sí ??dá alààyè tó dá wà láì ní Olùbátan tàbí alájogbé. Orísirísi ènìyàn ló parap?? di àwùj?-bàbá, ìyá, ará, ??r??, olùbátan ati b???? b???? l?. Bí ìyá ?e ? bí ?m?, tí bàbá ? wo ?m? àti bí ??r?? àti ojúlùm?? ?e ? báni gbé, b???? ni ìbá gbép?? ??dá n gbòòrò si. Gbogbo àw?n w??nyí náà ló parap?? di àwùj?-??dá. Àti ??ni tí a bá tan, àti ?ni tí a kò tan m??, gbogbo wa náà la parap?? di àwùj?-??dá. Ní il?? Yorùbá ati níbi gbogbo ti ??dá ènìyàn ? gbé, ìbágbép?? ??dá ?e pàtàkì púp??. Bí ?nìkan bá ní òun ò bá ?nik??ni gbé, tí kò bá gbé nígbó, yóó wábi gbàl?. ?ùgb??n, àwa ènìyàn lápap?? m? ìwúlò ìbágbép??. Orísirísi à?fàní ni ó wà nínú ìbágbép?? ??dá. Bí ??p?? ènìyàn bá n gbé pap??, ó r?rùn lati j? parap?? dojú k? ogun tàbí ??t?? tí ó bá f?? wá láti ibikíbi. Yorùbá b?? w??n ní àjòjì ?w?? kan ò gb??rù dórí. B???? g??g?? ló ?e rí fún àwùj?-??dá. Gbígbé pap?? yìí máa ? mú ìdádúró láì sí ìb??rù dání nítorí bí ò?ù?ù ?w?? ?e le láti ???, b???? ni àwùj? tó fohùn ???kan. Èyí j?? oun pàtàkì lára ànfàní tó wa nínú ì???kan nínú àwùj?-??dá. Nídà kejì, bí ??r?? àwùj?-??dá ba j?? kónkó-jabele, ??t?? àti wàhálà ni ojú ?m? ènìyàn yóó máa rí. Nítorí náà, ó dára kí ì???kan j?ba ni àwuj?-??dá. Ìdàgbàsókè tí ó máa ? wà nínú àwùj? kò s??yìn ìf?w??sow??p?? bí àti ránmú un gángan ò ti s??yìn èékánná. Ó y? kí á mò pé nítorí ìdàgbàsókè ni ??dá fi ? gbé pap??. Bí igi kan ò ?e lè dágbó ?e, b???? náà ni ?nìkan ò lè dálùúgbé. ??p??l?p?? ènìyàn ló máa ? dá ?gb??n j? fún ìdàgbàsókè ìlú. Bí ?gb??n kan kò bá parí i???, ?gb??n mìíràn yóó gbè é l??yìn. Níbi tí orísirísi ?gb??n bá ti parap??, ìl?síwájú kò ní jìnnà si irú agbègbè b????. Gbogbo àw?n n?kan w??nyí j?? ànfàní tó wà ní àwùj?-??dá tí kò sì ?e é fi síl?? láì m??nu bà. Nínú ??k?? nípa àwùj?-??dá, a tún máa ? s??r?? nípa ìsòro tó ? kojú ìbágbép?? ??dá. Kò ?e é ?e kó máa sì wàhálà láwùj? ènìyàn. A kò lè ronú l??nà kan ?o?o, nítorí náà, ìjà àti as?? máa ? j?? àw?n n?kan tí a kò lè ?àì má rì í níbi ti àw?n ènìyàn bá ? gbé. Wàhálà máa ? fa ??t??, ??t?? ? di ogun, ogun sì ? fa ikú àti fífi dúkàá sòfò. Àw?n n?kan w??nyí j?? ara àw?n ì?òro tó n kojú àwùj?-??dá. Kò sí bí ìlú tàbí orílè-èdè kan kò se ní ní ??kan nínú àw?n àw?n ì?òro w??nyí. ?ùgb??n, a gbódò m?? wí pé aw?n ànfàní àti aw?n ì?òro w??nyí ti wà láti ìgbà pípé wá. Tí a bá wo àw?n ìtàn àtij? gbogbo, a ó ri pé gbogbo àw?n n?kan wònyí kò j?? tuntun. ?gb??n ?m? ènìyàn ni ó fi ?e ?k?? orí-ìl?, ti orí-omi àti ti òfúrifú fún ìrìnkèrindò tí ó r?rùn. Àwùj?-??dá ti ?e àw?n n?kan dáradára báyìí náà ni w??n ? ?e àw?n ohun tí ó lè pa ènìyàn lára. Fún àp??r?, ìb?n àti àdó-olóró. Àw?n ohun ìjà w??nyí ni w??n lò ní ogun àgbájé kìnní tí o wáyé ní Odun 1914 sí 1918 àti ti èkejì ní odún 1939 sí 1945. Gbogbo àw?n n?kan w??nyí ló ti wà tí ó sì tún wà síbè di òní. Lákòótán, ??k?? nípa àwùj?-??dá j?? ??k?? tó lárinrin. Ohun kan tí a gb??d?? m?? nip é, kò ?e é ?e kí ??dá máa gbe ní ?y? k????kan. Ìdí ni pé gbígbé pap?? p??lú ìs??kan àti ìf?w??sow??p?? ló lè mú ìt??síwájú àti ìdàgbà-sókè wá

For other uses, see Society (disambiguation) . Anthropology Outline History Types [show] Archaeological Biological Cultural Linguistic Social Archaeological [show] Aerial Aviation Battlefield Biblical Bioarchaeological Environmental Ethnoarchaeological Feminist Forensic Maritime Paleoethnobotanical Zooarchaeological Biological [show] Anthrozoological Biocultural Evolutionary Forensic Molecular Neurological Nutritional Palaeoanthropological Primatological Social Cultural [show] Applied Art Cognitive Cyborg Development Digital Ecological Environmental Economic Political economy Historical Feminist Institutional Kinship Legal Media Medical Museums Musical Political Psychological Public Religion Symbolic Transpersonal Urban Visual Linguistic [show] Anthropological Descriptive Ethnological Ethnopoetical Historical Semiotic Sociological Research framework [show] Anthropometry Ethnography ( online ) Ethnology Cross-cultural comparison Participant observation Holism Reflexivity Thick description Cultural relativism Ethnocentrism Emic and etic Key concepts [show] Culture Development Ethnicity Evolution ( sociocultural ) Gender Kinship and descent Meme Prehistory Race Society Value Colonialism / Postcolonialism Key theories [show] Actor–network theory Alliance theory Cross-cultural studies Cultural materialism Culture theory Diffusionism Feminism Historical particularism Boasian anthropology Functionalism Interpretive Performance studies Political economy Practice theory Structuralism Post-structuralism Systems theory Lists [show] Anthropologists by nationality Anthropology by year Bibliography Journals List of indigenous peoples Organizations Anthropology portal v t e Sociology History Outline Portal Theory Positivism Antipositivism Postpositivism Functionalism Conflict theories Social constructionism Structuralism Interactionism Critical theory Structure and agency Actor–network theory Methods Quantitative Qualitative Historical Comparative Mathematical Computational Ethnography Ethnomethodology Network analysis Subfields Conflict Criminology Culture Development Deviance Demography Education Economic Environmental Family Gender Health Industrial Inequality Knowledge Law Literature Medical Military Organizational Political Race and ethnicity Religion Rural Science Social change Social movements Social psychology Stratification STS Technology Urban Browse Bibliography By country Index Journals Organizations People Timeline v t e A society is a group of people involved in persistent social interaction , or a large social group sharing the same geographical or social territory, typically subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations. Societies are characterized by patterns of relationships ( social relations ) between individuals who share a distinctive culture and institutions ; a given society may be described as the sum total of such relationships among its constituent of members. In the social sciences , a larger society often evinces stratification or dominance patterns in subgroups. Insofar as it is collaborative , a society can enable its members to benefit in ways that would not otherwise be possible on an individual basis; both individual and social (common) benefits can thus be distinguished, or in many cases found to overlap. A society can also consist of like-minded people governed by their own norms and values within a dominant, larger society. This is sometimes referred to as a subculture , a term used extensively within criminology . More broadly, and especially within structuralist thought , a society may be illustrated as an economic , social, industrial or cultural infrastructure , made up of, yet distinct from, a varied collection of individuals. In this regard society can mean the objective relationships people have with the material world and with other people, rather than "other people" beyond the individual and their familiar social environment. Contents [ hide ] 1 Etymology and usage 2 Conceptions 2.1 In political science 2.2 In sociology 3 Types 3.1 Pre-industrial 3.1.1 Hunting and gathering 3.1.2 Pastoral 3.1.3 Horticultural 3.1.4 Agrarian 3.1.5 Feudal 3.2 Industrial 3.3 Post-industrial 4 Contemporary usage 4.1 Western 4.2 Information 4.3 Knowledge 4.4 Other uses 5 See also 6 Notes 7 Further reading 8 External links Etymology and usage [ edit ] A half-section of the 12th-century South Tang Dynasty version of Night Revels of Han Xizai , original by Gu Hongzhong . The painting portrays servants, musicians, monks, children, guests, and hosts all in a single social environment. It serves as an in-depth look into the Chinese social structure of the time. The term "society" came from the Latin word societas , which in turn was derived from the noun socius (" comrade , friend, ally"; adjectival form socialis ) used to describe a bond or interaction between parties that are friendly, or at least civil. Without an article, the term can refer to the entirety of humanity (also: "society in general", "society at large", etc.), although those who are unfriendly or uncivil to the remainder of society in this sense may be deemed to be "antisocial". However, the Scottish economist, Adam Smith taught instead that a society "may subsist among different men, as among different merchants, from a sense of its utility without any mutual love or affection, if only they refrain from doing injury to each other." Used in the sense of an association , a society is a body of individuals outlined by the bounds of functional interdependence , possibly comprising characteristics such as national or cultural identity , social solidarity , language , or hierarchical structure . Conceptions [ edit ] Society, in general, addresses the fact that an individual has rather limited means as an autonomous unit . The great apes have always been more ( Bonobo , Homo , Pan ) or less ( Gorilla , Pongo ) social animals , so Robinson Crusoe -like situations are either fictions or unusual corner cases to the ubiquity of social context for humans, who fall between presocial and eusocial in the spectrum of animal ethology . Cultural relativism as a widespread approach or ethic has largely replaced notions of "primitive", better/worse, or "progress" in relation to cultures (including their material culture/technology and social organization). According to anthropologist Maurice Godelier , one critical novelty in society, in contrast to humanity's closest biological relatives (chimpanzees and bonobos), is the parental role assumed by the males, which supposedly would be absent in our nearest relatives for whom paternity is not generally determinable. In political science [ edit ] Societies may also be structured politically . In order of increasing size and complexity, there are bands , tribes , chiefdoms , and state societies. These structures may have varying degrees of political power , depending on the cultural , geographical , and historical environments that these societies must contend with. Thus, a more isolated society with the same level of technology and culture as other societies is more likely to survive than one in closer proximity to others that may encroach on their resources. A society that is unable to offer an effective response to other societies it competes with will usually be subsumed into the culture of the competing society. In sociology [ edit ] The social group enables its members to benefit in ways that would not otherwise be possible on an individual basis. Both individual and social (common) goals can thus be distinguished and considered. Ant (formicidae) social ethology . Sociologist Peter L. Berger defines society as "...a human product, and nothing but a human product, that yet continuously acts upon its producers." According to him, society was created by humans but this creation turns back and creates or molds humans every day. Canis lupus social ethology Sociologist Gerhard Lenski differentiates societies based on their level of technology, communication, and economy: (1) hunters and gatherers, (2) simple agricultural, (3) advanced agricultural, (4) industrial, and (5) special (e.g. fishing societies or maritime societies). This is similar to the system earlier developed by anthropologists Morton H. Fried, a conflict theorist, and Elman Service , an integration theorist, who have produced a system of classification for societies in all human cultures based on the evolution of social inequality and the role of the state . This system of classification contains four categories: Hunter-gatherer bands (categorization of duties and responsibilities). Tribal societies in which there are some limited instances of social rank and prestige. Stratified structures led by chieftains . Civilizations , with complex social hierarchies and organized, institutional governments . In addition to this there are: Humanity , mankind, upon which rest all the elements of society, including society's beliefs. Virtual society , a society based on online identity, which is evolving in the information age. Over time, some cultures have progressed toward more complex forms of organization and control. This cultural evolution has a profound effect on patterns of community. Hunter-gatherer tribes settled around seasonal food stocks to become agrarian villages . Villages grew to become towns and cities. Cities turned into city-states and nation-states . Many societies distribute largess at the behest of some individual or some larger group of people. This type of generosity can be seen in all known cultures; typically, prestige accrues to the generous individual or group. Conversely, members of a society may also shun or scapegoat members of the society who violate its norms . Mechanisms such as gift-giving , joking relationships and scapegoating , which may be seen in various types of human groupings, tend to be institutionalized within a society. Social evolution as a phenomenon carries with it certain elements that could be detrimental to the population it serves. Some societies bestow status on an individual or group of people when that individual or group performs an admired or desired action. This type of recognition is bestowed in the form of a name, title, manner of dress, or monetary reward. In many societies, adult male or female status is subject to a ritual or process of this type. Altruistic action in the interests of the larger group is seen in virtually all societies. The phenomena of community action, shunning, scapegoating, generosity, shared risk, and reward are common to many forms of society. Types [ edit ] Societies are social groups that differ according to subsistence strategies , the ways that humans use technology to provide needs for themselves. Although humans have established many types of societies throughout history, anthropologists tend to classify different societies according to the degree to which different groups within a society have unequal access to advantages such as resources, prestige, or power. Virtually all societies have developed some degree of inequality among their people through the process of social stratification, the division of members of a society into levels with unequal wealth, prestige, or power. Sociologists place societies in three broad categories: pre-industrial , industrial , and postindustrial . Pre-industrial [ edit ] Main article: Pre-industrial society In a pre-industrial society, food production, which is carried out through the use of human and animal labor , is the main economic activity. These societies can be subdivided according to their level of technology and their method of producing food. These subdivisions are hunting and gathering, pastoral, horticultural, agricultural, and feudal. Hunting and gathering [ edit ] Main article: Hunter-gatherer society San people in Botswana start a fire by hand. The main form of food production in such societies is the daily collection of wild plants and the hunting of wild animals. Hunter-gatherers move around constantly in search of food. As a result, they do not build permanent villages or create a wide variety of artifacts , and usually only form small groups such as bands and tribes . However, some hunting and gathering societies in areas with abundant resources (such as people of tlingit ) lived in larger groups and formed complex hierarchical social structures such as chiefdom. The need for mobility also limits the size of these societies. They generally consist of fewer than 60 people and rarely exceed 100. Statuses within the tribe are relatively equal, and decisions are reached through general agreement. The ties that bind the tribe are more complex than those of the bands. Leadership is personal—charismatic—and used for special purposes only in tribal society. There are no political offices containing real power, and a chief is merely a person of influence, a sort of adviser; therefore, tribal consolidations for collective action are not governmental. The family forms the main social unit , with most members being related by birth or marriage. This type of organization requires the family to carry out most social functions, including production and education . Pastoral [ edit ] Main article: Pastoral society Pastoralism is a slightly more efficient form of subsistence. Rather than searching for food on a daily basis, members of a pastoral society rely on domesticated herd animals to meet their food needs. Pastoralists live a nomadic life, moving their herds from one pasture to another. Because their food supply is far more reliable, pastoral societies can support larger populations. Since there are food surpluses, fewer people are needed to produce food. As a result, the division of labor (the specialization by individuals or groups in the performance of specific economic activities) becomes more complex. For example, some people become craftworkers, producing tools , weapons , and jewelry . The production of goods encourages trade. This trade helps to create inequality, as some families acquire more goods than others do. These families often gain power through their increased wealth . The passing on of property from one generation to another helps to centralize wealth and power. Over time emerge hereditary chieftainships, the typical form of government in pastoral societies. Horticultural [ edit ] Main article: Horticulturalist society Fruits and vegetables grown in garden plots that have been cleared from the jungle or forest provide the main source of food in a horticultural society. These societies have a level of technology and complexity similar to pastoral societies. Some horticultural groups use the slash-and-burn method to raise crops. The wild vegetation is cut and burned, and ashes are used as fertilizers. Horticulturists use human labor and simple tools to cultivate the land for one or more seasons. When the land becomes barren, horticulturists clear a new plot and leave the old plot to revert to its natural state. They may return to the original land several years later and begin the process again. By rotating their garden plots, horticulturists can stay in one area for a fairly long period of time. This allows them to build semipermanent or permanent villages. The size of a village's population depends on the amount of land available for farming; thus villages can range from as few as 30 people to as many as 2000. As with pastoral societies, surplus food leads to a more complex division of labor. Specialized roles in horticultural societies include craftspeople, shamans (religious leaders), and traders. This role specialization allows people to create a wide variety of artifacts. As in pastoral societies, surplus food can lead to inequalities in wealth and power within horticultural political systems, developed because of the settled nature of horticultural life. Agrarian [ edit ] Main article: Agrarian society Ploughing with oxen in the 15th century Agrarian societies use agricultural technological advances to cultivate crops over a large area. Sociologists use the phrase agricultural revolution to refer to the technological changes that occurred as long as 8,500 years ago that led to cultivating crops and raising farm animals. Increases in food supplies then led to larger populations than in earlier communities. This meant a greater surplus, which resulted in towns that became centers of trade supporting various rulers, educators, craftspeople, merchants, and religious leaders who did not have to worry about locating nourishment. Greater degrees of social stratification appeared in agrarian societies. For example, women previously had higher social status because they shared labor more equally with men. In hunting and gathering societies, women even gathered more food than men. However, as food stores improved and women took on lesser roles in providing food for the family, they increasingly became subordinate to men. As villages and towns expanded into neighboring areas, conflicts with other communities inevitably occurred. Farmers provided warriors with food in exchange for protection against invasion by enemies. A system of rulers with high social status also appeared. This nobility organized warriors to protect the society from invasion. In this way, the nobility managed to extract goods from “lesser” members of society. Cleric, knight and peasant; an example of feudal societies Feudal [ edit ] Main article: Feudal society Feudalism was a form of society based on ownership of land. Unlike today's farmers, vassals under feudalism were bound to cultivating their lord's land. In exchange for military protection, the lords exploited the peasants into providing food, crops, crafts, homage, and other services to the landowner. The estates of the realm system of feudalism was often multigenerational; the families of peasants may have cultivated their lord's land for generations. Industrial [ edit ] Main article: Industrial societies Between the 15th and 16th centuries, a new economic system emerged that began to replace feudalism. Capitalism is marked by open competition in a free market, in which the means of production are privately owned. Europe's exploration of the Americas served as one impetus for the development of capitalism. The introduction of foreign metals, silks, and spices stimulated great commercial activity in European societies. Industrial societies rely heavily on machines powered by fuels for the production of goods. This produced further dramatic increases in efficiency. The increased efficiency of production of the industrial revolution produced an even greater surplus than before. Now the surplus was not just agricultural goods, but also manufactured goods. This larger surplus caused all of the changes discussed earlier in the domestication revolution to become even more pronounced. Once again, the population boomed. Increased productivity made more goods available to everyone. However, inequality became even greater than before. The breakup of agricultural-based feudal societies caused many people to leave the land and seek employment in cities. This created a great surplus of labor and gave capitalists plenty of laborers who could be hired for extremely low wages. Post-industrial [ edit ] Main article: Post-industrial society Post-industrial societies are societies dominated by information, services, and high technology more than the production of goods. Advanced industrial societies are now seeing a shift toward an increase in service sectors over manufacturing and production. The United States is the first country to have over half of its work force employed in service industries. Service industries include government, research, education, health, sales, law, and banking. Contemporary usage [ edit ] The term "society" is currently used to cover both a number of political and scientific connotations as well as a variety of associations. Western [ edit ] Main article: Western world The development of the Western world has brought with it the emerging concepts of Western culture , politics, and ideas, often referred to simply as "Western society". Geographically, it covers at the very least the countries of Western Europe, North America, Australia, and New Zealand. It sometimes also includes Eastern Europe, South America, and Israel. The cultures and lifestyles of all of these stem from Western Europe. They all enjoy relatively strong economies and stable governments, allow freedom of religion, have chosen democracy as a form of governance, favor capitalism and international trade, are heavily influenced by Judeo-Christian values , and have some form of political and military alliance or cooperation. Information [ edit ] World Summit on the Information Society, Geneva Main article: Information society Although the concept of information society has been under discussion since the 1930s, in the modern world it is almost always applied to the manner in which information technologies have impacted society and culture. It therefore covers the effects of computers and telecommunications on the home, the workplace, schools, government, and various communities and organizations, as well as the emergence of new social forms in cyberspace. One of the European Union 's areas of interest is the information society. Here policies are directed towards promoting an open and competitive digital economy , research into information and communication technologies , as well as their application to improve social inclusion , public services , and quality of life . The International Telecommunications Union 's World Summit on the Information Society in Geneva and Tunis (2003 and 2005) has led to a number of policy and application areas where action is envisaged. Knowledge [ edit ] Main article: Knowledge society The Seoul Cyworld control room As access to electronic information resources increased at the beginning of the 21st century, special attention was extended from the information society to the knowledge society. An analysis by the Irish government stated, "The capacity to manipulate, store and transmit large quantities of information cheaply has increased at a staggering rate over recent years. The digitisation of information and the associated pervasiveness of the Internet are facilitating a new intensity in the application of knowledge to economic activity, to the extent that it has become the predominant factor in the creation of wealth. As much as 70 to 80 percent of economic growth is now said to be due to new and better knowledge." The Second World Summit on the Knowledge Society, held in Chania , Crete , in September 2009, gave special attention to the following topics: business and enterprise computing ; technology-enhanced learning ; social and humanistic computing ; culture, tourism and technology; e-government and e-democracy ; innovation, sustainable development, and strategic management; service science, management and engineering ; intellectual and human capital development; ICTs for ecology and the green economy ; future prospects for the knowledge society; and technologies and business models for the creative industries . Other uses [ edit ] Scheme of sustainable development: at the confluence of three constituent parts. (2006) People of many nations united by common political and cultural traditions, beliefs, or values are sometimes also said to form a society (such as Judeo-Christian, Eastern, and Western). When used in this context, the term is employed as a means of contrasting two or more "societies" whose members represent alternative conflicting and competing worldviews. Some academic , professional, and scientific associations describe themselves as societies (for example, the American Mathematical Society , the American Society of Civil Engineers , or the Royal Society ). In some countries, e.g. the United States, France, and Latin America, the term "society' is used in commerce to denote a partnership between investors or the start of a business . In the United Kingdom , partnerships are not called societies, but co-operatives or mutuals are often known as societies (such as friendly societies and building societies ). See also [ edit ] Society portal Civil society Consumer society Community ( outline ) Culture ( outline ) High society (group) Mass society Open society Outline of society Professional society Religion ( outline ) Scientific society Secret societies Sociobiology Social actions Social capital Social cohesion Societal collapse Social contract Social disintegration Social order Social solidarity Social structure Social work Structure agency Notes [ edit ] Further reading [ edit ] Effland, R. 1998. The Cultural Evolution of Civilizations Mesa Community College. Jenkins, Richard (2002). Foundations of Sociology . London: Palgrave MacMillan. ISBN 0-333-96050-5 . Lenski, Gerhard E (1974). Human Societies: An Introduction to Macrosociology . New York: McGraw- Hill, Inc. ISBN 0-07-037172-5 . Raymond Williams, Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society . Fontana, 1976. Althusser, Louis and Balibar, Étienne . Reading Capital . London: Verso, 2009. Bottomore, Tom (ed). A Dictionary of Marxist Thought , 2nd ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 1991. 45–48. Calhoun, Craig (ed), Dictionary of the Social Sciences Oxford University Press (2002) Hall, Stuart . "Rethinking the Base and Superstructure Metaphor." Papers on Class, Hegemony and Party . Bloomfield, J., ed. London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1977. Chris Harman . " Base and Superstructure ". International Socialism 2:32, Summer 1986, pp. 3–44. Harvey, David . A Companion to Marx's Capital. London: Verso, 2010. Larrain, Jorge. Marxism and Ideology . Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press, 1983. Lukács, Georg . History and Class Consciousness . Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1972. Postone, Moishe . Time, Labour, and Social Domination: A Reinterpretation of Marx's Critical Theory. Cambridge [England]: Cambridge University Press, 1993. Williams, Raymond . Marxism and Literature . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977. Briggs, Asa (2000). The Age of Improvement (2nd ed.). Longman. ISBN 0-582-36959-2 . External links [ edit ] Look up Society in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Society . Society at DMOZ Definition of Society from the OED . Lecture notes on "Defining Society" [ dead link ] from East Carolina University. Internet Modern History Sourcebook: Industrial Revolution The Day the World Took Off Six-part video series from the University of Cambridge tracing the question "Why did the Industrial Revolution begin when and where it did." BBC History Home Page: Industrial Revolution National Museum of Science and Industry website: machines and personalities Industrial Revolution and the Standard of Living by Clark Nardinelli - the debate over whether standards of living rose or fell. Cliff Notes on Types of Societies Perceptions of Knowledge, Knowledge Society, and Knowledge Management

train

when was the term human rights first used

Although ideas of rights and liberty have existed in some form for much of human history, there is agreement that the earlier conceptions do not closely resemble the modern conceptions of human rights. According to Jack Donnelly, in the ancient world, `` traditional societies typically have had elaborate systems of duties... conceptions of justice, political legitimacy, and human flourishing that sought to realise human dignity, flourishing, or well - being entirely independent of human rights. These institutions and practices are alternative to, rather than different formulations of, human rights ''. The history of human rights can be traced to past documents, particularly Constitution of Medina (622), Al - Risalah al - Huquq (late 7th to early 8th century), Magna Carta (1215), the German Peasants ' War Twelve Articles (1525), the English Bill of Rights (1689), the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789), and the Bill of Rights in the United States Constitution (1791).

['ciudad de méxico']

ìgbà wo ni wọ́n kọ́kọ́ lo ọ̀rọ̀ human rights

Yes

['ero odeoni nipa awon eto omoniyan dide leyin isele Ogun Agbaye Keji, gege bi idahun si Ipaniyanrun àwon Ju, eyi fa itowobowe Ìkéde Akáríayé fún àwọn Ẹ̀tọ́ Ọmọnìyàn latowo United Nations General Assembly ni 1948.']

['ero odeoni nipa awon eto omoniyan dide leyin isele Ogun Agbaye Keji latowo United Nations General Assembly ni 1948.']

['P2']

Àw?n ??t?? ?m?nìyàn Àw?n ??t?? ?m?nìyàn ni "awo eto ipile ati ominira ti gbogbo awon omo eniyan leto si."[1] Awon olugbowo ero yi un tenumo pe gbogbo awon eniyan ni awon ajemonu nitoripe won je omo eniyan.[2] Nitorie awon eto omoniyan je gbigba bi ti eyi to je alagbalaaye ati bakanna. Iru awon ajemonu bayi le wa gege bi awon asa awon iwuwa eniyan gangan, gege bi asa iwa tito tabi awon eto eda ti o ni idi pataki, tabi gege bi awon eto olofin boya ninu orile-ede tabi ninu ofin kariaye.[3] Sibesibe, ko si ikoenu lori kini ohu pato to je tabi ti ko je eto omoniyan lona kankan, be si ni ero awon eto omoniyan bi afoyemo ti je ohun ijiyan ati igbeyewo ninu imo oye. ero odeoni nipa awon eto omoniyan dide leyin isele Ogun Agbaye Keji, gege bi idahun si Ipaniyanrun àwon Ju, eyi fa itowobowe Ìkéde Akáríayé fún àw?n ??t?? ?m?nìyàn latowo Àpéj? Gbogbo Gbòò ti Ìparap?? Àw?n Oríl??-Èdè ni 1948.

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what is a long chain of amino acid molecules

Amino acids are the structural units (monomers) that make up proteins. They join together to form short polymer chains called peptides or longer chains called either polypeptides or proteins. These polymers are linear and unbranched, with each amino acid within the chain attached to two neighboring amino acids. The process of making proteins encoded by DNA / RNA genetic material is called translation and involves the step - by - step addition of amino acids to a growing protein chain by a ribozyme that is called a ribosome. The order in which the amino acids are added is read through the genetic code from an mRNA template, which is an RNA copy of one of the organism 's genes.

['approximately 1,070 km (665 mi) east-southeast of cape hatteras, north carolina']

kí ni àlàfo gígùn àwọn èròjà amino acid

Yes

['Àwọn amino acid jẹ́ àwọn ohun tí ó ní carbon tí ó wúlò fún ara tí ó sì ní amine (-NH2) àti carboxylic acid (-COOH) gẹ́gẹ́ bíi àwọn akójọpọ̀ fún iṣẹ́ ṣiṣe, tí ó sábà maa ń ní ìsomọ́ lẹ́gbẹ́ pàtó fún amino acid kọ̀ọ̀kan. Àwọn ìdá ìpilẹ̀ amino acid tó ṣe kókọ́ ni carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, àti nitrogen, bípótilẹ̀jẹ́wípé a maa ń rí àwọn ìdá ìpilẹ̀ tókù nínú àwọn\xa0 ìsomọ́ lẹ́gbẹ́ àwọn amino acid kọ̀ọ̀kan.']

['Àwọn amino acid jẹ́ àwọn ohun tí ó ní carbon tí ó wúlò fún ara tí ó sì ní amine (-NH2) àti carboxylic acid (-COOH) gẹ́gẹ́ bíi àwọn akójọpọ̀ fún iṣẹ́ ṣiṣe, tí ó sábà maa ń ní ìsomọ́ lẹ́gbẹ́ pàtó fún amino acid kọ̀ọ̀kan. ']

['P1']

Àw?n amino acid Àw?n ásíìdì amino j?? àw?n ohun tí ó ní carbon tí ó wúlò fún ara tí ó sì ní amine (-NH2) àti carboxylic acid (-COOH) g??g?? bíi àw?n akój?p?? fún i??? ?i?e, tí ó sábà maa ? ní ìsom?? l??gb?? pàtó fún ásíìdì amino k????kan.[1][2][3] Àw?n ìdá ìpil?? ásíìdì amino tó ?e kók?? ni carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, àti nitrogen, bípótil??j??wípé a maa ? rí àw?n ìdá ìpil?? tókù nínú àw?n ìsom?? l??gb?? àw?n ásíìdì amino k????kan. Àw?n ásíìdì amino tí a m?? f??? tó bíi ????d??gb??ta tí a sì lè pín sí ìs??rí lórí?irí?i ??nà.[4] A lè pín w?n g??g?? bi ìrísi àti àyè tí àw?n ?gb?? oní?é w?n wà, bíi alpha- (?-), beta- (?-), gamma- (?-) or delta- (?-) ásíìdì amino; àw?n ??ka tókù ní lati ?e p??lú òpó, ìw?n pH àti oní?é irú ìsom?? ??gb?? (aliphatic, acyclic, aromatic, tí ó ní hydroxyl àti sulfur, àti b????b???? l?.). Ní bíi protein ásíìdì amino j?? ??yà kejì tí ó tóbi jùl? nínú i?an (omi ni o poju) ninu isan, s????lì àti tí??ù.[5] Tí kò bá sí ní protein, ó maa ? ?e àw?n i??? pàtàkì bíi nuerotransmitter àti ì???dá ní ara. Ní biochemistry, àw?n ásíìdì amino tí ó ní amine àti àkój?p?? carboxylic acid so m?? carbon át??mù àk??k?? (alpha-) ? ní i??? pàtàkì kan pàtó. A m?? w??n sí 2-, alpha-, tàbí ?-ásíìdì amino (àgbékalè w?n maa ní H2NCHRCOOH,[6] R j?? àw?n ohun tí ó ní carbon tí ó dìr?? m??? tí a m?? sí "ìsom??-??gb??");[7] a sì maa sábà pè w??n ní "ásíìdì amino". M??tàlélógún ni àw?n proteinogenic ("ì???dá-protein") ásíìdì amino náà [8][9][10] tí w??n maa ? sop?? m?? peptide ("polypeptides") lati ?ètò ìpil?? fún àw?n ??p??l?p?? protein. [11] Gbogbo àw?n wònyí ni L-stereoisomers (isomer "lápá-òsì"), bótilèjépé awon D-ásíìdì amino ("alapa-otun") dí?? wà nínú ??yà ìdáàbòbò ara bacteria, w??n lè j?? neuromodulator (D-serine), wón tún wà nínú àw?n egbògi kànkàn.[12] Ogún nínú àw?n proteinogenic ásíìdì amino naa ní ó ? kóòdù tààrà nípasè kóòdù oním?ta nínú kóòdù jiini a si mo won si "àjùm??lò" ásíìdì amino. Àw?n ìrísí Àw?n eléyìí ?e àfihàn ìrísí àti àgékúrú àw?n ??kànlélógún ásíìdì amino tí w??n ? kóòdù tààrà fún ì???dá protein nípas?? àw?n kóòdù gene nínú ara. Àw?n ìrísí w??yí j?? ti k??míka tí wà bíi zwitterion nínú àdàp??.

This article is about the class of chemicals. For the structures and properties of the standard proteinogenic amino acids, see Proteinogenic amino acid . The structure of an alpha amino acid in its un-ionized form Amino acids are organic compounds containing amine (-NH 2 ) and carboxyl (-COOH) functional groups , along with a side chain (R group) specific to each amino acid. The key elements of an amino acid are carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), and nitrogen (N), although other elements are found in the side chains of certain amino acids. About 500 naturally occurring amino acids are known (though only 20 appear in the genetic code ) and can be classified in many ways. They can be classified according to the core structural functional groups' locations as alpha- (α-) , beta- (β-) , gamma- (γ-) or delta- (δ-) amino acids; other categories relate to polarity , pH level, and side chain group type ( aliphatic , acyclic , aromatic , containing hydroxyl or sulfur , etc.). In the form of proteins , amino acid residues form the second-largest component ( water is the largest) of human muscles and other tissues . Beyond their role as residues in proteins, amino acids participate in a number of processes such as neurotransmitter transport and biosynthesis . In biochemistry , amino acids having both the amine and the carboxylic acid groups attached to the first (alpha-) carbon atom have particular importance. They are known as 2-, alpha-, or α-amino acids (generic formula H 2 NCHRCOOH in most cases, where R is an organic substituent known as a " side chain "); often the term "amino acid" is used to refer specifically to these. They include the 22 proteinogenic ("protein-building") amino acids, which combine into peptide chains ("polypeptides") to form the building-blocks of a vast array of proteins . These are all L - stereoisomers (" left-handed " isomers ), although a few D -amino acids ("right-handed") occur in bacterial envelopes , as a neuromodulator ( D - serine ), and in some antibiotics . Twenty of the proteinogenic amino acids are encoded directly by triplet codons in the genetic code and are known as "standard" amino acids. The other two ("non-standard" or "non-canonical") are selenocysteine (present in many prokaryotes as well as most eukaryotes , but not coded directly by DNA ), and pyrrolysine (found only in some archea and one bacterium ). Pyrrolysine and selenocysteine are encoded via variant codons; for example, selenocysteine is encoded by stop codon and SECIS element . N -formylmethionine (which is often the initial amino acid of proteins in bacteria, mitochondria , and chloroplasts ) is generally considered as a form of methionine rather than as a separate proteinogenic amino acid. Codon– tRNA combinations not found in nature can also be used to "expand" the genetic code and form novel proteins known as alloproteins incorporating non-proteinogenic amino acids . Many important proteinogenic and non-proteinogenic amino acids have biological functions. For example, in the human brain , glutamate (standard glutamic acid ) and gamma-amino-butyric acid ("GABA", non-standard gamma-amino acid) are, respectively, the main excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters . Hydroxyproline , a major component of the connective tissue collagen , is synthesised from proline . Glycine is a biosynthetic precursor to porphyrins used in red blood cells . Carnitine is used in lipid transport . Nine proteinogenic amino acids are called " essential " for humans because they cannot be produced from other compounds by the human body and so must be taken in as food. Others may be conditionally essential for certain ages or medical conditions. Essential amino acids may also differ between species . Because of their biological significance, amino acids are important in nutrition and are commonly used in nutritional supplements , fertilizers , feed , and food technology . Industrial uses include the production of drugs , biodegradable plastics , and chiral catalysts . Contents 1 History 2 General structure 2.1 Isomerism 2.2 Side chains 2.3 Zwitterions 2.4 Isoelectric point 3 Occurrence and functions in biochemistry 3.1 Proteinogenic amino acids 3.2 Non-proteinogenic amino acids 3.3 D-amino acid natural abundance 3.4 Non-standard amino acids 3.5 In human nutrition 3.6 Non-protein functions 4 Uses in industry 4.1 Expanded genetic code 4.2 Nullomers 4.3 Chemical building blocks 4.4 Biodegradable plastics 5 Reactions 5.1 Chemical synthesis 5.2 Peptide bond formation 5.3 Biosynthesis 5.4 Catabolism 6 Physicochemical properties of amino acids 6.1 Table of standard amino acid abbreviations and properties 7 See also 8 References and notes 9 Further reading 10 External links History [ edit ] The first few amino acids were discovered in the early 19th century. In 1806, French chemists Louis-Nicolas Vauquelin and Pierre Jean Robiquet isolated a compound in asparagus that was subsequently named asparagine , the first amino acid to be discovered. Cystine was discovered in 1810, although its monomer, cysteine , remained undiscovered until 1884. Glycine and leucine were discovered in 1820. The last of the 20 common amino acids to be discovered was threonine in 1935 by William Cumming Rose , who also determined the essential amino acids and established the minimum daily requirements of all amino acids for optimal growth. The unity of the chemical category was recognized by Wurtz in 1865, but he gave no particular name to it. Usage of the term "amino acid" in the English language is from 1898, while the German term, Aminosäure , was used earlier. Proteins were found to yield amino acids after enzymatic digestion or acid hydrolysis . In 1902, Emil Fischer and Franz Hofmeister independently proposed that proteins are formed from many amino acids, whereby bonds are formed between the amino group of one amino acid with the carboxyl group of another, resulting in a linear structure that Fischer termed " peptide ". General structure [ edit ] The 21 proteinogenic α-amino acids found in eukaryotes , grouped according to their side chains' pK a values and charges carried at physiological pH (7.4) In the structure shown at the top of the page, R represents a side chain specific to each amino acid. The carbon atom next to the carboxyl group (which is therefore numbered 2 in the carbon chain starting from that functional group) is called the α–carbon . Amino acids containing an amino group bonded directly to the alpha carbon are referred to as alpha amino acids . These include amino acids such as proline which contain secondary amines , which used to be often referred to as "imino acids". Isomerism [ edit ] The alpha amino acids are the most common form found in nature, but only when occurring in the L -isomer. The alpha carbon is a chiral carbon atom, with the exception of glycine which has two indistinguishable hydrogen atoms on the alpha carbon. Therefore, all alpha amino acids but glycine can exist in either of two enantiomers , called L or D amino acids, which are mirror images of each other ( see also Chirality ). While L -amino acids represent all of the amino acids found in proteins during translation in the ribosome, D -amino acids are found in some proteins produced by enzyme posttranslational modifications after translation and translocation to the endoplasmic reticulum , as in exotic sea-dwelling organisms such as cone snails . They are also abundant components of the peptidoglycan cell walls of bacteria, and D -serine may act as a neurotransmitter in the brain. D -amino acids are used in racemic crystallography to create centrosymmetric crystals, which (depending on the protein) may allow for easier and more robust protein structure determination. The L and D convention for amino acid configuration refers not to the optical activity of the amino acid itself but rather to the optical activity of the isomer of glyceraldehyde from which that amino acid can, in theory, be synthesized ( D -glyceraldehyde is dextrorotatory; L -glyceraldehyde is levorotatory). In alternative fashion, the (S) and (R) designators are used to indicate the absolute stereochemistry . Almost all of the amino acids in proteins are (S) at the α carbon, with cysteine being (R) and glycine non- chiral . Cysteine has its side chain in the same geometric position as the other amino acids, but the R/S terminology is reversed because of the higher atomic number of sulfur compared to the carboxyl oxygen gives the side chain a higher priority, whereas the atoms in most other side chains give them lower priority. Side chains [ edit ] Lysine with carbon atoms labeled by position In amino acids that have a carbon chain attached to the α–carbon (such as lysine , shown to the right) the carbons are labeled in order as α, β, γ, δ, and so on. In some amino acids, the amine group is attached to the β or γ-carbon, and these are therefore referred to as beta or gamma amino acids . Amino acids are usually classified by the properties of their side chain into four groups. The side chain can make an amino acid a weak acid or a weak base , and a hydrophile if the side chain is polar or a hydrophobe if it is nonpolar . The chemical structures of the 22 standard amino acids, along with their chemical properties, are described more fully in the article on these proteinogenic amino acids . The phrase " branched-chain amino acids " or BCAA refers to the amino acids having aliphatic side chains that are non-linear; these are leucine , isoleucine , and valine . Proline is the only proteinogenic amino acid whose side-group links to the α-amino group and, thus, is also the only proteinogenic amino acid containing a secondary amine at this position. In chemical terms, proline is, therefore, an imino acid , since it lacks a primary amino group , although it is still classed as an amino acid in the current biochemical nomenclature, and may also be called an "N-alkylated alpha-amino acid". Zwitterions [ edit ] An amino acid in its (1) un-ionized and (2) zwitterionic forms Main article: Zwitterion The α- carboxylic acid group of amino acids is a weak acid , meaning that it releases a hydron (such as a proton ) at moderate pH values. In other words, carboxylic acid groups (−CO 2 H) can be deprotonated to become negative carboxylates (−CO 2 − ). The negatively charged carboxylate ion predominates at pH values greater than the pKa of the carboxylic acid group (mean for the 20 common amino acids is about 2.2, see the table of amino acid structures above). In a complementary fashion, the α- amine of amino acids is a weak base , meaning that it accepts a proton at moderate pH values. In other words, α-amino groups (NH 2 −) can be protonated to become positive α-ammonium groups ( + NH 3 −). The positively charged α-ammonium group predominates at pH values less than the pKa of the α-ammonium group (mean for the 20 common α-amino acids is about 9.4). Because all amino acids contain amine and carboxylic acid functional groups, they share amphiprotic properties. Below pH 2.2, the predominant form will have a neutral carboxylic acid group and a positive α-ammonium ion (net charge +1), and above pH 9.4, a negative carboxylate and neutral α-amino group (net charge −1). But at pH between 2.2 and 9.4, an amino acid usually contains both a negative carboxylate and a positive α-ammonium group, as shown in structure (2) on the right, so has net zero charge. This molecular state is known as a zwitterion , from the German Zwitter meaning hermaphrodite or hybrid . The fully neutral form (structure (1) on the left) is a very minor species in aqueous solution throughout the pH range (less than 1 part in 10 7 ). Amino acids exist as zwitterions also in the solid phase, and crystallize with salt-like properties unlike typical organic acids or amines. Isoelectric point [ edit ] Composite of titration curves of twenty proteinogenic amino acids grouped by side chain category The variation in titration curves when the amino acids can be grouped by category. [ clarification needed ] With the exception of tyrosine, using titration to distinguish among hydrophobic amino acids is problematic. At pH values between the two pKa values, the zwitterion predominates, but coexists in dynamic equilibrium with small amounts of net negative and net positive ions. At the exact midpoint between the two pKa values, the trace amount of net negative and trace of net positive ions exactly balance, so that average net charge of all forms present is zero. This pH is known as the isoelectric point pI, so pI = ½(pKa 1 + pKa 2 ). The individual amino acids all have slightly different pKa values, so have different isoelectric points. For amino acids with charged side chains, the pKa of the side chain is involved. Thus for Asp, Glu with negative side chains, pI = ½(pKa 1 + pKa R ), where pKa R is the side chain pKa. Cysteine also has potentially negative side chain with pKa R = 8.14, so pI should be calculated as for Asp and Glu, even though the side chain is not significantly charged at neutral pH. For His, Lys, and Arg with positive side chains, pI = ½(pKa R + pKa 2 ). Amino acids have zero mobility in electrophoresis at their isoelectric point, although this behaviour is more usually exploited for peptides and proteins than single amino acids. Zwitterions have minimum solubility at their isoelectric point and some amino acids (in particular, with non-polar side chains) can be isolated by precipitation from water by adjusting the pH to the required isoelectric point. Occurrence and functions in biochemistry [ edit ] A polypeptide is an unbranched chain of amino acids β-alanine and its α-alanine isomer The amino acid selenocysteine Proteinogenic amino acids [ edit ] Main article: Proteinogenic amino acids See also: Protein primary structure and Posttranslational modification Amino acids are the structural units (monomers) that make up proteins. They join together to form short polymer chains called peptides or longer chains called either polypeptides or proteins . These polymers are linear and unbranched, with each amino acid within the chain attached to two neighboring amino acids. The process of making proteins encoded by DNA/RNA genetic material is called translation and involves the step-by-step addition of amino acids to a growing protein chain by a ribozyme that is called a ribosome . The order in which the amino acids are added is read through the genetic code from an mRNA template, which is an RNA copy of one of the organism's genes . Twenty-two amino acids are naturally incorporated into polypeptides and are called proteinogenic or natural amino acids. Of these, 20 are encoded by the universal genetic code . The remaining 2, selenocysteine and pyrrolysine , are incorporated into proteins by unique synthetic mechanisms. Selenocysteine is incorporated when the mRNA being translated includes a SECIS element , which causes the UGA codon to encode selenocysteine instead of a stop codon . Pyrrolysine is used by some methanogenic archaea in enzymes that they use to produce methane . It is coded for with the codon UAG, which is normally a stop codon in other organisms. This UAG codon is followed by a PYLIS downstream sequence . Non-proteinogenic amino acids [ edit ] Main article: Non-proteinogenic amino acids Aside from the 22 proteinogenic amino acids , many non-proteinogenic amino acids are known. Those either are not found in proteins (for example carnitine , GABA , levothyroxine ) or are not produced directly and in isolation by standard cellular machinery (for example, hydroxyproline and selenomethionine ). Non-proteinogenic amino acids that are found in proteins are formed by post-translational modification , which is modification after translation during protein synthesis. These modifications are often essential for the function or regulation of a protein. For example, the carboxylation of glutamate allows for better binding of calcium cations , and collagen contains hydroxyproline, generated by hydroxylation of proline . Another example is the formation of hypusine in the translation initiation factor EIF5A , through modification of a lysine residue. Such modifications can also determine the localization of the protein, e.g., the addition of long hydrophobic groups can cause a protein to bind to a phospholipid membrane. Some non-proteinogenic amino acids are not found in proteins. Examples include 2-aminoisobutyric acid and the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid . Non-proteinogenic amino acids often occur as intermediates in the metabolic pathways for standard amino acids – for example, ornithine and citrulline occur in the urea cycle , part of amino acid catabolism (see below). A rare exception to the dominance of α-amino acids in biology is the β-amino acid beta alanine (3-aminopropanoic acid), which is used in plants and microorganisms in the synthesis of pantothenic acid (vitamin B 5 ), a component of coenzyme A . D -amino acid natural abundance [ edit ] D -isomers are uncommon in live organisms. For instance, gramicidin is a polypeptide made up from mixture of D - and L -amino acids. Other compounds containing D -amino acid are tyrocidine and valinomycin . These compounds disrupt bacterial cell walls, particularly in Gram-positive bacteria. Only 837 D -amino acids were found in Swiss-Prot database (187 million amino acids analysed). Non-standard amino acids [ edit ] The 20 amino acids that are encoded directly by the codons of the universal genetic code are called standard or canonical amino acids. A modified form of methionine ( N -formylmethionine ) is often incorporated in place of methionine as the initial amino acid of proteins in bacteria, mitochondria and chloroplasts. Other amino acids are called non-standard or non-canonical . Most of the non-standard amino acids are also non-proteinogenic (i.e. they cannot be incorporated into proteins during translation), but two of them are proteinogenic, as they can be incorporated translationally into proteins by exploiting information not encoded in the universal genetic code. The two non-standard proteinogenic amino acids are selenocysteine (present in many non-eukaryotes as well as most eukaryotes, but not coded directly by DNA) and pyrrolysine (found only in some archaea and one bacterium ). The incorporation of these non-standard amino acids is rare. For example, 25 human proteins include selenocysteine (Sec) in their primary structure, and the structurally characterized enzymes (selenoenzymes) employ Sec as the catalytic moiety in their active sites. Pyrrolysine and selenocysteine are encoded via variant codons. For example, selenocysteine is encoded by stop codon and SECIS element . In human nutrition [ edit ] Share of amino acid in different human diets and the resulting mix of amino acids in human blood serum. Glutamate and glutamine are the most frequent in food at over 10%, while alanine, glutamine, and glycine are the most common in blood. Main article: Essential amino acids Further information: Protein (nutrient) and Amino acid synthesis When taken up into the human body from the diet, the 20 standard amino acids either are used to synthesize proteins and other biomolecules or are oxidized to urea and carbon dioxide as a source of energy. The oxidation pathway starts with the removal of the amino group by a transaminase ; the amino group is then fed into the urea cycle . The other product of transamidation is a keto acid that enters the citric acid cycle . Glucogenic amino acids can also be converted into glucose, through gluconeogenesis . Of the 20 standard amino acids, nine ( His , Ile , Leu , Lys , Met , Phe , Thr , Trp and Val ) are called essential amino acids because the human body cannot synthesize them from other compounds at the level needed for normal growth, so they must be obtained from food. In addition, cysteine , taurine , tyrosine , and arginine are considered semiessential amino-acids in children (though taurine is not technically an amino acid), because the metabolic pathways that synthesize these amino acids are not fully developed. The amounts required also depend on the age and health of the individual, so it is hard to make general statements about the dietary requirement for some amino acids. Dietary exposure to the non-standard amino acid BMAA has been linked to human neurodegenerative diseases, including ALS . Diagram of the molecular signaling cascades that are involved in myofibrillar muscle protein synthesis and mitochondrial biogenesis in response to physical exercise and specific amino acids or their derivatives (primarily L -leucine and HMB ). Many amino acids derived from food protein promote the activation of mTORC1 and increase protein synthesis by signaling through Rag GTPases . show Abbreviations and representations: • PLD: phospholipase D • PA: phosphatidic acid • mTOR: mechanistic target of rapamycin • AMP: adenosine monophosphate • ATP: adenosine triphosphate • AMPK: AMP-activated protein kinase • PGC‐1α: peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator-1α • S6K1: p70S6 kinase • 4EBP1: eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E-binding protein 1 • eIF4E: eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E • RPS6: ribosomal protein S6 • eEF2: eukaryotic elongation factor 2 • RE: resistance exercise; EE: endurance exercise • Myo: myofibrillar ; Mito: mitochondrial • AA: amino acids • HMB: β-hydroxy β-methylbutyric acid • ↑ represents activation • Τ represents inhibition Resistance training stimulates muscle protein synthesis (MPS) for a period of up to 48 hours following exercise (shown by lighter dotted line). Ingestion of a protein-rich meal at any point during this period will augment the exercise-induced increase in muscle protein synthesis (shown by solid lines). Non-protein functions [ edit ] Biosynthetic pathways for catecholamines and trace amines in the human brain L -Phenylalanine L -Tyrosine L -DOPA Epinephrine Phenethylamine p -Tyramine Dopamine Norepinephrine N -Methylphenethylamine N -Methyltyramine p -Octopamine Synephrine 3-Methoxytyramine AADC AADC AADC primary pathway PNMT PNMT PNMT PNMT AAAH AAAH brain CYP2D6 minor pathway COMT DBH DBH Catecholamines and trace amines are synthesized from phenylalanine and tyrosine in humans. Further information: Amino acid neurotransmitter In humans, non-protein amino acids also have important roles as metabolic intermediates , such as in the biosynthesis of the neurotransmitter gamma-amino-butyric acid (GABA). Many amino acids are used to synthesize other molecules, for example: Tryptophan is a precursor of the neurotransmitter serotonin . Tyrosine (and its precursor phenylalanine) are precursors of the catecholamine neurotransmitters dopamine , epinephrine and norepinephrine and various trace amines . Phenylalanine is a precursor of phenethylamine and tyrosine in humans. In plants, it is a precursor of various phenylpropanoids , which are important in plant metabolism. Glycine is a precursor of porphyrins such as heme . Arginine is a precursor of nitric oxide . Ornithine and S-adenosylmethionine are precursors of polyamines . Aspartate , glycine , and glutamine are precursors of nucleotides . However, not all of the functions of other abundant non-standard amino acids are known. Some non-standard amino acids are used as defenses against herbivores in plants. For example, canavanine is an analogue of arginine that is found in many legumes , and in particularly large amounts in Canavalia gladiata (sword bean). This amino acid protects the plants from predators such as insects and can cause illness in people if some types of legumes are eaten without processing. The non-protein amino acid mimosine is found in other species of legume, in particular Leucaena leucocephala . This compound is an analogue of tyrosine and can poison animals that graze on these plants. Uses in industry [ edit ] Amino acids are used for a variety of applications in industry, but their main use is as additives to animal feed . This is necessary, since many of the bulk components of these feeds, such as soybeans , either have low levels or lack some of the essential amino acids : lysine, methionine, threonine, and tryptophan are most important in the production of these feeds. In this industry, amino acids are also used to chelate metal cations in order to improve the absorption of minerals from supplements, which may be required to improve the health or production of these animals. The food industry is also a major consumer of amino acids, in particular, glutamic acid , which is used as a flavor enhancer , and aspartame (aspartyl-phenylalanine-1-methyl ester) as a low-calorie artificial sweetener . Similar technology to that used for animal nutrition is employed in the human nutrition industry to alleviate symptoms of mineral deficiencies, such as anemia, by improving mineral absorption and reducing negative side effects from inorganic mineral supplementation. The chelating ability of amino acids has been used in fertilizers for agriculture to facilitate the delivery of minerals to plants in order to correct mineral deficiencies, such as iron chlorosis. These fertilizers are also used to prevent deficiencies from occurring and improving the overall health of the plants. The remaining production of amino acids is used in the synthesis of drugs and cosmetics . Similarly, some amino acids derivatives are used in pharmaceutical industry. They include 5-HTP (5-hydroxytryptophan) used for experimental treatment of depression, L -DOPA ( L -dihydroxyphenylalanine) for Parkinson's treatment, and eflornithine drug that inhibits ornithine decarboxylase and used in the treatment of sleeping sickness . Expanded genetic code [ edit ] Main article: Expanded genetic code Since 2001, 40 non-natural amino acids have been added into protein by creating a unique codon (recoding) and a corresponding transfer-RNA:aminoacyl – tRNA-synthetase pair to encode it with diverse physicochemical and biological properties in order to be used as a tool to exploring protein structure and function or to create novel or enhanced proteins. Nullomers [ edit ] Main article: Nullomers Nullomers are codons that in theory code for an amino acid, however in nature there is a selective bias against using this codon in favor of another, for example bacteria prefer to use CGA instead of AGA to code for arginine. This creates some sequences that do not appear in the genome. This characteristic can be taken advantage of and used to create new selective cancer-fighting drugs and to prevent cross-contamination of DNA samples from crime-scene investigations. Chemical building blocks [ edit ] Further information: Asymmetric synthesis Amino acids are important as low-cost feedstocks . These compounds are used in chiral pool synthesis as enantiomerically pure building-blocks. Amino acids have been investigated as precursors chiral catalysts , e.g., for asymmetric hydrogenation reactions, although no commercial applications exist. Biodegradable plastics [ edit ] Further information: Biodegradable plastic and Biopolymer Amino acids are under development as components of a range of biodegradable polymers. These materials have applications as environmentally friendly packaging and in medicine in drug delivery and the construction of prosthetic implants . These polymers include polypeptides, polyamides , polyesters, polysulfides, and polyurethanes with amino acids either forming part of their main chains or bonded as side chains. These modifications alter the physical properties and reactivities of the polymers. An interesting example of such materials is polyaspartate , a water-soluble biodegradable polymer that may have applications in disposable diapers and agriculture. Due to its solubility and ability to chelate metal ions, polyaspartate is also being used as a biodegradeable anti- scaling agent and a corrosion inhibitor . In addition, the aromatic amino acid tyrosine is being developed as a possible replacement for toxic phenols such as bisphenol A in the manufacture of polycarbonates . Reactions [ edit ] As amino acids have both a primary amine group and a primary carboxyl group, these chemicals can undergo most of the reactions associated with these functional groups. These include nucleophilic addition , amide bond formation, and imine formation for the amine group, and esterification , amide bond formation, and decarboxylation for the carboxylic acid group. The combination of these functional groups allow amino acids to be effective polydentate ligands for metal-amino acid chelates. The multiple side chains of amino acids can also undergo chemical reactions. The types of these reactions are determined by the groups on these side chains and are, therefore, different between the various types of amino acid. Chemical synthesis [ edit ] The Strecker amino acid synthesis See also: Category:Chemical synthesis of amino acids Several methods exist to synthesize amino acids. One of the oldest methods begins with the bromination at the α-carbon of a carboxylic acid. Nucleophilic substitution with ammonia then converts the alkyl bromide to the amino acid. In alternative fashion, the Strecker amino acid synthesis involves the treatment of an aldehyde with potassium cyanide and ammonia, this produces an α-amino nitrile as an intermediate. Hydrolysis of the nitrile in acid then yields an α-amino acid. Using ammonia or ammonium salts in this reaction gives unsubstituted amino acids, whereas substituting primary and secondary amines will yield substituted amino acids. Likewise, using ketones , instead of aldehydes, gives α,α-disubstituted amino acids. The classical synthesis gives racemic mixtures of α-amino acids as products, but several alternative procedures using asymmetric auxiliaries or asymmetric catalysts have been developed. At the current time, the most-adopted method is an automated synthesis on a solid support (e.g., polystyrene beads), using protecting groups (e.g., Fmoc and t-Boc ) and activating groups (e.g., DCC and DIC ). Peptide bond formation [ edit ] See also: Peptide synthesis and Peptide bond The condensation of two amino acids to form a dipeptide through a peptide bond As both the amine and carboxylic acid groups of amino acids can react to form amide bonds, one amino acid molecule can react with another and become joined through an amide linkage. This polymerization of amino acids is what creates proteins. This condensation reaction yields the newly formed peptide bond and a molecule of water. In cells, this reaction does not occur directly; instead, the amino acid is first activated by attachment to a transfer RNA molecule through an ester bond. This aminoacyl-tRNA is produced in an ATP -dependent reaction carried out by an aminoacyl tRNA synthetase . This aminoacyl-tRNA is then a substrate for the ribosome , which catalyzes the attack of the amino group of the elongating protein chain on the ester bond. As a result of this mechanism, all proteins made by ribosomes are synthesized starting at their N-terminus and moving toward their C-terminus. However, not all peptide bonds are formed in this way. In a few cases, peptides are synthesized by specific enzymes. For example, the tripeptide glutathione is an essential part of the defenses of cells against oxidative stress. This peptide is synthesized in two steps from free amino acids. In the first step, gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase condenses cysteine and glutamic acid through a peptide bond formed between the side chain carboxyl of the glutamate (the gamma carbon of this side chain) and the amino group of the cysteine. This dipeptide is then condensed with glycine by glutathione synthetase to form glutathione. In chemistry, peptides are synthesized by a variety of reactions. One of the most-used in solid-phase peptide synthesis uses the aromatic oxime derivatives of amino acids as activated units. These are added in sequence onto the growing peptide chain, which is attached to a solid resin support. The ability to easily synthesize vast numbers of different peptides by varying the types and order of amino acids (using combinatorial chemistry ) has made peptide synthesis particularly important in creating libraries of peptides for use in drug discovery through high-throughput screening . Biosynthesis [ edit ] Main article: Amino acid synthesis In plants, nitrogen is first assimilated into organic compounds in the form of glutamate , formed from alpha-ketoglutarate and ammonia in the mitochondrion. In order to form other amino acids, the plant uses transaminases to move the amino group to another alpha-keto carboxylic acid. For example, aspartate aminotransferase converts glutamate and oxaloacetate to alpha-ketoglutarate and aspartate. Other organisms use transaminases for amino acid synthesis, too. Nonstandard amino acids are usually formed through modifications to standard amino acids. For example, homocysteine is formed through the transsulfuration pathway or by the demethylation of methionine via the intermediate metabolite S-adenosyl methionine , while hydroxyproline is made by a posttranslational modification of proline . Microorganisms and plants can synthesize many uncommon amino acids. For example, some microbes make 2-aminoisobutyric acid and lanthionine , which is a sulfide-bridged derivative of alanine. Both of these amino acids are found in peptidic lantibiotics such as alamethicin . However, in plants, 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid is a small disubstituted cyclic amino acid that is a key intermediate in the production of the plant hormone ethylene . Catabolism [ edit ] Catabolism of proteinogenic amino acids. Amino acids can be classified according to the properties of their main products as either of the following: * Glucogenic , with the products having the ability to form glucose by gluconeogenesis * Ketogenic , with the products not having the ability to form glucose. These products may still be used for ketogenesis or lipid synthesis . * Amino acids catabolized into both glucogenic and ketogenic products. Amino acids must first pass out of organelles and cells into blood circulation via amino acid transporters , since the amine and carboxylic acid groups are typically ionized. Degradation of an amino acid, occurring in the liver and kidneys, often involves deamination by moving its amino group to alpha-ketoglutarate, forming glutamate . This process involves transaminases, often the same as those used in amination during synthesis. In many vertebrates, the amino group is then removed through the urea cycle and is excreted in the form of urea . However, amino acid degradation can produce uric acid or ammonia instead. For example, serine dehydratase converts serine to pyruvate and ammonia. After removal of one or more amino groups, the remainder of the molecule can sometimes be used to synthesize new amino acids, or it can be used for energy by entering glycolysis or the citric acid cycle , as detailed in image at right. Physicochemical properties of amino acids [ edit ] The 20 amino acids encoded directly by the genetic code can be divided into several groups based on their properties. Important factors are charge, hydrophilicity or hydrophobicity , size, and functional groups. These properties are important for protein structure and protein–protein interactions . The water-soluble proteins tend to have their hydrophobic residues (Leu, Ile, Val, Phe, and Trp) buried in the middle of the protein, whereas hydrophilic side chains are exposed to the aqueous solvent. (Note that in biochemistry , a residue refers to a specific monomer within the polymeric chain of a polysaccharide , protein or nucleic acid .) The integral membrane proteins tend to have outer rings of exposed hydrophobic amino acids that anchor them into the lipid bilayer . In the case part-way between these two extremes, some peripheral membrane proteins have a patch of hydrophobic amino acids on their surface that locks onto the membrane. In similar fashion, proteins that have to bind to positively charged molecules have surfaces rich with negatively charged amino acids like glutamate and aspartate , while proteins binding to negatively charged molecules have surfaces rich with positively charged chains like lysine and arginine . There are different hydrophobicity scales of amino acid residues. Some amino acids have special properties such as cysteine , that can form covalent disulfide bonds to other cysteine residues, proline that forms a cycle to the polypeptide backbone, and glycine that is more flexible than other amino acids. Many proteins undergo a range of posttranslational modifications , when additional chemical groups are attached to the amino acids in proteins. Some modifications can produce hydrophobic lipoproteins , or hydrophilic glycoproteins . These type of modification allow the reversible targeting of a protein to a membrane. For example, the addition and removal of the fatty acid palmitic acid to cysteine residues in some signaling proteins causes the proteins to attach and then detach from cell membranes. Table of standard amino acid abbreviations and properties [ edit ] Main article: Proteinogenic amino acid Amino acid 3-letter 1-letter Side chain class Side chain polarity Side chain charge (pH 7.4) Hydropathy index Absorbance λ max (nm) ε at λ max (mM −1 cm −1 ) MW (weight) Occurrence in proteins (%) Coding in the Standard Genetic Code (using IUPAC notation ) Alanine Ala A aliphatic nonpolar neutral 1.8 89.094 8.76 GCN Arginine Arg R basic basic polar positive −4.5 174.203 5.78 MGN, CGY (coding codons can also be expressed by: CGN, AGR) Asparagine Asn N amide polar neutral −3.5 132.119 3.93 AAY Aspartic acid Asp D acid acidic polar negative −3.5 133.104 5.49 GAY Cysteine Cys C sulfur-containing nonpolar neutral 2.5 250 0.3 121.154 1.38 UGY Glutamic acid Glu E acid acidic polar negative −3.5 147.131 6.32 GAR Glutamine Gln Q amide polar neutral −3.5 146.146 3.9 CAR Glycine Gly G aliphatic nonpolar neutral −0.4 75.067 7.03 GGN Histidine His H basic aromatic basic polar positive(10%) neutral(90%) −3.2 211 5.9 155.156 2.26 CAY Isoleucine Ile I aliphatic nonpolar neutral 4.5 131.175 5.49 AUH Leucine Leu L aliphatic nonpolar neutral 3.8 131.175 9.68 YUR, CUY (coding codons can also be expressed by: CUN, UUR) Lysine Lys K basic basic polar positive −3.9 146.189 5.19 AAR Methionine Met M sulfur-containing nonpolar neutral 1.9 149.208 2.32 AUG Phenylalanine Phe F aromatic nonpolar neutral 2.8 257, 206, 188 0.2, 9.3, 60.0 165.192 3.87 UUY Proline Pro P cyclic nonpolar neutral −1.6 115.132 5.02 CCN Serine Ser S hydroxyl-containing polar neutral −0.8 105.093 7.14 UCN, AGY Threonine Thr T hydroxyl-containing polar neutral −0.7 119.119 5.53 ACN Tryptophan Trp W aromatic nonpolar neutral −0.9 280, 219 5.6, 47.0 204.228 1.25 UGG Tyrosine Tyr Y aromatic polar neutral −1.3 274, 222, 193 1.4, 8.0, 48.0 181.191 2.91 UAY Valine Val V aliphatic nonpolar neutral 4.2 117.148 6.73 GUN Two additional amino acids are in some species coded for by codons that are usually interpreted as stop codons : 21st and 22nd amino acids 3-letter 1-letter MW (weight) Selenocysteine Sec U 168.064 Pyrrolysine Pyl O 255.313 In addition to the specific amino acid codes, placeholders are used in cases where chemical or crystallographic analysis of a peptide or protein cannot conclusively determine the identity of a residue. They are also used to summarise conserved protein sequence motifs. The use of single letters to indicate sets of similar residues is similar to the use of abbreviation codes for degenerate bases . Ambiguous amino acids 3-letter 1-letter Amino Acids Included Codons Included Any / unknown Xaa X All NNN Asparagine or aspartic acid Asx B D, N RAY Glutamine or glutamic acid Glx Z E, Q SAR Leucine or Isoleucine Xle J I, L YTR, ATH, CTY (coding codons can also be expressed by: CTN, ATH, TTR; MTY, YTR, ATA; MTY, HTA, YTG) Hydrophobic Φ V, I, L, F, W, Y, M NTN, TAY, TGG Aromatic Ω F, W, Y, H YWY, TTY, TGG (coding codons can also be expressed by: TWY, CAY, TGG) Aliphatic (non-aromatic) Ψ V, I, L, M VTN, TTR (coding codons can also be expressed by: NTR, VTY) Small π P, G, A, S BCN, RGY, GGR Hydrophilic ζ S, T, H, N, Q, E, D, K, R VAN, WCN, CGN, AGY (coding codons can also be expressed by: VAN, WCN, MGY, CGP) Positively charged + K, R, H ARR, CRY, CGR Negatively charged − D, E GAN Unk is sometimes used instead of Xaa , but is less standard. In addition, many non-standard amino acids have a specific code. For example, several peptide drugs, such as Bortezomib and MG132 , are artificially synthesized and retain their protecting groups , which have specific codes. Bortezomib is Pyz -Phe-boroLeu, and MG132 is Z -Leu-Leu-Leu-al. To aid in the analysis of protein structure, photo-reactive amino acid analogs are available. These include photoleucine ( pLeu ) and photomethionine ( pMet ). See also [ edit ] Amino acid dating Beta-peptide Degron Erepsin Homochirality Hyperaminoacidemia Leucines Miller–Urey experiment Nucleic acid sequence Proteinogenic amino acid Table of codons , 3-nucleotide sequences that encode each amino acid References and notes [ edit ] Further reading [ edit ] Tymoczko JL (2012). "Protein Composition and Structure". Biochemistry . New York: W. H. Freeman and company. pp. 28–31. ISBN 9781429229364 . Doolittle RF (1989). "Redundancies in protein sequences". In Fasman, G.D. Predictions of Protein Structure and the Principles of Protein Conformation . New York: Plenum Press . pp. 599–623. ISBN 978-0-306-43131-9 . LCCN 89008555 . Nelson DL, Cox MM (2000). Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry (3rd ed.). Worth Publishers . ISBN 978-1-57259-153-0 . LCCN 99049137 . Meierhenrich U (2008). Amino acids and the asymmetry of life (PDF) . Berlin: Springer Verlag . ISBN 978-3-540-76885-2 . LCCN 2008930865 . Archived from the original on 12 January 2012. CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown ( link ) External links [ edit ] Media related to Amino acid at Wikimedia Commons

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is the bahamas considered part of the us

The Bahamas became an independent Commonwealth realm in 1973, retaining the British monarch, then and currently Queen Elizabeth II, as its head of state. In terms of gross domestic product per capita, The Bahamas is one of the richest countries in the Americas (following the United States and Canada), with an economy based on tourism and finance.

['the union of soviet socialist republics[9] (ussr, russian: ссср)']

ṣé wọ́n ka bahamas bíi apá kan ilẹ̀ amẹ́ríkà

No

['Bi jeografi, awon Bahama wa ni asopo erekusu kanna bi Kuba, Hispaniola (Dominiki Olominira ati Haiti) ati Awon Erekusu Turks ati Caicos.']

['Bi jeografi, awon Bahama wa ni asopo erekusu kanna bi Kuba, Hispaniola (Dominiki Olominira ati Haiti) ati Awon Erekusu Turks ati Caicos.']

['P1']

Àwọn Bàhámà (pípè /ðə bəˈhɑːməz/ ( listen ) ) tabi lonibise bi Orílẹ̀-èdè Àjọni ilẹ̀ awọn Bàhámà , je orile-ede elede Geesi to ni awon erekusu 29, 661 cays , ati 2,387 erekusu kekere 2,387 (apata). O budo si inu Okun Atlantiki ni ariwa Kuba ati Hispaniola ( Dominiki Olominira ati Haiti ), ariwaiwoorun awon Erekusu Turks ati Caicos , ati guusuilaorun orile-ede Awon Ipinle Aparapo ile Amerika (nitosi ipinle Florida ). Apapo iye aala ile re je 13,939 km 2 (5,382 sq. mi.), pelu idiye olugbe to to 330,000. Oluilu re ni Nassau . Bi jeografi, awon Bahama wa ni asopo erekusu kanna bi Kuba , Hispaniola ( Dominiki Olominira ati Haiti ) ati Awon Erekusu Turks ati Caicos . Awon onibudo ibe tele ni awon Taino ti Arawaka , awon Bahama ni ibi ti Columbus koko gunle si ni Ile Aye Tuntun ni 1492. Botilejepe awon ara Spein ko se amunisin awon Bahama, won ko awon Lucaya abinibi ibe (eyi ni oruko ti awon Taino Bahama unpe ara won) lo si oko eru ni Hispaniola. Lati 1513 de 1650 enikankan ko gbe ori awon erekusu yi, ko to di pe awon olumunisin ara Britani lati Bermuda tedo si erekusu Eleuthera . Itoka [ àtúnṣe | àtúnṣe àmìọ̀rọ̀ ]

"Bahama" and "Bahamas" redirect here. For other uses, see Bahama (disambiguation) . Coordinates : 24°15′N 76°00′W  /  24.250°N 76.000°W  / 24.250; -76.000 The Bahamas ( / b ə ˈ h ɑː m ə z / ( listen ) ), known officially as the Commonwealth of The Bahamas , is an archipelagic state within the Lucayan Archipelago . It consists of more than 700 islands , cays , and islets in the Atlantic Ocean , and is located north of Cuba and Hispaniola ( Haiti and the Dominican Republic ), northwest of the Turks and Caicos Islands , southeast of the United States state of Florida , and east of the Florida Keys . The capital is Nassau on the island of New Providence . The designation of "the Bahamas" can refer either to the country or to the larger island chain that it shares with the Turks and Caicos Islands . The Royal Bahamas Defence Force describes the Bahamas territory as encompassing 470,000 km 2 (180,000 sq mi) of ocean space. The Bahamas is the site of Columbus ' first landfall in the New World in 1492. At that time, the islands were inhabited by the Lucayan , a branch of the Arawakan -speaking Taino people. Although the Spanish never colonised The Bahamas, they shipped the native Lucayans to slavery in Hispaniola. The islands were mostly deserted from 1513 until 1648, when English colonists from Bermuda settled on the island of Eleuthera . The Bahamas became a British crown colony in 1718, when the British clamped down on piracy . After the American War of Independence , the Crown resettled thousands of American Loyalists in the Bahamas; they brought their slaves with them and established plantations on land grants. Africans constituted the majority of the population from this period. The slave trade was abolished by the British in 1807; slavery in the Bahamas was abolished in 1834. Subsequently, the Bahamas became a haven for freed African slaves; the Royal Navy resettled Africans there liberated from illegal slave ships, American slaves and Seminoles escaped here from Florida, and the government freed American slaves carried on United States domestic ships that had reached the Bahamas due to weather. Today, Afro-Bahamians make up nearly 90% of the population. The Bahamas became an independent Commonwealth realm in 1973, retaining the British monarch, then and currently Queen Elizabeth II , as its head of state. In terms of gross domestic product per capita, The Bahamas is one of the richest countries in the Americas (following the United States and Canada), with an economy based on tourism and finance. Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2.1 18th–19th centuries 2.2 20th century 2.3 Post-Second World War 3 Geography 3.1 Castaway Cay 3.2 Climate 4 Geology 5 Government and politics 5.1 Political culture 5.2 Foreign relations 5.3 Armed forces 5.4 Administrative divisions 5.5 National flag 5.6 Coat of arms 5.7 National flower 6 Economy 6.1 Tourism 6.2 Financial services 6.3 Agriculture 7 Demographics 7.1 Racial and ethnic groups 7.2 Languages 7.3 Religion 8 Culture 8.1 Sport 9 Education 10 In popular culture 11 Notable residents 12 See also 13 References 14 Bibliography 15 Further reading 15.1 General history 15.2 Economic history 15.3 Social history 16 External links Etymology [ edit ] The name Bahamas is most likely derived from either the Taíno ba ha ma ("big upper middle land"), which was a term for the region used by the indigenous Native Americans, or possibly from the Spanish baja mar ("shallow water or sea" or " low tide ") reflecting the shallow waters of the area. Alternatively, it may originate from Guanahani , a local name of unclear meaning. A peculiarity of the name is that the word The is a formal part of the abbreviated name and is, therefore, capitalised. So in contrast to "the Congo" and "the United Kingdom", it is proper to write "The Bahamas". History [ edit ] Main article: History of The Bahamas A depiction of Columbus' first landing, claiming possession of the New World for Spain in caravels ; the Niña and the Pinta , on Watling Island, an island of The Bahamas that the natives called Guanahani and that he named San Salvador , on 12 October 1492. Taino people moved into the uninhabited southern Bahamas from Hispaniola and Cuba around the 11th century, having migrated there from South America. They came to be known as the Lucayan people . An estimated 30,000 Lucayan inhabited the Bahamas at the time of Christopher Columbus ' arrival in 1492. Columbus's first landfall in the New World was on an island he named San Salvador (known to the Lucayan as Guanahani ). Some researchers believe this site to be present-day San Salvador Island (formerly known as Watling's Island), situated in the southeastern Bahamas. An alternative theory holds that Columbus landed to the southeast on Samana Cay , according to calculations made in 1986 by National Geographic writer and editor Joseph Judge , based on Columbus's log. Evidence in support of this remains inconclusive. On the landfall island, Columbus made first contact with the Lucayan and exchanged goods with them. The Spanish forced much of the Lucayan population to Hispaniola for use as forced labour. The slaves suffered from harsh conditions and most died from contracting diseases to which they had no immunity ; half of the Taino died from smallpox alone. The population of the Bahamas was severely diminished. In 1648, the Eleutherian Adventurers , led by William Sayle , migrated from Bermuda. These English Puritans established the first permanent European settlement on an island which they named Eleuthera —the name derives from the Greek word for freedom. They later settled New Providence , naming it Sayle's Island after one of their leaders. To survive, the settlers salvaged goods from wrecks . In 1670, King Charles II granted the islands to the Lords Proprietors of the Carolinas in North America. They rented the islands from the king with rights of trading, tax, appointing governors , and administering the country. In 1684 Spanish corsair Juan de Alcon raided the capital , Charles Town (later renamed Nassau ). In 1703, a joint Franco-Spanish expedition briefly occupied the Bahamian capital during the War of the Spanish Succession . 18th–19th centuries [ edit ] Sign at Bill Baggs Cape Florida State Park commemorating hundreds of African-American slaves who escaped to freedom in the early 1820s in the Bahamas During proprietary rule, the Bahamas became a haven for pirates , including the infamous Blackbeard ( circa 1680–1718). To put an end to the ' Pirates' republic ' and restore orderly government, Britain made the Bahamas a crown colony in 1718 under the royal governorship of Woodes Rogers . After a difficult struggle, he succeeded in suppressing piracy. In 1720, Rogers led local militia to drive off a Spanish attack . During the American War of Independence in the late 18th century, the islands became a target for American naval forces under the command of Commodore Esek Hopkins . US Marines occupied the capital of Nassau for a fortnight . In 1782, following the British defeat at Yorktown , a Spanish fleet appeared off the coast of Nassau. The city surrendered without a fight . Spain returned possession of the Bahamas to Britain the following year, under the terms of the Treaty of Paris . Before the news was received, however, the islands were recaptured by a small British force led by Andrew Deveaux . After American independence, the British resettled some 7,300 Loyalists with their slaves in the Bahamas, and granted land to the planters to help compensate for losses on the continent. These Loyalists, who included Deveaux, established plantations on several islands and became a political force in the capital. European Americans were outnumbered by the African-American slaves they brought with them, and ethnic Europeans remained a minority in the territory. In 1807, the British abolished the slave trade , followed by the United States the next year. During the following decades, the Royal Navy intercepted the trade; they resettled in the Bahamas thousands of Africans liberated from slave ships. In the 1820s during the period of the Seminole Wars in Florida, hundreds of American slaves and African Seminoles escaped from Cape Florida to the Bahamas. They settled mostly on northwest Andros Island , where they developed the village of Red Bays. From eyewitness accounts, 300 escaped in a mass flight in 1823, aided by Bahamians in 27 sloops , with others using canoes for the journey. This was commemorated in 2004 by a large sign at Bill Baggs Cape Florida State Park . Some of their descendants in Red Bays continue African Seminole traditions in basket making and grave marking. The United States' National Park Service , which administers the National Underground Railroad Network to Freedom, is working with the African Bahamian Museum and Research Center (ABAC) in Nassau on development to identify Red Bays as a site related to American slaves' search for freedom. The museum has researched and documented the African Seminoles' escape from southern Florida. It plans to develop interpretive programs at historical sites in Red Bay associated with the period of their settlement in the Bahamas. In 1818, the Home Office in London had ruled that "any slave brought to the Bahamas from outside the British West Indies would be manumitted." This led to a total of nearly 300 slaves owned by US nationals being freed from 1830 to 1835. The American slave ships Comet and Encomium used in the United States domestic coastwise slave trade , were wrecked off Abaco Island in December 1830 and February 1834, respectively. When wreckers took the masters, passengers and slaves into Nassau, customs officers seized the slaves and British colonial officials freed them, over the protests of the Americans. There were 165 slaves on the Comet and 48 on the Encomium . Britain finally paid an indemnity to the United States in those two cases in 1855, under the Treaty of Claims of 1853, which settled several compensation cases between the two nations. Slavery was abolished in the British Empire on 1 August 1834. After that British colonial officials freed 78 American slaves from the Enterprise , which went into Bermuda in 1835; and 38 from the Hermosa , which wrecked off Abaco Island in 1840. The most notable case was that of the Creole in 1841: as a result of a slave revolt on board, the leaders ordered the American brig to Nassau. It was carrying 135 slaves from Virginia destined for sale in New Orleans . The Bahamian officials freed the 128 slaves who chose to stay in the islands. The Creole case has been described as the "most successful slave revolt in U.S. history". These incidents, in which a total of 447 slaves belonging to US nationals were freed from 1830 to 1842, increased tension between the United States and Great Britain . They had been co-operating in patrols to suppress the international slave trade. But, worried about the stability of its large domestic slave trade and its value, the United States argued that Britain should not treat its domestic ships that came to its colonial ports under duress, as part of the international trade. The United States worried that the success of the Creole slaves in gaining freedom would encourage more slave revolts on merchant ships. 20th century [ edit ] The Duke of Windsor and Governor of the Bahamas from 1940 to 1945 In August 1940, the Duke of Windsor was appointed Governor of the Bahamas . He arrived in the colony with his wife, the Duchess . Although disheartened at the condition of Government House, they "tried to make the best of a bad situation". He did not enjoy the position, and referred to the islands as "a third-class British colony". He opened the small local parliament on 29 October 1940. The couple visited the "Out Islands" that November, on Axel Wenner-Gren 's yacht, which caused controversy; the British Foreign Office strenuously objected because they had been advised (mistakenly) by United States intelligence that Wenner-Gren was a close friend of the Luftwaffe commander Hermann Göring of Nazi Germany. The Duke was praised at the time for his efforts to combat poverty on the islands. A 1991 biography by Philip Ziegler, however, described him as contemptuous of the Bahamians and other non-European peoples of the Empire. He was praised for his resolution of civil unrest over low wages in Nassau in June 1942, when there was a "full-scale riot". Ziegler said that the Duke blamed the trouble on "mischief makers – communists " and "men of Central European Jewish descent, who had secured jobs as a pretext for obtaining a deferment of draft". The Duke resigned from the post on 16 March 1945. Post-Second World War [ edit ] Sign at the entrance of the Sir Roland Symonette Park in North Eleuthera district commemorating Sir Roland Theodore Symonette , the Bahamas' first Premier Modern political development began after the Second World War . The first political parties were formed in the 1950s. The British Parliament authorised the islands as internally self-governing in 1964, with Sir Roland Symonette , of the United Bahamian Party , as the first Premier. A new constitution granting the Bahamas internal autonomy went into effect on 7 January 1964. In 1967, Lynden Pindling of the Progressive Liberal Party , became the first native born Premier of the majority native Bahamian colony; in 1968 the title of the position was changed to Prime Minister . In 1968, Pindling announced that the Bahamas would seek full independence. A new constitution giving the Bahamas increased control over its own affairs was adopted in 1968. The British House of Lords voted to give the Bahamas its independence on 22 June 1973. Prince Charles delivered the official documents to Prime Minister Lynden Pindling , officially declaring the Bahamas a fully independent nation on 10 July 1973. It joined the Commonwealth of Nations on the same day. Sir Milo Butler was appointed the first Governor-General of the Bahamas (the official representative of Queen Elizabeth II ) shortly after independence. The Bahamas joined the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank on 22 August 1973, and it joined the United Nations on 18 September 1973. Based on the twin pillars of tourism and offshore finance , the Bahamian economy has prospered since the 1950s. Significant challenges in areas such as education, health care, housing, international narcotics trafficking and illegal immigration from Haiti continue to be issues. The University of The Bahamas (UB) is the national higher education/tertiary system. Offering baccalaureate, masters and associate degrees, UB has three campuses, and teaching and research centres throughout the Bahamas. The University of The Bahamas was chartered on 10 November 2016. Geography [ edit ] Main article: Geography of the Bahamas The Bahamas from space. NASA Aqua satellite image, 2009 The country lies between latitudes 20° and 28°N , and longitudes 72° and 80°W . In 1864, the Governor of the Bahamas reported that there were 29 islands, 661 cays, and 2,387 rocks in the colony. The closest island to the United States is Bimini , which is also known as the gateway to the Bahamas. The island of Abaco is to the east of Grand Bahama . The southeasternmost island is Inagua . The largest island is Andros Island . Other inhabited islands include Eleuthera , Cat Island , Rum Cay , Long Island , San Salvador Island , Ragged Island , Acklins , Crooked Island , Exuma , Berry Islands and Mayaguana . Nassau , capital city of the Bahamas, lies on the island of New Providence . All the islands are low and flat, with ridges that usually rise no more than 15 to 20 m (49 to 66 ft). The highest point in the country is Mount Alvernia (formerly Como Hill) on Cat Island. It has an elevation of 63 metres (207 ft). Damaged homes in the Bahamas in the aftermath of Hurricane Wilma in 2005 To the southeast, the Turks and Caicos Islands , and three more extensive submarine features called Mouchoir Bank , Silver Bank and Navidad Bank , are geographically a continuation of the Bahamas. Castaway Cay [ edit ] Main article: Castaway Cay Disney has its own private island in the Bahamas called Castaway Cay . It is located near Great Abaco Island and was formerly known as Gorda Cay. In 1997, The Walt Disney Company purchased a 99-year land lease for the cay from the Bahamian government, set to expire in 2096. Climate [ edit ] See also: Geography of the Bahamas § Climate The climate of the Bahamas is tropical savannah climate or Aw according to Köppen climate classification . The low latitude, warm tropical Gulf Stream , and low elevation give the Bahamas a warm and winterless climate. As such, there has never been a frost or freeze reported in the Bahamas, although every few decades low temperatures can fall below 10 °C (50 °F) for a few hours when a severe cold outbreak comes off the North American mainland. There is only an 8 °C difference between the warmest month and coolest month in most of the Bahama islands. As with most tropical climates, seasonal rainfall follows the sun, and summer is the wettest season. The Bahamas are often sunny and dry for long periods of time, and average more than 3,000 hours or 340 days of sunlight annually. Tropical storms and hurricanes can on occasion impact the Bahamas. In 1992, Hurricane Andrew passed over the northern portions of the islands, and Hurricane Floyd passed near the eastern portions of the islands in 1999. hide Climate data for Nassau Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Average high °C (°F) 25.4 (77.7) 25.5 (77.9) 26.6 (79.9) 27.9 (82.2) 29.7 (85.5) 31.0 (87.8) 32.0 (89.6) 32.1 (89.8) 31.6 (88.9) 29.9 (85.8) 27.8 (82) 26.2 (79.2) 28.8 (83.9) Daily mean °C (°F) 21.4 (70.5) 21.4 (70.5) 22.3 (72.1) 23.8 (74.8) 25.6 (78.1) 27.2 (81) 28.0 (82.4) 28.1 (82.6) 27.7 (81.9) 26.2 (79.2) 24.2 (75.6) 22.3 (72.1) 24.8 (76.7) Average low °C (°F) 17.3 (63.1) 17.3 (63.1) 17.9 (64.2) 19.6 (67.3) 21.4 (70.5) 23.3 (73.9) 24.0 (75.2) 24.0 (75.2) 23.7 (74.7) 22.5 (72.5) 20.6 (69.1) 18.3 (64.9) 20.8 (69.5) Average precipitation mm (inches) 39.4 (1.551) 49.5 (1.949) 54.4 (2.142) 69.3 (2.728) 105.9 (4.169) 218.2 (8.591) 160.8 (6.331) 235.7 (9.28) 164.1 (6.461) 161.8 (6.37) 80.5 (3.169) 49.8 (1.961) 1,389.4 (54.701) Average precipitation days 8 6 7 8 10 15 17 19 17 15 10 8 140 Mean monthly sunshine hours 220.1 220.4 257.3 276.0 269.7 231.0 272.8 266.6 213.0 223.2 222.0 213.9 2,886 Source: World Meteorological Organization ( UN ), Hong Kong Observatory (sun only) Average Sea Temperature Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 23 °C 73 °F 23 °C 73 °F 24 °C 75 °F 26 °C 79 °F 27 °C 81 °F 28 °C 82 °F 28 °C 82 °F 28 °C 82 °F 28 °C 82 °F 27 °C 81 °F 26 °C 79 °F 24 °C 75 °F Geology [ edit ] The Bahamas is part of the Lucayan Archipelago , which continues into the Turks and Caicos Islands, the Mouchoir Bank , the Silver Bank , and the Navidad Bank . The Bahamas Platform, which includes the Bahamas, Southern Florida, Northern Cuba, the Turks and Caicos, and the Blake Plateau , formed about 150 Ma , not long after the formation of the North Atlantic . The 6.4 km thick limestones , which predominately make up The Bahamas, date back to the Cretaceous . These limestones would have been deposited in shallow seas, assumed to be a stretched and thinned portion of the North American continental crust . Sediments were forming at about the same rate as the crust below was sinking due to the added weight. Thus, the entire area consisted of a large marine plain with some islands. Then, at about 80 Ma, the area became flooded by the Gulf Stream . This resulted in the drowning of the Blake Plateau, the separation of The Bahamas from Cuba and Florida, the separation of the southeastern Bahamas into separate banks, the creation of the Cay Sal Bank , plus the Little and Great Bahama Banks . Sedimentation from the "carbonate factory" of each bank, or atoll , continues today at the rate of about 2 cm per kyr . Coral reefs form the "retaining walls" of these atolls, within which oolites and pellets form. Coral growth was greater through the Tertiary , until the start of the Ice Ages , and hence those deposits are more abundant below a depth of 36 m. In fact, an ancient extinct reef exists half a km seaward of the present one, 30 m below sea level. Oolites form when oceanic water penetrate the shallow banks, increasing the temperature about 3 °C and the salinity by 0.5 per cent. Cemented ooids are referred to as grapestone. Additionally, giant stromatolites are found off the Exuma Cays . Sea level changes resulted in a drop in sea level, causing wind blown oolite to form sand dunes with distinct cross-bedding . Overlapping dunes form oolitic ridges, which become rapidly lithified through the action of rainwater, called eolianite . Most islands have ridges ranging from 30 to 45 m, though Cat Island has a ridge 60 m in height. The land between ridges is conducive to the formation of lakes and swamps. Solution weathering of the limestone results in a "Bahamian Karst " topography. This includes potholes , Blue holes such as Dean's Blue Hole , sinkholes , beachrock such as the Bimini Road ("pavements of Atlantis"), limestone crust , caves due to the lack of rivers, and sea caves . Several blue holes are aligned along the South Andros Fault line. Tidal flats and tidal creeks are common, but the more impressive drainage patterns are formed by troughs and canyons such as Great Bahama Canyon with the evidence of turbidity currents and turbidite deposition. The stratigraphy of the islands consists of the Middle Pleistocene Owl's Hole Formation , overlain by the Late Pleistocene Grotto Beach Formation, and then the Holocene Rice Bay Formation. However, these units are not necessarily stacked on top of each other but can be located laterally. The oldest formation, Owl's Hole, is capped by a terra rosa paleosoil , as is the Grotto Beach, unless eroded . The Grotto Beach Formation is the most widespread. Government and politics [ edit ] Main article: Politics of the Bahamas The Bahamian Parliament , located in Nassau The Bahamas is a parliamentary constitutional monarchy headed by Queen Elizabeth II in her role as Queen of the Bahamas. Political and legal traditions closely follow those of the United Kingdom and the Westminster system . The Bahamas is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations as a Commonwealth realm , retaining the Queen as head of state (represented by a Governor-General ). Legislative power is vested In a bicameral parliament , which consists of a 38-member House of Assembly (the lower house ), with members elected from single-member districts , and a 16-member Senate , with members appointed by the Governor-General, including nine on the advice of the Prime Minister, four on the advice of the Leader of Her Majesty's Loyal Opposition , and three on the advice of the Prime Minister after consultation with the Leader of the Opposition. The House of Assembly carries out all major legislative functions. As under the Westminster system, the Prime Minister may dissolve Parliament and call a general election at any time within a five-year term. The Prime Minister is the head of government and is the leader of the party with the most seats in the House of Assembly. Executive power is exercised by the Cabinet, selected by the Prime Minister and drawn from his supporters in the House of Assembly. The current Governor-General is Dame Marguerite Pindling , and the current Prime Minister is The Rt. Hon. Hubert Minnis M.P. . Constitutional safeguards include freedom of speech , press , worship , movement and association . The Judiciary of the Bahamas is independent of the executive and the legislature. Jurisprudence is based on English law . Political culture [ edit ] The Bahamas has a two-party system dominated by the centre-left Progressive Liberal Party and the centre-right Free National Movement . A handful of splinter parties have been unable to win election to parliament. These parties have included the Bahamas Democratic Movement , the Coalition for Democratic Reform, Bahamian Nationalist Party and the Democratic National Alliance . Foreign relations [ edit ] Further information: Foreign relations of the Bahamas The Bahamas has strong bilateral relationships with the United States and the United Kingdom , represented by an ambassador in Washington and High Commissioner in London . The Bahamas also associates closely with other nations of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM). Armed forces [ edit ] Main article: Royal Bahamas Defence Force HMBS Nassau (P-61) Its military is the Royal Bahamas Defence Force (the RBDF), the navy of the Bahamas which includes a land unit called Commando Squadron (Regiment) and an Air Wing (Air Force). Under the Defence Act, the RBDF has been mandated, in the name of the Queen , to defend the Bahamas, protect its territorial integrity, patrol its waters, provide assistance and relief in times of disaster, maintain order in conjunction with the law enforcement agencies of the Bahamas, and carry out any such duties as determined by the National Security Council. The Defence Force is also a member of the Caribbean Community ( CARICOM )'s Regional Security Task Force. The RBDF came into existence on 31 March 1980. Their duties include defending the Bahamas, stopping drug smuggling , illegal immigration and poaching, and providing assistance to mariners. The Defence Force has a fleet of 26 coastal and inshore patrol craft along with 3 aircraft and over 1,100 personnel including 65 officers and 74 women. Administrative divisions [ edit ] Main article: Local government in the Bahamas Districts of the Bahamas The districts of the Bahamas provide a system of local government everywhere except New Providence (which holds 70% of the national population), whose affairs are handled directly by the central government. In 1996, the Bahamian Parliament passed the "Local Government Act" to facilitate the establishment of Family Island Administrators, Local Government Districts, Local District Councillors and Local Town Committees for the various island communities. The overall goal of this act is to allow the various elected leaders to govern and oversee the affairs of their respective districts without the interference of Central Government. In total, there are 32 districts, with elections being held every five years. There are 110 Councillors and 281 Town Committee members are elected to represent the various districts. Each Councillor or Town Committee member is responsible for the proper use of public funds for the maintenance and development of their constituency. The Bahamas uses drive-on-the-Left traffic rules throughout the Commonwealth. The districts other than New Providence are: Acklins Berry Islands Bimini Black Point , Exuma Cat Island Central Abaco Central Andros Central Eleuthera City of Freeport, Grand Bahama Crooked Island East Grand Bahama Exuma Grand Cay , Abaco Harbour Island , Eleuthera Hope Town , Abaco Inagua Long Island Mangrove Cay , Andros Mayaguana Moore's Island , Abaco North Abaco North Andros North Eleuthera Ragged Island Rum Cay San Salvador South Abaco South Andros South Eleuthera Spanish Wells , Eleuthera West Grand Bahama National flag [ edit ] Main article: Flag of the Bahamas National flag of the Bahamas The colours of the Bahamian flag symbolise the strength of the Bahamian people; the design reflects aspects of the natural environment (sun and sea) and economic and social development. The flag is a black equilateral triangle against the mast, superimposed on a horizontal background made up of three equal stripes of aquamarine, gold and aquamarine. Coat of arms [ edit ] Main article: Coat of arms of the Bahamas Bahamian Coat of Arms The coat of arms of the Bahamas contains a shield with the national symbols as its focal point. The shield is supported by a marlin and a flamingo , which are the national animals of the Bahamas. The flamingo is located on the land, and the marlin on the sea, indicating the geography of the islands. On top of the shield is a conch shell, which represents the varied marine life of the island chain. The conch shell rests on a helmet. Below this is the actual shield, the main symbol of which is a ship representing the Santa María of Christopher Columbus, shown sailing beneath the sun. Along the bottom, below the shield appears a banner upon which is the national motto: "Forward, Upward, Onward Together." National flower [ edit ] The yellow elder was chosen as the national flower of the Bahamas because it is native to the Bahama islands, and it blooms throughout the year. Selection of the yellow elder over many other flowers was made through the combined popular vote of members of all four of New Providence's garden clubs of the 1970s—the Nassau Garden Club, the Carver Garden Club, the International Garden Club and the Y.W.C.A. Garden Club. They reasoned that other flowers grown there—such as the bougainvillea , hibiscus and poinciana —had already been chosen as the national flowers of other countries. The yellow elder, on the other hand, was unclaimed by other countries (although it is now also the national flower of the United States Virgin Islands ) and also the yellow elder is native to the family islands. Economy [ edit ] Main article: Economy of the Bahamas By the terms of GDP per capita , the Bahamas is one of the richest countries in the Americas . It was revealed in the Panama Papers that The Bahamas is the jurisdiction with the most offshore entities or companies. Tourism [ edit ] Cruise ships in Nassau Harbour The Bahamas relies on tourism to generate most of its economic activity. Tourism as an industry not only accounts for over 60% of the Bahamian GDP, but provides jobs for more than half the country's workforce. The Bahamas attracted 5.8 million visitors in 2012, more than 70% of whom were cruise visitors. Financial services [ edit ] After tourism, the next most important economic sector is banking and international financial services, accounting for some 15% of GDP. The government has adopted incentives to encourage foreign financial business, and further banking and finance reforms are in progress. The government plans to merge the regulatory functions of key financial institutions, including the Central Bank of the Bahamas (CBB) and the Securities and Exchange Commission. [ citation needed ] The Central Bank administers restrictions and controls on capital and money market instruments. The Bahamas International Securities Exchange consists of 19 listed public companies. Reflecting the relative soundness of the banking system (mostly populated by Canadian banks), the impact of the global financial crisis on the financial sector has been limited. [ citation needed ] A proportional representation of the Bahamas exports. The economy has a very competitive tax regime. The government derives its revenue from import tariffs, VAT , licence fees, property and stamp taxes, but there is no income tax, corporate tax, capital gains tax, or wealth tax. Payroll taxes fund social insurance benefits and amount to 3.9% paid by the employee and 5.9% paid by the employer. In 2010, overall tax revenue as a percentage of GDP was 17.2%. Agriculture [ edit ] Further information: Agriculture in the Bahamas Agriculture is the third largest sector of the Bahamian economy, representing 5–7% of total GDP. An estimated 80% of the Bahamian food supply is imported. Major crops include onions , okra , tomatoes , oranges , grapefruit , cucumbers , sugar cane , lemons , limes , and sweet potatoes . Demographics [ edit ] Main article: Demographics of the Bahamas The Bahamas has an estimated population of 391,232, of which 25.9% are under 14, 67.2% 15 to 64 and 6.9% over 65. It has a population growth rate of 0.925% (2010), with a birth rate of 17.81/1,000 population, death rate of 9.35/1,000, and net migration rate of −2.13 migrant(s)/1,000 population. The infant mortality rate is 23.21 deaths/1,000 live births. Residents have a life expectancy at birth of 69.87 years: 73.49 years for females, 66.32 years for males. The total fertility rate is 2.0 children born/woman (2010). The most populous islands are New Providence, where Nassau, the capital and largest city, is located; and Grand Bahama, home to the second largest city of Freeport . Racial and ethnic groups [ edit ] According to the 99% response rate obtained from the race question on the 2010 Census questionnaire, 90.6% of the population identified themselves as being Black, 4.7% White and 2.1% of a mixed race (Black and White). Three centuries prior, in 1722 when the first official census of the Bahamas was taken, 74% of the population was White and 26% Black. Afro-Bahamian children at a local school Since the colonial era of plantations, Africans or Afro-Bahamians have been the largest ethnic group in the Bahamas, whose primary ancestry was based in West Africa . The first Africans to arrive to the Bahamas were freed slaves from Bermuda ; they arrived with the Eleutheran Adventurers looking for new lives. The Haitian community in the Bahamas is also largely of African descent and numbers about 80,000. Due to an extremely high immigration of Haitians to the Bahamas, the Bahamian government started deporting illegal Haitian immigrants to their homeland in late 2014. The White Bahamian population are mainly the descendants of the English Puritans looking to flee religious persecution in England and American Loyalists escaping the American Revolution who arrived in 1649 and 1783, respectively. Many Southern Loyalists went to the Abaco Islands , half of whose population was of European descent as of 1985. The term white is usually used to identify Bahamians with Anglo ancestry, as well as "light-skinned" Afro-Bahamians. Sometimes Bahamians use the term Conchy Joe to describe people of Anglo descent. A small portion of the Euro-Bahamian population is descended from Greek labourers who came to help develop the sponging industry in the 1900s. They make up less than 1% of the nation's population, but have still preserved their distinct Greek Bahamian culture. [ citation needed ] Bahamians typically identify themselves simply as either black or white . Languages [ edit ] The official language of the Bahamas is English. Many people speak an English-based creole language called Bahamian dialect (known simply as "dialect") or "Bahamianese." Laurente Gibbs, a Bahamian writer and actor, was the first to coin the latter name in a poem and has since promoted its usage. Both are used as autoglossonyms. Haitian Creole , a French-based creole language is spoken by Haitians and their descendants, who make up of about 25% of the total population. It is known simply as Creole to differentiate it from Bahamian English. Also note that the Bahamas was once under British rule and therefore the English taught in the Bahamian schools is still "British-based". Religion [ edit ] Further information: Religion in the Bahamas Religion in the Bahamas (2010) Protestant (80%) Roman Catholic (14.5%) Other Christian (1.3%) Unaffiliated (3.1%) Other religion (1.1%) According to International Religious Freedom Report 2008 prepared by United States Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor , the islands' population is predominantly Christian . Protestant denominations are widespread and collectively account for more than 70% of the population, with Baptists representing 35% of the population, Anglicans 15%, Pentecostals 8%, Church of God 5%, Seventh-day Adventists 5% and Methodists 4%. There is also a significant Roman Catholic community accounting for about 14%. There are also smaller communities of Jews , Muslims , Baha'is , Hindus , Rastafarians and practitioners of Obeah . Culture [ edit ] Main articles: Culture of the Bahamas and Music of the Bahamas Junkanoo celebration in Nassau In the less developed outer islands (or Family Islands), handicrafts include basketry made from palm fronds. This material, commonly called "straw", is plaited into hats and bags that are popular tourist items. Another use is for so-called "Voodoo dolls", even though such dolls are the result of the American imagination and not based on historic fact. A form of folk magic ( obeah ) is practised by some Bahamians, mainly in the Family Islands (out-islands) of the Bahamas. The practice of obeah is illegal in the Bahamas and punishable by law. Junkanoo is a traditional Afro-Bahamian street parade of 'rushing', music, dance and art held in Nassau (and a few other settlements) every Boxing Day and New Year's Day . Junkanoo is also used to celebrate other holidays and events such as Emancipation Day. Regattas are important social events in many family island settlements. They usually feature one or more days of sailing by old-fashioned work boats , as well as an onshore festival. Many dishes are associated with Bahamian cuisine , which reflects Caribbean, African and European influences. Some settlements have festivals associated with the traditional crop or food of that area, such as the "Pineapple Fest" in Gregory Town, Eleuthera or the "Crab Fest" on Andros. Other significant traditions include story telling . Bahamians have created a rich literature of poetry, short stories, plays and short fictional works. Common themes in these works are (1) an awareness of change, (2) a striving for sophistication, (3) a search for identity, (4) nostalgia for the old ways and (5) an appreciation of beauty. Some contributing writers are Susan Wallace, Percival Miller, Robert Johnson, Raymond Brown, O.M. Smith, William Johnson, Eddie Minnis and Winston Saunders. Bahamas culture is rich with beliefs, traditions, folklore and legend. The most well-known folklore and legends in the Bahamas includes Lusca in Andros Bahamas, Pretty Molly on Exuma Bahamas, the Chickcharnies of Andro Bahamas, and the Lost City of Atlantis on Bimini Bahamas. Sport [ edit ] Sport is a significant part of Bahamian culture. The national sport is cricket . Cricket has been played in the Bahamas from 1846, the oldest sport being played in the country today. The Bahamas Cricket Association was formed in 1936, and from the 1940s to the 1970s, cricket was played amongst many Bahamians. Bahamas is not a part of the West Indies Cricket Board , so players are not eligible to play for the West Indies cricket team . The late 1970s saw the game begin to decline in the country as teachers, who had previously come from the United Kingdom with a passion for cricket, were replaced by teachers who had been trained in the United States. The Bahamian physical education teachers had no knowledge of the game and instead taught track and field , basketball , baseball , softball , volleyball and football where primary and high schools compete against each other. Today cricket is still enjoyed by a few locals and immigrants in the country usually from Jamaica , Guyana , Haiti and Barbados . Cricket is played on Saturdays and Sundays at Windsor Park and Haynes Oval. The only other sporting event that began before cricket was horse racing , which started in 1796. The most popular spectator sports are those imported from United States, such as basketball , American football and baseball , rather than from Great Britain, due to the country's close proximity to the United States, unlike their other Caribbean counterparts, where cricket , rugby , and netball have proven to be more popular. Dexter Cambridge , Rick Fox , Ian Lockhart , Magnum Rolle , Buddy Hield and Deandre Ayton are a few Bahamians who joined Bahamian Mychal Thompson of the Los Angeles Lakers in the NBA ranks. Over the years American football has become much more popular than soccer , though not implemented in the high school system yet. Leagues for teens and adults have been developed by the Bahamas American Football Federation. However soccer, as it is commonly known in the country, is still a very popular sport amongst high school pupils. Leagues are governed by the Bahamas Football Association . Recently the Bahamian government has been working closely with Tottenham Hotspur of London to promote the sport in the country as well as promoting the Bahamas in the European market. In 2013 'Spurs' became the first Premier League club to play an exhibition match in the Bahamas, facing the Jamaican national team . Joe Lewis , the owner of the club, is based in the Bahamas. Other popular sports are swimming , tennis and boxing , where Bahamians have enjoyed some degree of success at the international level. Other sports such as golf , rugby league , rugby union , beach soccer , and netball are considered growing sports. Athletics , commonly known as 'track and field' in the country, is the most successful sport by far amongst Bahamians. Bahamians have a strong tradition in the sprints and jumps. Track and field is probably the most popular spectator sport in the country next to basketball due to their success over the years. Triathlons are gaining popularity in Nassau and the Family Islands. Bahamians have gone on to win numerous track and field medals at the Olympic Games , IAAF World Championships in Athletics , Commonwealth Games and Pan American Games . Frank Rutherford is the first athletics olympic medallist for the country. He won a bronze medal for triple jump during the 1992 Summer Olympics . Pauline Davis-Thompson , Debbie Ferguson , Chandra Sturrup , Savatheda Fynes and Eldece Clarke-Lewis teamed up for the first athletics Olympic Gold medal for the country when they won the 4 × 100 m relay at the 2000 Summer Olympics . They are affectionately known as the "Golden Girls". Tonique Williams-Darling became the first athletics individual Olympic gold medallist when she won the 400m sprint in 2004 Summer Olympics . In 2007, with the disqualification of Marion Jones , Pauline Davis-Thompson was advanced to the gold medal position in the 200 metres at the 2000 Olympics , predating William-Darling. The Bahamas were hosts of the first men's senior FIFA tournament to be staged in the Caribbean, the 2017 FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup . Education [ edit ] Main article: Education in the Bahamas According to 1995 estimates, 98.2% of the adult population is literate. [ citation needed ] In popular culture [ edit ] Scenes from the final Jaws film ( Jaws: The Revenge ) were filmed on a New Providence Island beach now known as "Jaws Beach". The fourth official James Bond film , Thunderball (1965), was partly filmed in Nassau , where much of the story is set. Eon Productions were to return for filming underwater sequences in the famously clear waters, even when a Bond film's story was set elsewhere; for example, for The Spy Who Loved Me (1977). The unofficial remake of Thunderball , Never Say Never Again (1983), was similarly partly filmed in the islands, though this version of the story was not as extensively set there. Zeus and Roxanne is a 1997 family comedy/adventure film directed by George T. Miller. It revolves around the friendship between the title characters, a dog and a dolphin, respectively. It stars Steve Guttenberg and Kathleen Quinlan. Parts of the Movie was filmed in Grand Bahama . Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest is a 2006 American fantasy swashbuckler film, the second installment of the Pirates of the Caribbean film series and the sequel to Pirates of the Caribbean. Parts of the movie was filmed in The Bahamas After the Sunset is a 2004 action comedy film starring Pierce Brosnan as Max Burdett, a master thief caught in a pursuit with FBI agent Stan Lloyd, played by Woody Harrelson. The film was directed by Brett Ratner and shot in the Bahamas. Into the Blue a 2005 American action-thriller film starring Paul Walker, Jessica Alba, Scott Caan, Ashley Scott, Josh Brolin, and James Frain. The film was directed by John Stockwell was filmed in the Bahamas Tyler Perry's Why Did I Get Married? is a 2007 American comedy-drama film adaptation written, produced, directed, and starring Tyler Perry. Parts of the film was filmed in Eleuthera The twenty-first official James Bond film , Casino Royale (2006), was in part set and filmed in the islands. The Beatles ' film Help! was filmed in part on New Providence Island and Paradise Island also in 1965. Nassau is featured in the 2013 video game Assassin's Creed IV: Black Flag as a pirate haven, housing the main protagonists. Historical pirates are encountered there such as Benjamin Hornigold , Edward Teach /Blackbeard, Charles Vane , "Calico" Jack Rackham , Anne Bonney and Mary Read . Notable residents [ edit ] Sidney Poitier (born 1927), Bahamian-American actor, film director, author, and diplomat Denis Shapovalov (born 1999), Israeli-Canadian tennis player Lexi Wilson (born 1991), Bahamian model and beauty pageant titleholder See also [ edit ] West Indies portal Caricom portal Commonwealth realms portal Bahamas portal New Spain portal Bahamas – Wikipedia book Outline of the Bahamas Index of Bahamas-related articles Bibliography of the Bahamas References [ edit ] Bibliography [ edit ] Horne, Gerald (2012). Negro Comrades of the Crown: African Americans and the British Empire Fight the U.S. Before Emancipation . NYU Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-4463-5 . Higham, Charles (1988). The Dutchess of Windsor: The Secret Life . McGraw Hill. ISBN 0471485233 . Further reading [ edit ] General history [ edit ] Cash Philip et al. (Don Maples, Alison Packer). The Making of The Bahamas: A History for Schools . London: Collins, 1978. Miller, Hubert W. The Colonization of The Bahamas, 1647–1670, The William and Mary Quarterly 2 no.1 (January 1945): 33–46. Craton, Michael. A History of The Bahamas . London: Collins, 1962. Craton, Michael and Saunders, Gail. Islanders in the Stream: A History of the Bahamian People . Athens: University of Georgia Press , 1992 Collinwood, Dean. "Columbus and the Discovery of Self," Weber Studies , Vol. 9 No. 3 (Fall) 1992: 29–44. Dodge, Steve. Abaco: The History of an Out Island and its Cays , Tropic Isle Publications, 1983. Dodge, Steve. The Compleat Guide to Nassau , White Sound Press, 1987. Boultbee, Paul G. The Bahamas. Oxford: ABC-Clio Press, 1990. Wood, David E., comp., A Guide to Selected Sources to the History of the Seminole Settlements of Red Bays, Andros, 1817–1980 , Nassau: Department of Archives Economic history [ edit ] Johnson, Howard. The Bahamas in Slavery and Freedom . Kingston: Ian Randle Publishing, 1991. Johnson, Howard. The Bahamas from Slavery to Servitude, 1783–1933 . Gainesville: University of Florida Press , 1996. Alan A. Block. Masters of Paradise , New Brunswick and London, Transaction Publishers, 1998. Storr, Virgil H. Enterprising Slaves and Master Pirates: Understanding Economic Life in the Bahamas . New York: Peter Lang , 2004. Social history [ edit ] Johnson, Wittington B. Race Relations in the Bahamas, 1784–1834: The Nonviolent Transformation from a Slave to a Free Society , Fayetteville: University of Arkansas , 2000. Shirley, Paul. "Tek Force Wid Force", History Today 54, no. 41 (April 2004): 30–35. Saunders, Gail. The Social Life in the Bahamas 1880s–1920s . Nassau: Media Publishing, 1996. Saunders, Gail. Bahamas Society After Emancipation . Kingston: Ian Randle Publishing, 1990. Curry, Jimmy. Filthy Rich Gangster/First Bahamian Movie . Movie Mogul Pictures: 1996. Curry, Jimmy. To the Rescue/First Bahamian Rap/Hip Hop Song . Royal Crown Records, 1985. Collinwood, Dean. The Bahamas Between Worlds , White Sound Press, 1989. Collinwood, Dean and Steve Dodge. Modern Bahamian Society , Caribbean Books, 1989. Dodge, Steve, Robert McIntire and Dean Collinwood. The Bahamas Index , White Sound Press, 1989. Collinwood, Dean. "The Bahamas," in The Whole World Handbook 1992–1995 , 12th ed., New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994. Collinwood, Dean. "The Bahamas," chapters in Jack W. Hopkins, ed., Latin American and Caribbean Contemporary Record , Vols. 1,2,3,4, Holmes and Meier Publishers, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1986. Collinwood, Dean. "Problems of Research and Training in Small Islands with a Social Science Faculty," in Social Science in Latin America and the Caribbean , UNESCO, No. 48, 1982. Collinwood, Dean and Rick Phillips, "The National Literature of the New Bahamas," Weber Studies , Vol.7, No. 1 (Spring) 1990: 43–62. Collinwood, Dean. "Writers, Social Scientists and Sexual Norms in the Caribbean," Tsuda Review , No. 31 (November) 1986: 45–57. Collinwood, Dean. "Terra Incognita: Research on the Modern Bahamian Society," Journal of Caribbean Studies, Vol. 1, Nos. 2–3 (Winter) 1981: 284–297. Collinwood, Dean and Steve Dodge. "Political Leadership in the Bahamas," The Bahamas Research Institute, No.1, May 1987. External links [ edit ] Official website Wikimedia Atlas of Bahamas "Bahamas" . The World Factbook . Central Intelligence Agency . The Bahamas from UCB Libraries GovPubs The Bahamas at Curlie (based on DMOZ ) The Bahamas from the BBC News Key Development Forecasts for The Bahamas from International Futures Maps of the Bahamas from the American Geographical Society Library

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what is the current population of the bahamas

The Bahamas has an estimated population of 391,232, of which 25.9 % are under 14, 67.2 % 15 to 64 and 6.9 % over 65. It has a population growth rate of 0.925 % (2010), with a birth rate of 17.81 / 1,000 population, death rate of 9.35 / 1,000, and net migration rate of − 2.13 migrant (s) / 1,000 population. The infant mortality rate is 23.21 deaths / 1,000 live births. Residents have a life expectancy at birth of 69.87 years : 73.49 years for females, 66.32 years for males. The total fertility rate is 2.0 children born / woman (2010).

['united states of america (usa)', 'in north america between canada and mexico', 'the united states of america (usa)', 'north america', '3.8 million square miles (9.8 million km2)', '50', 'north america between canada and mexico']

báwo ni iye àwọn èèyàn tó wà ní bahamas ṣe pọ̀ tó báyìí

No

['Apapo iye aala ile re je 13,939\xa0km2 (5,382 sq. mi.), pelu idiye olugbe to to 330,000.']

['Apapo idiye olugbe to 330,000.']

['P1']

Àwọn Bàhámà (pípè /ðə bəˈhɑːməz/ ( listen ) ) tabi lonibise bi Orílẹ̀-èdè Àjọni ilẹ̀ awọn Bàhámà , je orile-ede elede Geesi to ni awon erekusu 29, 661 cays , ati 2,387 erekusu kekere 2,387 (apata). O budo si inu Okun Atlantiki ni ariwa Kuba ati Hispaniola ( Dominiki Olominira ati Haiti ), ariwaiwoorun awon Erekusu Turks ati Caicos , ati guusuilaorun orile-ede Awon Ipinle Aparapo ile Amerika (nitosi ipinle Florida ). Apapo iye aala ile re je 13,939 km 2 (5,382 sq. mi.), pelu idiye olugbe to to 330,000. Oluilu re ni Nassau . Bi jeografi, awon Bahama wa ni asopo erekusu kanna bi Kuba , Hispaniola ( Dominiki Olominira ati Haiti ) ati Awon Erekusu Turks ati Caicos . Awon onibudo ibe tele ni awon Taino ti Arawaka , awon Bahama ni ibi ti Columbus koko gunle si ni Ile Aye Tuntun ni 1492. Botilejepe awon ara Spein ko se amunisin awon Bahama, won ko awon Lucaya abinibi ibe (eyi ni oruko ti awon Taino Bahama unpe ara won) lo si oko eru ni Hispaniola. Lati 1513 de 1650 enikankan ko gbe ori awon erekusu yi, ko to di pe awon olumunisin ara Britani lati Bermuda tedo si erekusu Eleuthera . Itoka [ àtúnṣe | àtúnṣe àmìọ̀rọ̀ ]

"Bahama" and "Bahamas" redirect here. For other uses, see Bahama (disambiguation) . Coordinates : 24°15′N 76°00′W  /  24.250°N 76.000°W  / 24.250; -76.000 The Bahamas ( / b ə ˈ h ɑː m ə z / ( listen ) ), known officially as the Commonwealth of The Bahamas , is a country within the Lucayan Archipelago . The archipelagic state consists of more than 700 islands , cays , and islets in the Atlantic Ocean , and is located north of Cuba and Hispaniola ( Haiti and the Dominican Republic ), northwest of the Turks and Caicos Islands , southeast of the United States state of Florida , and east of the Florida Keys . The capital is Nassau on the island of New Providence . The designation of "the Bahamas" can refer either to the country or to the larger island chain that it shares with the Turks and Caicos Islands . The Royal Bahamas Defence Force describes the Bahamas territory as encompassing 470,000 km 2 (180,000 sq mi) of ocean space. The Bahamas is the site of Columbus 's first landfall in the New World in 1492. At that time, the islands were inhabited by the Lucayan , a branch of the Arawakan -speaking Taino people. Although the Spanish never colonised The Bahamas, they shipped the native Lucayans to slavery in Hispaniola. The islands were mostly deserted from 1513 until 1648, when English colonists from Bermuda settled on the island of Eleuthera . The Bahamas became a British crown colony in 1718, when the British clamped down on piracy . After the American War of Independence , the Crown resettled thousands of American Loyalists in the Bahamas; they brought their slaves with them and established plantations on land grants. Africans constituted the majority of the population from this period. The slave trade was abolished by the British in 1807; slavery in the Bahamas was abolished in 1834. Subsequently, the Bahamas became a haven for freed African slaves; the Royal Navy resettled Africans there liberated from illegal slave ships, North American slaves and Seminoles escaped here from Florida, and the government freed slaves carried on US domestic ships that had reached the Bahamas due to weather. Today, Afro-Bahamians make up nearly 90% of the population. The sovereign state of the Bahamas became an independent Commonwealth realm in 1973, retaining the British monarch, then and currently Queen Elizabeth II , as its head of state. In terms of gross domestic product per capita, The Bahamas is one of the richest countries in the Americas (following the United States and Canada), with an economy based on tourism and finance. Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2.1 18th–19th centuries 2.2 20th century 2.3 Post-Second World War 3 Geography 3.1 Castaway Cay 3.2 Climate 4 Geology 5 Government and politics 5.1 Political culture 5.2 Foreign relations 5.3 Armed forces 5.4 Administrative divisions 5.5 National flag 5.6 Coat of arms 5.7 National flower 6 Economy 6.1 Tourism 6.2 Financial services 6.3 Agriculture 7 Demographics 7.1 Racial and ethnic groups 7.2 Languages 7.3 Religion 8 Culture 8.1 Sport 9 Education 10 See also 11 References 12 Further reading 12.1 General history 12.2 Economic history 12.3 Social history 13 External links Etymology [ edit ] The name Bahamas is most likely derived from either the Taíno ba ha ma ("big upper middle land"), which was a term for the region used by the indigenous Native Americans, or possibly from the Spanish baja mar ("shallow water or sea" or " low tide ") reflecting the shallow waters of the area. Alternatively, it may originate from Guanahani , a local name of unclear meaning. A peculiarity of the name is that the word The is a formal part of the abbreviated name and is, therefore, capitalised. So in contrast to "the Congo" and "the United Kingdom", it is proper to write "The Bahamas". History [ edit ] Main article: History of The Bahamas A depiction of Columbus's first landing, claiming possession of the New World for Spain in caravels ; the Niña and the Pinta , on Watling Island, an island of The Bahamas that the natives called Guanahani and that he named San Salvador , on 12 October 1492. Taino people moved into the uninhabited southern Bahamas from Hispaniola and Cuba around the 11th century, having migrated there from South America. They came to be known as the Lucayan people . An estimated 30,000 Lucayan inhabited the Bahamas at the time of Christopher Columbus 's arrival in 1492. Columbus's first landfall in the New World was on an island he named San Salvador (known to the Lucayan as Guanahani ). Some researchers believe this site to be present-day San Salvador Island (formerly known as Watling's Island), situated in the southeastern Bahamas. An alternative theory holds that Columbus landed to the southeast on Samana Cay , according to calculations made in 1986 by National Geographic writer and editor Joseph Judge , based on Columbus's log. Evidence in support of this remains inconclusive. On the landfall island, Columbus made first contact with the Lucayan and exchanged goods with them. The Spanish forced much of the Lucayan population to Hispaniola for use as forced labour. The slaves suffered from harsh conditions and most died from contracting diseases to which they had no immunity ; half of the Taino died from smallpox alone. The population of the Bahamas was severely diminished. In 1648, the Eleutherian Adventurers , led by William Sayle , migrated from Bermuda. These English Puritans established the first permanent European settlement on an island which they named Eleuthera —the name derives from the Greek word for freedom. They later settled New Providence , naming it Sayle's Island after one of their leaders. To survive, the settlers salvaged goods from wrecks . In 1670, King Charles II granted the islands to the Lords Proprietors of the Carolinas in North America. They rented the islands from the king with rights of trading, tax, appointing governors , and administering the country. In 1684 Spanish corsair Juan de Alcon raided the capital , Charles Town (later renamed Nassau ). In 1703, a joint Franco-Spanish expedition briefly occupied the Bahamian capital during the War of the Spanish Succession . 18th–19th centuries [ edit ] Sign at Bill Baggs Cape Florida State Park commemorating hundreds of African-American slaves who escaped to freedom in the early 1820s in the Bahamas Beach in Nassau, Bahamas . The lighthouse in Great Isaac Cay . During proprietary rule, the Bahamas became a haven for pirates , including the infamous Blackbeard ( circa 1680–1718). To put an end to the ' Pirates' republic ' and restore orderly government, Great Britain made the Bahamas a crown colony in 1718 under the royal governorship of Woodes Rogers . After a difficult struggle, he succeeded in suppressing piracy. In 1720, Rogers led local militia to drive off a Spanish attack . During the US War of Independence in the late 18th century, the islands became a target for US naval forces under the command of Commodore Esek Hopkins . US Marines occupied the capital of Nassau for a fortnight . In 1782, following the British defeat at Yorktown , a Spanish fleet appeared off the coast of Nassau. The city surrendered without a fight . Spain returned possession of the Bahamas to Great Britain the following year, under the terms of the Treaty of Paris . Before the news was received, however, the islands were recaptured by a small British force led by Andrew Deveaux . After US independence, the British resettled some 7,300 Loyalists with their slaves in the Bahamas, including two thousand from New York and at least 1,033 whites, 2,214 blacks and a few Creeks from East Florida . Most of the refugees resettled from New York had fled from other colonies, including West Florida , which the Spanish captured during the war. The government granted land to the planters to help compensate for losses on the continent. These Loyalists, who included Deveaux, established plantations on several islands and became a political force in the capital. European Americans were outnumbered by the African-American slaves they brought with them, and ethnic Europeans remained a minority in the territory. In 1807, the British abolished the slave trade , followed by the United States the next year. During the following decades, the Royal Navy intercepted the trade; they resettled in the Bahamas thousands of Africans liberated from slave ships. In the 1820s during the period of the Seminole Wars in Florida, hundreds of North American slaves and African Seminoles escaped from Cape Florida to the Bahamas. They settled mostly on northwest Andros Island , where they developed the village of Red Bays. From eyewitness accounts, 300 escaped in a mass flight in 1823, aided by Bahamians in 27 sloops , with others using canoes for the journey. This was commemorated in 2004 by a large sign at Bill Baggs Cape Florida State Park . Some of their descendants in Red Bays continue African Seminole traditions in basket making and grave marking. The United States' National Park Service , which administers the National Underground Railroad Network to Freedom, is working with the African Bahamian Museum and Research Center (ABAC) in Nassau on development to identify Red Bays as a site related to North American slaves' search for freedom. The museum has researched and documented the African Seminoles' escape from southern Florida. It plans to develop interpretive programs at historical sites in Red Bay associated with the period of their settlement in the Bahamas. In 1818, the Home Office in London had ruled that "any slave brought to the Bahamas from outside the British West Indies would be manumitted." This led to a total of nearly 300 slaves owned by US nationals being freed from 1830 to 1835. The American slave ships Comet and Encomium used in the United States domestic coastwise slave trade , were wrecked off Abaco Island in December 1830 and February 1834, respectively. When wreckers took the masters, passengers and slaves into Nassau, customs officers seized the slaves and British colonial officials freed them, over the protests of the Americans. There were 165 slaves on the Comet and 48 on the Encomium . The United Kingdom finally paid an indemnity to the United States in those two cases in 1855, under the Treaty of Claims of 1853, which settled several compensation cases between the two countries. Slavery was abolished in the British Empire on 1 August 1834. After that British colonial officials freed 78 North American slaves from the Enterprise , which went into Bermuda in 1835; and 38 from the Hermosa , which wrecked off Abaco Island in 1840. The most notable case was that of the Creole in 1841: as a result of a slave revolt on board, the leaders ordered the US brig to Nassau. It was carrying 135 slaves from Virginia destined for sale in New Orleans . The Bahamian officials freed the 128 slaves who chose to stay in the islands. The Creole case has been described as the "most successful slave revolt in U.S. history". These incidents, in which a total of 447 slaves belonging to US nationals were freed from 1830 to 1842, increased tension between the United States and the United Kingdom . They had been co-operating in patrols to suppress the international slave trade. However, worried about the stability of its large domestic slave trade and its value, the United States argued that the United Kingdom should not treat its domestic ships that came to its colonial ports under duress, as part of the international trade. The United States worried that the success of the Creole slaves in gaining freedom would encourage more slave revolts on merchant ships. 20th century [ edit ] The Duke of Windsor and Governor of the Bahamas from 1940 to 1945 In August 1940, the Duke of Windsor was appointed Governor of the Bahamas . He arrived in the colony with his wife, the Duchess . Although disheartened at the condition of Government House, they "tried to make the best of a bad situation". He did not enjoy the position, and referred to the islands as "a third-class British colony". He opened the small local parliament on 29 October 1940. The couple visited the "Out Islands" that November, on Axel Wenner-Gren 's yacht, which caused controversy; the British Foreign Office strenuously objected because they had been advised (mistakenly) by United States intelligence that Wenner-Gren was a close friend of the Luftwaffe commander Hermann Göring of Nazi Germany. The Duke was praised at the time for his efforts to combat poverty on the islands. A 1991 biography by Philip Ziegler, however, described him as contemptuous of the Bahamians and other non-European peoples of the Empire. He was praised for his resolution of civil unrest over low wages in Nassau in June 1942, when there was a "full-scale riot". Ziegler said that the Duke blamed the trouble on "mischief makers – communists " and "men of Central European Jewish descent, who had secured jobs as a pretext for obtaining a deferment of draft". The Duke resigned from the post on 16 March 1945. Post-Second World War [ edit ] Sign at the entrance of the Sir Roland Symonette Park in North Eleuthera district commemorating Sir Roland Theodore Symonette , the Bahamas' first Premier Modern political development began after the Second World War . The first political parties were formed in the 1950s. The British Parliament authorised the islands as internally self-governing in 1964, with Sir Roland Symonette , of the United Bahamian Party , as the first Premier. A new constitution granting the Bahamas internal autonomy went into effect on 7 January 1964. In 1967, Lynden Pindling of the Progressive Liberal Party , became the first native born Premier of the majority native Bahamian colony; in 1968 the title of the position was changed to Prime Minister . In 1968, Pindling announced that the Bahamas would seek full independence. A new constitution giving the Bahamas increased control over its own affairs was adopted in 1968. The British House of Lords voted to give the Bahamas its independence on 22 June 1973. Prince Charles delivered the official documents to Prime Minister Lynden Pindling , officially declaring the Bahamas a fully independent nation on 10 July 1973. It joined the Commonwealth of Nations on the same day. Sir Milo Butler was appointed the first Governor-General of the Bahamas (the official representative of Queen Elizabeth II ) shortly after independence. The Bahamas joined the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank on 22 August 1973, and it joined the United Nations on 18 September 1973. Based on the twin pillars of tourism and offshore finance , the Bahamian economy has prospered since the 1950s. Significant challenges in areas such as education, health care, housing, international narcotics trafficking and illegal immigration from Haiti continue to be issues. The University of The Bahamas (UB) is the national higher education/tertiary system. Offering baccalaureate, masters and associate degrees, UB has three campuses, and teaching and research centres throughout the Bahamas. The University of The Bahamas was chartered on 10 November 2016. Geography [ edit ] Main article: Geography of the Bahamas The Bahamas from space. NASA Aqua satellite image, 2009 The country lies between latitudes 20° and 28°N , and longitudes 72° and 80°W . In 1864, the Governor of the Bahamas reported that there were 29 islands, 661 cays, and 2,387 rocks in the colony. The closest island to the United States is Bimini , which is also known as the gateway to the Bahamas. The island of Abaco is to the east of Grand Bahama . The southeasternmost island is Inagua . The largest island is Andros Island . Other inhabited islands include Eleuthera , Cat Island , Rum Cay , Long Island , San Salvador Island , Ragged Island , Acklins , Crooked Island , Exuma , Berry Islands and Mayaguana . Nassau , capital city of the Bahamas, lies on the island of New Providence . All the islands are low and flat, with ridges that usually rise no more than 15 to 20 m (49 to 66 ft). The highest point in the country is Mount Alvernia (formerly Como Hill) on Cat Island. It has an elevation of 63 metres (207 ft). Damaged homes in the Bahamas in the aftermath of Hurricane Wilma in 2005 To the southeast, the Turks and Caicos Islands , and three more extensive submarine features called Mouchoir Bank , Silver Bank and Navidad Bank , are geographically a continuation of the Bahamas. Castaway Cay [ edit ] Main article: Castaway Cay Disney has its own private island in the Bahamas called Castaway Cay . It is located near Great Abaco Island and was formerly known as Gorda Cay. In 1997, The Walt Disney Company purchased a 99-year land lease for the cay from the Bahamian government, set to expire in 2096. Climate [ edit ] See also: Geography of the Bahamas § Climate The climate of the Bahamas is tropical savannah climate or Aw according to Köppen climate classification . The low latitude, warm tropical Gulf Stream , and low elevation give the Bahamas a warm and winterless climate. As such, there has never been a frost or freeze reported in the Bahamas, although every few decades low temperatures can fall below 10 °C (50 °F) for a few hours when a severe cold outbreak comes off the North American mainland. There is only an 8 °C difference between the warmest month and coolest month in most of the Bahama islands. As with most tropical climates, seasonal rainfall follows the sun, and summer is the wettest season. The Bahamas are often sunny and dry for long periods of time, and average more than 3,000 hours or 340 days of sunlight annually. Tropical storms and hurricanes can on occasion impact the Bahamas. In 1992, Hurricane Andrew passed over the northern portions of the islands, and Hurricane Floyd passed near the eastern portions of the islands in 1999. hide Climate data for Nassau Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Average high °C (°F) 25.4 (77.7) 25.5 (77.9) 26.6 (79.9) 27.9 (82.2) 29.7 (85.5) 31.0 (87.8) 32.0 (89.6) 32.1 (89.8) 31.6 (88.9) 29.9 (85.8) 27.8 (82) 26.2 (79.2) 28.8 (83.9) Daily mean °C (°F) 21.4 (70.5) 21.4 (70.5) 22.3 (72.1) 23.8 (74.8) 25.6 (78.1) 27.2 (81) 28.0 (82.4) 28.1 (82.6) 27.7 (81.9) 26.2 (79.2) 24.2 (75.6) 22.3 (72.1) 24.8 (76.7) Average low °C (°F) 17.3 (63.1) 17.3 (63.1) 17.9 (64.2) 19.6 (67.3) 21.4 (70.5) 23.3 (73.9) 24.0 (75.2) 24.0 (75.2) 23.7 (74.7) 22.5 (72.5) 20.6 (69.1) 18.3 (64.9) 20.8 (69.5) Average precipitation mm (inches) 39.4 (1.551) 49.5 (1.949) 54.4 (2.142) 69.3 (2.728) 105.9 (4.169) 218.2 (8.591) 160.8 (6.331) 235.7 (9.28) 164.1 (6.461) 161.8 (6.37) 80.5 (3.169) 49.8 (1.961) 1,389.4 (54.701) Average precipitation days 8 6 7 8 10 15 17 19 17 15 10 8 140 Mean monthly sunshine hours 220.1 220.4 257.3 276.0 269.7 231.0 272.8 266.6 213.0 223.2 222.0 213.9 2,886 Source: World Meteorological Organization ( UN ), Hong Kong Observatory (sun only) Average Sea Temperature Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 23 °C 73 °F 23 °C 73 °F 24 °C 75 °F 26 °C 79 °F 27 °C 81 °F 28 °C 82 °F 28 °C 82 °F 28 °C 82 °F 28 °C 82 °F 27 °C 81 °F 26 °C 79 °F 24 °C 75 °F Geology [ edit ] Dean's Blue Hole in Clarence Town on Long Island, Bahamas . The Blue Lagoon Island , Bahamas. The Bahamas is part of the Lucayan Archipelago , which continues into the Turks and Caicos Islands, the Mouchoir Bank , the Silver Bank , and the Navidad Bank . The Bahamas Platform, which includes the Bahamas, Southern Florida, Northern Cuba, the Turks and Caicos, and the Blake Plateau , formed about 150 Ma , not long after the formation of the North Atlantic . The 6.4 km thick limestones , which predominately make up The Bahamas, date back to the Cretaceous . These limestones would have been deposited in shallow seas, assumed to be a stretched and thinned portion of the North American continental crust . Sediments were forming at about the same rate as the crust below was sinking due to the added weight. Thus, the entire area consisted of a large marine plain with some islands. Then, at about 80 Ma, the area became flooded by the Gulf Stream . This resulted in the drowning of the Blake Plateau, the separation of The Bahamas from Cuba and Florida, the separation of the southeastern Bahamas into separate banks, the creation of the Cay Sal Bank , plus the Little and Great Bahama Banks . Sedimentation from the "carbonate factory" of each bank, or atoll , continues today at the rate of about 2 cm per kyr . Coral reefs form the "retaining walls" of these atolls, within which oolites and pellets form. Coral growth was greater through the Tertiary , until the start of the Ice Ages , and hence those deposits are more abundant below a depth of 36 m. In fact, an ancient extinct reef exists half a km seaward of the present one, 30 m below sea level. Oolites form when oceanic water penetrate the shallow banks, increasing the temperature about 3 °C and the salinity by 0.5 per cent. Cemented ooids are referred to as grapestone. Additionally, giant stromatolites are found off the Exuma Cays . Sea level changes resulted in a drop in sea level, causing wind blown oolite to form sand dunes with distinct cross-bedding . Overlapping dunes form oolitic ridges, which become rapidly lithified through the action of rainwater, called eolianite . Most islands have ridges ranging from 30 to 45 m, though Cat Island has a ridge 60 m in height. The land between ridges is conducive to the formation of lakes and swamps. Solution weathering of the limestone results in a "Bahamian Karst " topography. This includes potholes , Blue holes such as Dean's Blue Hole , sinkholes , beachrock such as the Bimini Road ("pavements of Atlantis"), limestone crust , caves due to the lack of rivers, and sea caves . Several blue holes are aligned along the South Andros Fault line. Tidal flats and tidal creeks are common, but the more impressive drainage patterns are formed by troughs and canyons such as Great Bahama Canyon with the evidence of turbidity currents and turbidite deposition. The stratigraphy of the islands consists of the Middle Pleistocene Owl's Hole Formation , overlain by the Late Pleistocene Grotto Beach Formation, and then the Holocene Rice Bay Formation. However, these units are not necessarily stacked on top of each other but can be located laterally. The oldest formation, Owl's Hole, is capped by a terra rosa paleosoil , as is the Grotto Beach, unless eroded . The Grotto Beach Formation is the most widespread. Government and politics [ edit ] Main article: Politics of the Bahamas The Bahamian Parliament , located in Nassau The Bahamas is a parliamentary constitutional monarchy headed by Queen Elizabeth II in her role as Queen of the Bahamas. Political and legal traditions closely follow those of the United Kingdom and the Westminster system . The Bahamas is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations as a Commonwealth realm , retaining the Queen as head of state (represented by a Governor-General ). Legislative power is vested In a bicameral parliament , which consists of a 38-member House of Assembly (the lower house ), with members elected from single-member districts , and a 16-member Senate , with members appointed by the Governor-General, including nine on the advice of the Prime Minister, four on the advice of the Leader of Her Majesty's Loyal Opposition , and three on the advice of the Prime Minister after consultation with the Leader of the Opposition. The House of Assembly carries out all major legislative functions. As under the Westminster system, the Prime Minister may dissolve Parliament and call a general election at any time within a five-year term. The Prime Minister is the head of government and is the leader of the party with the most seats in the House of Assembly. Executive power is exercised by the Cabinet, selected by the Prime Minister and drawn from his supporters in the House of Assembly. The current Governor-General is Dame Marguerite Pindling , and the current Prime Minister is The Rt. Hon. Hubert Minnis MP . Constitutional safeguards include freedom of speech , press , worship , movement and association . The Judiciary of the Bahamas is independent of the executive and the legislature. Jurisprudence is based on English law . Political culture [ edit ] The Bahamas has a two-party system dominated by the centre-left Progressive Liberal Party and the centre-right Free National Movement . A handful of splinter parties have been unable to win election to parliament. These parties have included the Bahamas Democratic Movement , the Coalition for Democratic Reform, Bahamian Nationalist Party and the Democratic National Alliance . Foreign relations [ edit ] Further information: Foreign relations of the Bahamas The Bahamas has strong bilateral relationships with the United States and the United Kingdom , represented by an ambassador in Washington and High Commissioner in London . The Bahamas also associates closely with other nations of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM). Armed forces [ edit ] Main article: Royal Bahamas Defence Force HMBS Nassau (P-61) The Bahamanian military is the Royal Bahamas Defence Force (RBDF), the navy of the Bahamas which includes a land unit called Commando Squadron (Regiment) and an Air Wing (Air Force). Under the Defence Act, the RBDF has been mandated, in the name of the Queen , to defend the Bahamas, protect its territorial integrity, patrol its waters, provide assistance and relief in times of disaster, maintain order in conjunction with the law enforcement agencies of the Bahamas, and carry out any such duties as determined by the National Security Council. The Defence Force is also a member of the Caribbean Community ( CARICOM )'s Regional Security Task Force. The RBDF came into existence on 31 March 1980. Their duties include defending the Bahamas, stopping drug smuggling , illegal immigration and poaching, and providing assistance to mariners. The Defence Force has a fleet of 26 coastal and inshore patrol craft along with 3 aircraft and over 1,100 personnel including 65 officers and 74 women. Administrative divisions [ edit ] Main article: Local government in the Bahamas Districts of the Bahamas The districts of the Bahamas provide a system of local government everywhere except New Providence (which holds 70% of the national population), whose affairs are handled directly by the central government. In 1996, the Bahamian Parliament passed the "Local Government Act" to facilitate the establishment of Family Island Administrators, Local Government Districts, Local District Councillors and Local Town Committees for the various island communities. The overall goal of this act is to allow the various elected leaders to govern and oversee the affairs of their respective districts without the interference of Central Government. In total, there are 32 districts, with elections being held every five years. There are 110 Councillors and 281 Town Committee members are elected to represent the various districts. Each Councillor or Town Committee member is responsible for the proper use of public funds for the maintenance and development of their constituency. The Bahamas uses drive-on-the-Left traffic rules throughout the Commonwealth. The districts other than New Providence are: Acklins Berry Islands Bimini Black Point , Exuma Cat Island Central Abaco Central Andros Central Eleuthera City of Freeport, Grand Bahama Crooked Island East Grand Bahama Exuma Grand Cay , Abaco Harbour Island , Eleuthera Hope Town , Abaco Inagua Long Island Mangrove Cay , Andros Mayaguana Moore's Island , Abaco North Abaco North Andros North Eleuthera Ragged Island Rum Cay San Salvador South Abaco South Andros South Eleuthera Spanish Wells , Eleuthera West Grand Bahama National flag [ edit ] Main article: Flag of the Bahamas The national flag of the Bahamas The Bahamian flag was adopted in 1973. Its colours symbolise the strength of the Bahamian people; its design reflects aspects of the natural environment (sun and sea) and economic and social development. The flag is a black equilateral triangle against the mast, superimposed on a horizontal background made up of three equal stripes of aquamarine, gold and aquamarine. Coat of arms [ edit ] Main article: Coat of arms of the Bahamas Bahamian Coat of Arms The coat of arms of the Bahamas contains a shield with the national symbols as its focal point. The shield is supported by a marlin and a flamingo , which are the national animals of the Bahamas. The flamingo is located on the land, and the marlin on the sea, indicating the geography of the islands. On top of the shield is a conch shell, which represents the varied marine life of the island chain. The conch shell rests on a helmet. Below this is the actual shield, the main symbol of which is a ship representing the Santa María of Christopher Columbus, shown sailing beneath the sun. Along the bottom, below the shield appears a banner upon which is the national motto: "Forward, Upward, Onward Together." National flower [ edit ] The yellow elder was chosen as the national flower of the Bahamas because it is native to the Bahama islands, and it blooms throughout the year. Selection of the yellow elder over many other flowers was made through the combined popular vote of members of all four of New Providence's garden clubs of the 1970s—the Nassau Garden Club, the Carver Garden Club, the International Garden Club and the YWCA Garden Club. They reasoned that other flowers grown there—such as the bougainvillea , hibiscus and poinciana —had already been chosen as the national flowers of other countries. The yellow elder, on the other hand, was unclaimed by other countries (although it is now also the national flower of the United States Virgin Islands ) and also the yellow elder is native to the family islands. Economy [ edit ] Main article: Economy of the Bahamas By the terms of GDP per capita , the Bahamas is one of the richest countries in the Americas . It was revealed in the Panama Papers that The Bahamas is the jurisdiction with the most offshore entities or companies. Tourism [ edit ] The Atlantis Paradise Island in Nassau The Bahamas relies on tourism to generate most of its economic activity. Tourism as an industry not only accounts for over 60% of the Bahamian GDP, but provides jobs for more than half the country's workforce. The Bahamas attracted 5.8 million visitors in 2012, more than 70% of whom were cruise visitors. Financial services [ edit ] After tourism, the next most important economic sector is banking and offshore international financial services , accounting for some 15% of GDP. The government has adopted incentives to encourage foreign financial business, and further banking and finance reforms are in progress. The government plans to merge the regulatory functions of key financial institutions, including the Central Bank of the Bahamas (CBB) and the Securities and Exchange Commission. [ citation needed ] The Central Bank administers restrictions and controls on capital and money market instruments. The Bahamas International Securities Exchange consists of 19 listed public companies. Reflecting the relative soundness of the banking system (mostly populated by Canadian banks), the impact of the global financial crisis on the financial sector has been limited. [ citation needed ] A proportional representation of the Bahamas exports. The economy has a very competitive tax regime (classified as a tax haven ). The government derives its revenue from import tariffs, VAT , licence fees, property and stamp taxes, but there is no income tax, corporate tax, capital gains tax, or wealth tax. Payroll taxes fund social insurance benefits and amount to 3.9% paid by the employee and 5.9% paid by the employer. In 2010, overall tax revenue as a percentage of GDP was 17.2%. Agriculture [ edit ] Further information: Agriculture in the Bahamas Agriculture is the third largest sector of the Bahamian economy, representing 5–7% of total GDP. An estimated 80% of the Bahamian food supply is imported. Major crops include onions , okra , tomatoes , oranges , grapefruit , cucumbers , sugar cane , lemons , limes , and sweet potatoes . Demographics [ edit ] Main article: Demographics of the Bahamas The Bahamas has an estimated population of 391,232, of which 25.9% are under 14, 67.2% 15 to 64 and 6.9% over 65. It has a population growth rate of 0.925% (2010), with a birth rate of 17.81/1,000 population, death rate of 9.35/1,000, and net migration rate of −2.13 migrant(s)/1,000 population. The infant mortality rate is 23.21 deaths/1,000 live births. Residents have a life expectancy at birth of 69.87 years: 73.49 years for females, 66.32 years for males. The total fertility rate is 2.0 children born/woman (2010). The most populous islands are New Providence, where Nassau, the capital and largest city, is located; and Grand Bahama, home to the second largest city of Freeport . Racial and ethnic groups [ edit ] According to the 99% response rate obtained from the race question on the 2010 Census questionnaire, 90.6% of the population identified themselves as being Black, 4.7% White and 2.1% of a mixed race (Black and White). Three centuries prior, in 1722 when the first official census of the Bahamas was taken, 74% of the population was White and 26% Black. Afro-Bahamian children at a local school Since the colonial era of plantations, Africans or Afro-Bahamians have been the largest ethnic group in the Bahamas, whose primary ancestry was based in West Africa . The first Africans to arrive to the Bahamas were freed slaves from Bermuda ; they arrived with the Eleutheran Adventurers looking for new lives. The Haitian community in the Bahamas is also largely of African descent and numbers about 80,000. Due to an extremely high immigration of Haitians to the Bahamas, the Bahamian government started deporting illegal Haitian immigrants to their homeland in late 2014. The White Bahamian population are mainly the descendants of the English Puritans looking to flee religious persecution in England and American Loyalists escaping the American Revolution who arrived in 1649 and 1783, respectively. Many Southern Loyalists went to the Abaco Islands , half of whose population was of European descent as of 1985. The term white is usually used to identify Bahamians with Anglo ancestry, as well as "light-skinned" Afro-Bahamians. Sometimes Bahamians use the term Conchy Joe to describe people of Anglo descent. A small portion of the Euro-Bahamian population is descended from Greek labourers who came to help develop the sponging industry in the 1900s. They make up less than 1% of the nation's population, but have still preserved their distinct Greek Bahamian culture. [ citation needed ] Bahamians typically identify themselves simply as either black or white . Languages [ edit ] The official language of the Bahamas is English. Many people speak an English-based creole language called Bahamian dialect (known simply as "dialect") or "Bahamianese." Laurente Gibbs, a Bahamian writer and actor, was the first to coin the latter name in a poem and has since promoted its usage. Both are used as autoglossonyms. Haitian Creole , a French-based creole language is spoken by Haitians and their descendants, who make up of about 25% of the total population. It is known simply as Creole to differentiate it from Bahamian English. Also note that the Bahamas was once under British rule and therefore the English taught in the Bahamian schools is still "British-based". Religion [ edit ] Further information: Religion in the Bahamas Religion in the Bahamas (2010) Protestant (80%) Roman Catholic (14.5%) Other Christian (1.3%) Unaffiliated (3.1%) Other religion (1.1%) According to International Religious Freedom Report 2008 prepared by United States Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor , the islands' population is predominantly Christian . Protestant denominations are widespread and collectively account for more than 70% of the population, with Baptists representing 35% of the population, Anglicans 15%, Pentecostals 8%, Church of God 5%, Seventh-day Adventists 5% and Methodists 4%. There is also a significant Roman Catholic community accounting for about 14%. There are also smaller communities of Jews , Muslims , Baha'is , Hindus , Rastafarians and practitioners of Obeah . Culture [ edit ] Main articles: Culture of the Bahamas and Music of the Bahamas Junkanoo celebration in Nassau In the less developed outer islands (or Family Islands), handicrafts include basketry made from palm fronds. This material, commonly called "straw", is plaited into hats and bags that are popular tourist items. Another use is for so-called "Voodoo dolls", even though such dolls are the result of foreign influences and not based in historic fact. A form of folk magic ( obeah ) is practised by some Bahamians, mainly in the Family Islands (out-islands) of the Bahamas. The practice of obeah is illegal in the Bahamas and punishable by law. Junkanoo is a traditional Afro-Bahamian street parade of 'rushing', music, dance and art held in Nassau (and a few other settlements) every Boxing Day and New Year's Day . Junkanoo is also used to celebrate other holidays and events such as Emancipation Day. Regattas are important social events in many family island settlements. They usually feature one or more days of sailing by old-fashioned work boats , as well as an onshore festival. Many dishes are associated with Bahamian cuisine , which reflects Caribbean, African and European influences. Some settlements have festivals associated with the traditional crop or food of that area, such as the "Pineapple Fest" in Gregory Town, Eleuthera or the "Crab Fest" on Andros. Other significant traditions include story telling . Bahamians have created a rich literature of poetry, short stories, plays and short fictional works. Common themes in these works are (1) an awareness of change, (2) a striving for sophistication, (3) a search for identity, (4) nostalgia for the old ways and (5) an appreciation of beauty. Some contributing writers are Susan Wallace, Percival Miller, Robert Johnson, Raymond Brown, O.M. Smith, William Johnson, Eddie Minnis and Winston Saunders . Bahamas culture is rich with beliefs, traditions, folklore and legend. The most well-known folklore and legends in the Bahamas includes Lusca in Andros Bahamas, Pretty Molly on Exuma Bahamas, the Chickcharnies of Andro Bahamas, and the Lost City of Atlantis on Bimini Bahamas. Sport [ edit ] Sport is a significant part of Bahamian culture. The national sport is cricket . Cricket has been played in the Bahamas from 1846, the oldest sport being played in the country today. The Bahamas Cricket Association was formed in 1936, and from the 1940s to the 1970s, cricket was played amongst many Bahamians. Bahamas is not a part of the West Indies Cricket Board , so players are not eligible to play for the West Indies cricket team . The late 1970s saw the game begin to decline in the country as teachers, who had previously come from the United Kingdom with a passion for cricket, were replaced by teachers who had been trained in the United States. The Bahamian physical education teachers had no knowledge of the game and instead taught track and field , basketball , baseball , softball , volleyball and football where primary and high schools compete against each other. Today cricket is still enjoyed by a few locals and immigrants in the country usually from Jamaica , Guyana , Haiti and Barbados . Cricket is played on Saturdays and Sundays at Windsor Park and Haynes Oval. The only other sporting event that began before cricket was horse racing , which started in 1796. The most popular spectator sports are those imported from United States, such as basketball , American football and baseball , rather than from Great Britain, due to the country's close proximity to the United States, unlike their other Caribbean counterparts, where cricket , rugby , and netball have proven to be more popular. Dexter Cambridge , Rick Fox , Ian Lockhart , Magnum Rolle , Buddy Hield and Deandre Ayton are a few Bahamians who joined Bahamian Mychal Thompson of the Los Angeles Lakers in the NBA ranks. Over the years American football has become much more popular than soccer , though not implemented in the high school system yet. Leagues for teens and adults have been developed by the Bahamas American Football Federation. However soccer, as it is commonly known in the country, is still a very popular sport amongst high school pupils. Leagues are governed by the Bahamas Football Association . Recently the Bahamian government has been working closely with Tottenham Hotspur of London to promote the sport in the country as well as promoting the Bahamas in the European market. In 2013 'Spurs' became the first Premier League club to play an exhibition match in the Bahamas, facing the Jamaican national team . Joe Lewis , the owner of the club, is based in the Bahamas. Other popular sports are swimming , tennis and boxing , where Bahamians have enjoyed some degree of success at the international level. Other sports such as golf , rugby league , rugby union , beach soccer , and netball are considered growing sports. Athletics , commonly known as 'track and field' in the country, is the most successful sport by far amongst Bahamians. Bahamians have a strong tradition in the sprints and jumps. Track and field is probably the most popular spectator sport in the country next to basketball due to their success over the years. Triathlons are gaining popularity in Nassau and the Family Islands. Bahamians have gone on to win numerous track and field medals at the Olympic Games , IAAF World Championships in Athletics , Commonwealth Games and Pan American Games . Frank Rutherford is the first athletics olympic medallist for the country. He won a bronze medal for triple jump during the 1992 Summer Olympics . Pauline Davis-Thompson , Debbie Ferguson , Chandra Sturrup , Savatheda Fynes and Eldece Clarke-Lewis teamed up for the first athletics Olympic Gold medal for the country when they won the 4 × 100 m relay at the 2000 Summer Olympics . They are affectionately known as the "Golden Girls". Tonique Williams-Darling became the first athletics individual Olympic gold medallist when she won the 400m sprint in 2004 Summer Olympics . In 2007, with the disqualification of Marion Jones , Pauline Davis-Thompson was advanced to the gold medal position in the 200 metres at the 2000 Olympics , predating William-Darling. The Bahamas were hosts of the first men's senior FIFA tournament to be staged in the Caribbean, the 2017 FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup . Education [ edit ] Main article: Education in the Bahamas According to 1995 estimates, 98.2% of the Bahamian adult population is literate. [ citation needed ] See also [ edit ] Bahamas portal New Spain portal Outline of the Bahamas Index of Bahamas-related articles Bahamas – Wikipedia book References [ edit ] Bibliography Horne, Gerald (2012). Negro Comrades of the Crown: African Americans and the British Empire Fight the U.S. Before Emancipation . NYU Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-4463-5 . Higham, Charles (1988). The Dutchess of Windsor: The Secret Life . McGraw Hill. ISBN 0471485233 . Further reading [ edit ] Main article: Bibliography of the Bahamas General history [ edit ] Cash Philip et al. (Don Maples, Alison Packer). The Making of The Bahamas: A History for Schools . London: Collins, 1978. Miller, Hubert W. The Colonization of The Bahamas, 1647–1670, The William and Mary Quarterly 2 no.1 (January 1945): 33–46. Craton, Michael. A History of The Bahamas . London: Collins, 1962. Craton, Michael and Saunders, Gail. Islanders in the Stream: A History of the Bahamian People . Athens: University of Georgia Press , 1992 Collinwood, Dean. "Columbus and the Discovery of Self," Weber Studies , Vol. 9 No. 3 (Fall) 1992: 29–44. Dodge, Steve. Abaco: The History of an Out Island and its Cays , Tropic Isle Publications, 1983. Dodge, Steve. The Compleat Guide to Nassau , White Sound Press, 1987. Boultbee, Paul G. The Bahamas. Oxford: ABC-Clio Press, 1990. Wood, David E., comp., A Guide to Selected Sources to the History of the Seminole Settlements of Red Bays, Andros, 1817–1980 , Nassau: Department of Archives Economic history [ edit ] Johnson, Howard. The Bahamas in Slavery and Freedom . Kingston: Ian Randle Publishing, 1991. Johnson, Howard. The Bahamas from Slavery to Servitude, 1783–1933 . Gainesville: University of Florida Press , 1996. Alan A. Block. Masters of Paradise , New Brunswick and London, Transaction Publishers, 1998. Storr, Virgil H. Enterprising Slaves and Master Pirates: Understanding Economic Life in the Bahamas . New York: Peter Lang , 2004. Social history [ edit ] Johnson, Wittington B. Race Relations in the Bahamas, 1784–1834: The Nonviolent Transformation from a Slave to a Free Society , Fayetteville: University of Arkansas , 2000. Shirley, Paul. "Tek Force Wid Force", History Today 54, no. 41 (April 2004): 30–35. Saunders, Gail. The Social Life in the Bahamas 1880s–1920s . Nassau: Media Publishing, 1996. Saunders, Gail. Bahamas Society After Emancipation . Kingston: Ian Randle Publishing, 1990. Curry, Jimmy. Filthy Rich Gangster/First Bahamian Movie . Movie Mogul Pictures: 1996. Curry, Jimmy. To the Rescue/First Bahamian Rap/Hip Hop Song . Royal Crown Records, 1985. Collinwood, Dean. The Bahamas Between Worlds , White Sound Press, 1989. Collinwood, Dean and Steve Dodge. Modern Bahamian Society , Caribbean Books, 1989. Dodge, Steve, Robert McIntire and Dean Collinwood. The Bahamas Index , White Sound Press, 1989. Collinwood, Dean. "The Bahamas," in The Whole World Handbook 1992–1995 , 12th ed., New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994. Collinwood, Dean. "The Bahamas," chapters in Jack W. Hopkins, ed., Latin American and Caribbean Contemporary Record , Vols. 1,2,3,4, Holmes and Meier Publishers, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1986. Collinwood, Dean. "Problems of Research and Training in Small Islands with a Social Science Faculty," in Social Science in Latin America and the Caribbean , UNESCO, No. 48, 1982. Collinwood, Dean and Rick Phillips, "The National Literature of the New Bahamas," Weber Studies , Vol.7, No. 1 (Spring) 1990: 43–62. Collinwood, Dean. "Writers, Social Scientists and Sexual Norms in the Caribbean," Tsuda Review , No. 31 (November) 1986: 45–57. Collinwood, Dean. "Terra Incognita: Research on the Modern Bahamian Society," Journal of Caribbean Studies, Vol. 1, Nos. 2–3 (Winter) 1981: 284–297. Collinwood, Dean and Steve Dodge. "Political Leadership in the Bahamas," The Bahamas Research Institute, No.1, May 1987. External links [ edit ] Official website Wikimedia Atlas of Bahamas "Bahamas" . The World Factbook . Central Intelligence Agency . The Bahamas from UCB Libraries GovPubs The Bahamas at Curlie The Bahamas from the BBC News Key Development Forecasts for The Bahamas from International Futures Maps of the Bahamas from the American Geographical Society Library

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what is the main language in the bahamas

The official language of the Bahamas is English. Many people speak an English - based creole language called Bahamian dialect (known simply as `` dialect '') or `` Bahamianese. '' Laurente Gibbs, a Bahamian writer and actor, was the first to coin the latter name in a poem and has since promoted its usage. Both are used as autoglossonyms. Haitian Creole, a French - based creole language is spoken by Haitians and their descendants, who make up of about 25 % of the total population. It is known simply as Creole to differentiate it from Bahamian English. Also note that the Bahamas was once under British rule and therefore the English taught in the Bahamian schools is still `` British - based ''.

['1496']

kí ni èdè tí ó gbajúmọ̀ jùlọ ní bahamas

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['Àwọn Bàhámà (pípè /ðə bəˈhɑːməz/ ( listen)) tabi lonibise bi Orílẹ̀-èdè Àjọni ilẹ̀ awọn Bàhámà, je orile-ede elede Geesi to ni awon erekusu 29, 661 cays, ati 2,387 erekusu kekere 2,387 (apata). ']

['Àwọn Bàhámà tabi lonibise bi Orílẹ̀-èdè Àjọni ilẹ̀ awọn Bàhámà, je orile-ede elede Geesi. ']

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Àwọn Bàhámà (pípè /ðə bəˈhɑːməz/ ( listen ) ) tabi lonibise bi Orílẹ̀-èdè Àjọni ilẹ̀ awọn Bàhámà , je orile-ede elede Geesi to ni awon erekusu 29, 661 cays , ati 2,387 erekusu kekere 2,387 (apata). O budo si inu Okun Atlantiki ni ariwa Kuba ati Hispaniola ( Dominiki Olominira ati Haiti ), ariwaiwoorun awon Erekusu Turks ati Caicos , ati guusuilaorun orile-ede Awon Ipinle Aparapo ile Amerika (nitosi ipinle Florida ). Apapo iye aala ile re je 13,939 km 2 (5,382 sq. mi.), pelu idiye olugbe to to 330,000. Oluilu re ni Nassau . Bi jeografi, awon Bahama wa ni asopo erekusu kanna bi Kuba , Hispaniola ( Dominiki Olominira ati Haiti ) ati Awon Erekusu Turks ati Caicos . Awon onibudo ibe tele ni awon Taino ti Arawaka , awon Bahama ni ibi ti Columbus koko gunle si ni Ile Aye Tuntun ni 1492. Botilejepe awon ara Spein ko se amunisin awon Bahama, won ko awon Lucaya abinibi ibe (eyi ni oruko ti awon Taino Bahama unpe ara won) lo si oko eru ni Hispaniola. Lati 1513 de 1650 enikankan ko gbe ori awon erekusu yi, ko to di pe awon olumunisin ara Britani lati Bermuda tedo si erekusu Eleuthera . Itoka [ àtúnṣe | àtúnṣe àmìọ̀rọ̀ ]

"Bahama" and "Bahamas" redirect here. For other uses, see Bahama (disambiguation) . Coordinates : 24°15′N 76°00′W  /  24.250°N 76.000°W  / 24.250; -76.000 The Bahamas ( / b ə ˈ h ɑː m ə z / ( listen ) ), known officially as the Commonwealth of The Bahamas , is a country within the Lucayan Archipelago . The archipelagic state consists of more than 700 islands , cays , and islets in the Atlantic Ocean , and is located north of Cuba and Hispaniola ( Haiti and the Dominican Republic ), northwest of the Turks and Caicos Islands , southeast of the United States state of Florida , and east of the Florida Keys . The capital is Nassau on the island of New Providence . The designation of "the Bahamas" can refer either to the country or to the larger island chain that it shares with the Turks and Caicos Islands . The Royal Bahamas Defence Force describes the Bahamas territory as encompassing 470,000 km 2 (180,000 sq mi) of ocean space. The Bahamas is the site of Columbus 's first landfall in the New World in 1492. At that time, the islands were inhabited by the Lucayan , a branch of the Arawakan -speaking Taino people. Although the Spanish never colonised The Bahamas, they shipped the native Lucayans to slavery in Hispaniola. The islands were mostly deserted from 1513 until 1648, when English colonists from Bermuda settled on the island of Eleuthera . The Bahamas became a British crown colony in 1718, when the British clamped down on piracy . After the American War of Independence , the Crown resettled thousands of American Loyalists in the Bahamas; they brought their slaves with them and established plantations on land grants. Africans constituted the majority of the population from this period. The slave trade was abolished by the British in 1807; slavery in the Bahamas was abolished in 1834. Subsequently, the Bahamas became a haven for freed African slaves; the Royal Navy resettled Africans there liberated from illegal slave ships, North American slaves and Seminoles escaped here from Florida, and the government freed slaves carried on US domestic ships that had reached the Bahamas due to weather. Today, Afro-Bahamians make up nearly 90% of the population. The sovereign state of the Bahamas became an independent Commonwealth realm in 1973, retaining the British monarch, then and currently Queen Elizabeth II , as its head of state. In terms of gross domestic product per capita, The Bahamas is one of the richest countries in the Americas (following the United States and Canada), with an economy based on tourism and finance. Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2.1 18th–19th centuries 2.2 20th century 2.3 Post-Second World War 3 Geography 3.1 Castaway Cay 3.2 Climate 4 Geology 5 Government and politics 5.1 Political culture 5.2 Foreign relations 5.3 Armed forces 5.4 Administrative divisions 5.5 National flag 5.6 Coat of arms 5.7 National flower 6 Economy 6.1 Tourism 6.2 Financial services 6.3 Agriculture 7 Demographics 7.1 Racial and ethnic groups 7.2 Languages 7.3 Religion 8 Culture 8.1 Sport 9 Education 10 See also 11 References 12 Further reading 12.1 General history 12.2 Economic history 12.3 Social history 13 External links Etymology [ edit ] The name Bahamas is most likely derived from either the Taíno ba ha ma ("big upper middle land"), which was a term for the region used by the indigenous Native Americans, or possibly from the Spanish baja mar ("shallow water or sea" or " low tide ") reflecting the shallow waters of the area. Alternatively, it may originate from Guanahani , a local name of unclear meaning. A peculiarity of the name is that the word The is a formal part of the abbreviated name and is, therefore, capitalised. So in contrast to "the Congo" and "the United Kingdom", it is proper to write "The Bahamas". History [ edit ] Main article: History of The Bahamas A depiction of Columbus's first landing, claiming possession of the New World for Spain in caravels ; the Niña and the Pinta , on Watling Island, an island of The Bahamas that the natives called Guanahani and that he named San Salvador , on 12 October 1492. Taino people moved into the uninhabited southern Bahamas from Hispaniola and Cuba around the 11th century, having migrated there from South America. They came to be known as the Lucayan people . An estimated 30,000 Lucayan inhabited the Bahamas at the time of Christopher Columbus 's arrival in 1492. Columbus's first landfall in the New World was on an island he named San Salvador (known to the Lucayan as Guanahani ). Some researchers believe this site to be present-day San Salvador Island (formerly known as Watling's Island), situated in the southeastern Bahamas. An alternative theory holds that Columbus landed to the southeast on Samana Cay , according to calculations made in 1986 by National Geographic writer and editor Joseph Judge , based on Columbus's log. Evidence in support of this remains inconclusive. On the landfall island, Columbus made first contact with the Lucayan and exchanged goods with them. The Spanish forced much of the Lucayan population to Hispaniola for use as forced labour. The slaves suffered from harsh conditions and most died from contracting diseases to which they had no immunity ; half of the Taino died from smallpox alone. The population of the Bahamas was severely diminished. In 1648, the Eleutherian Adventurers , led by William Sayle , migrated from Bermuda. These English Puritans established the first permanent European settlement on an island which they named Eleuthera —the name derives from the Greek word for freedom. They later settled New Providence , naming it Sayle's Island after one of their leaders. To survive, the settlers salvaged goods from wrecks . In 1670, King Charles II granted the islands to the Lords Proprietors of the Carolinas in North America. They rented the islands from the king with rights of trading, tax, appointing governors , and administering the country. In 1684 Spanish corsair Juan de Alcon raided the capital , Charles Town (later renamed Nassau ). In 1703, a joint Franco-Spanish expedition briefly occupied the Bahamian capital during the War of the Spanish Succession . 18th–19th centuries [ edit ] Sign at Bill Baggs Cape Florida State Park commemorating hundreds of African-American slaves who escaped to freedom in the early 1820s in the Bahamas Beach in Nassau, Bahamas . The lighthouse in Great Isaac Cay . During proprietary rule, the Bahamas became a haven for pirates , including the infamous Blackbeard ( circa 1680–1718). To put an end to the ' Pirates' republic ' and restore orderly government, Great Britain made the Bahamas a crown colony in 1718 under the royal governorship of Woodes Rogers . After a difficult struggle, he succeeded in suppressing piracy. In 1720, Rogers led local militia to drive off a Spanish attack . During the US War of Independence in the late 18th century, the islands became a target for US naval forces under the command of Commodore Esek Hopkins . US Marines occupied the capital of Nassau for a fortnight . In 1782, following the British defeat at Yorktown , a Spanish fleet appeared off the coast of Nassau. The city surrendered without a fight . Spain returned possession of the Bahamas to Great Britain the following year, under the terms of the Treaty of Paris . Before the news was received, however, the islands were recaptured by a small British force led by Andrew Deveaux . After US independence, the British resettled some 7,300 Loyalists with their slaves in the Bahamas, including two thousand from New York and at least 1,033 whites, 2,214 blacks and a few Creeks from East Florida . Most of the refugees resettled from New York had fled from other colonies, including West Florida , which the Spanish captured during the war. The government granted land to the planters to help compensate for losses on the continent. These Loyalists, who included Deveaux, established plantations on several islands and became a political force in the capital. European Americans were outnumbered by the African-American slaves they brought with them, and ethnic Europeans remained a minority in the territory. In 1807, the British abolished the slave trade , followed by the United States the next year. During the following decades, the Royal Navy intercepted the trade; they resettled in the Bahamas thousands of Africans liberated from slave ships. In the 1820s during the period of the Seminole Wars in Florida, hundreds of North American slaves and African Seminoles escaped from Cape Florida to the Bahamas. They settled mostly on northwest Andros Island , where they developed the village of Red Bays. From eyewitness accounts, 300 escaped in a mass flight in 1823, aided by Bahamians in 27 sloops , with others using canoes for the journey. This was commemorated in 2004 by a large sign at Bill Baggs Cape Florida State Park . Some of their descendants in Red Bays continue African Seminole traditions in basket making and grave marking. The United States' National Park Service , which administers the National Underground Railroad Network to Freedom, is working with the African Bahamian Museum and Research Center (ABAC) in Nassau on development to identify Red Bays as a site related to North American slaves' search for freedom. The museum has researched and documented the African Seminoles' escape from southern Florida. It plans to develop interpretive programs at historical sites in Red Bay associated with the period of their settlement in the Bahamas. In 1818, the Home Office in London had ruled that "any slave brought to the Bahamas from outside the British West Indies would be manumitted." This led to a total of nearly 300 slaves owned by US nationals being freed from 1830 to 1835. The American slave ships Comet and Encomium used in the United States domestic coastwise slave trade , were wrecked off Abaco Island in December 1830 and February 1834, respectively. When wreckers took the masters, passengers and slaves into Nassau, customs officers seized the slaves and British colonial officials freed them, over the protests of the Americans. There were 165 slaves on the Comet and 48 on the Encomium . The United Kingdom finally paid an indemnity to the United States in those two cases in 1855, under the Treaty of Claims of 1853, which settled several compensation cases between the two countries. Slavery was abolished in the British Empire on 1 August 1834. After that British colonial officials freed 78 North American slaves from the Enterprise , which went into Bermuda in 1835; and 38 from the Hermosa , which wrecked off Abaco Island in 1840. The most notable case was that of the Creole in 1841: as a result of a slave revolt on board, the leaders ordered the US brig to Nassau. It was carrying 135 slaves from Virginia destined for sale in New Orleans . The Bahamian officials freed the 128 slaves who chose to stay in the islands. The Creole case has been described as the "most successful slave revolt in U.S. history". These incidents, in which a total of 447 slaves belonging to US nationals were freed from 1830 to 1842, increased tension between the United States and the United Kingdom . They had been co-operating in patrols to suppress the international slave trade. However, worried about the stability of its large domestic slave trade and its value, the United States argued that the United Kingdom should not treat its domestic ships that came to its colonial ports under duress, as part of the international trade. The United States worried that the success of the Creole slaves in gaining freedom would encourage more slave revolts on merchant ships. 20th century [ edit ] The Duke of Windsor and Governor of the Bahamas from 1940 to 1945 In August 1940, the Duke of Windsor was appointed Governor of the Bahamas . He arrived in the colony with his wife, the Duchess . Although disheartened at the condition of Government House, they "tried to make the best of a bad situation". He did not enjoy the position, and referred to the islands as "a third-class British colony". He opened the small local parliament on 29 October 1940. The couple visited the "Out Islands" that November, on Axel Wenner-Gren 's yacht, which caused controversy; the British Foreign Office strenuously objected because they had been advised (mistakenly) by United States intelligence that Wenner-Gren was a close friend of the Luftwaffe commander Hermann Göring of Nazi Germany. The Duke was praised at the time for his efforts to combat poverty on the islands. A 1991 biography by Philip Ziegler, however, described him as contemptuous of the Bahamians and other non-European peoples of the Empire. He was praised for his resolution of civil unrest over low wages in Nassau in June 1942, when there was a "full-scale riot". Ziegler said that the Duke blamed the trouble on "mischief makers – communists " and "men of Central European Jewish descent, who had secured jobs as a pretext for obtaining a deferment of draft". The Duke resigned from the post on 16 March 1945. Post-Second World War [ edit ] Sign at the entrance of the Sir Roland Symonette Park in North Eleuthera district commemorating Sir Roland Theodore Symonette , the Bahamas' first Premier Modern political development began after the Second World War . The first political parties were formed in the 1950s. The British Parliament authorised the islands as internally self-governing in 1964, with Sir Roland Symonette , of the United Bahamian Party , as the first Premier. A new constitution granting the Bahamas internal autonomy went into effect on 7 January 1964. In 1967, Lynden Pindling of the Progressive Liberal Party , became the first native born Premier of the majority native Bahamian colony; in 1968 the title of the position was changed to Prime Minister . In 1968, Pindling announced that the Bahamas would seek full independence. A new constitution giving the Bahamas increased control over its own affairs was adopted in 1968. The British House of Lords voted to give the Bahamas its independence on 22 June 1973. Prince Charles delivered the official documents to Prime Minister Lynden Pindling , officially declaring the Bahamas a fully independent nation on 10 July 1973. It joined the Commonwealth of Nations on the same day. Sir Milo Butler was appointed the first Governor-General of the Bahamas (the official representative of Queen Elizabeth II ) shortly after independence. The Bahamas joined the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank on 22 August 1973, and it joined the United Nations on 18 September 1973. Based on the twin pillars of tourism and offshore finance , the Bahamian economy has prospered since the 1950s. Significant challenges in areas such as education, health care, housing, international narcotics trafficking and illegal immigration from Haiti continue to be issues. The University of The Bahamas (UB) is the national higher education/tertiary system. Offering baccalaureate, masters and associate degrees, UB has three campuses, and teaching and research centres throughout the Bahamas. The University of The Bahamas was chartered on 10 November 2016. Geography [ edit ] Main article: Geography of the Bahamas The Bahamas from space. NASA Aqua satellite image, 2009 The country lies between latitudes 20° and 28°N , and longitudes 72° and 80°W . In 1864, the Governor of the Bahamas reported that there were 29 islands, 661 cays, and 2,387 rocks in the colony. The closest island to the United States is Bimini , which is also known as the gateway to the Bahamas. The island of Abaco is to the east of Grand Bahama . The southeasternmost island is Inagua . The largest island is Andros Island . Other inhabited islands include Eleuthera , Cat Island , Rum Cay , Long Island , San Salvador Island , Ragged Island , Acklins , Crooked Island , Exuma , Berry Islands and Mayaguana . Nassau , capital city of the Bahamas, lies on the island of New Providence . All the islands are low and flat, with ridges that usually rise no more than 15 to 20 m (49 to 66 ft). The highest point in the country is Mount Alvernia (formerly Como Hill) on Cat Island. It has an elevation of 63 metres (207 ft). Damaged homes in the Bahamas in the aftermath of Hurricane Wilma in 2005 To the southeast, the Turks and Caicos Islands , and three more extensive submarine features called Mouchoir Bank , Silver Bank and Navidad Bank , are geographically a continuation of the Bahamas. Castaway Cay [ edit ] Main article: Castaway Cay Disney has its own private island in the Bahamas called Castaway Cay . It is located near Great Abaco Island and was formerly known as Gorda Cay. In 1997, The Walt Disney Company purchased a 99-year land lease for the cay from the Bahamian government, set to expire in 2096. Climate [ edit ] See also: Geography of the Bahamas § Climate The climate of the Bahamas is tropical savannah climate or Aw according to Köppen climate classification . The low latitude, warm tropical Gulf Stream , and low elevation give the Bahamas a warm and winterless climate. As such, there has never been a frost or freeze reported in the Bahamas, although every few decades low temperatures can fall below 10 °C (50 °F) for a few hours when a severe cold outbreak comes off the North American mainland. There is only an 8 °C difference between the warmest month and coolest month in most of the Bahama islands. As with most tropical climates, seasonal rainfall follows the sun, and summer is the wettest season. The Bahamas are often sunny and dry for long periods of time, and average more than 3,000 hours or 340 days of sunlight annually. Tropical storms and hurricanes can on occasion impact the Bahamas. In 1992, Hurricane Andrew passed over the northern portions of the islands, and Hurricane Floyd passed near the eastern portions of the islands in 1999. hide Climate data for Nassau Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Average high °C (°F) 25.4 (77.7) 25.5 (77.9) 26.6 (79.9) 27.9 (82.2) 29.7 (85.5) 31.0 (87.8) 32.0 (89.6) 32.1 (89.8) 31.6 (88.9) 29.9 (85.8) 27.8 (82) 26.2 (79.2) 28.8 (83.9) Daily mean °C (°F) 21.4 (70.5) 21.4 (70.5) 22.3 (72.1) 23.8 (74.8) 25.6 (78.1) 27.2 (81) 28.0 (82.4) 28.1 (82.6) 27.7 (81.9) 26.2 (79.2) 24.2 (75.6) 22.3 (72.1) 24.8 (76.7) Average low °C (°F) 17.3 (63.1) 17.3 (63.1) 17.9 (64.2) 19.6 (67.3) 21.4 (70.5) 23.3 (73.9) 24.0 (75.2) 24.0 (75.2) 23.7 (74.7) 22.5 (72.5) 20.6 (69.1) 18.3 (64.9) 20.8 (69.5) Average precipitation mm (inches) 39.4 (1.551) 49.5 (1.949) 54.4 (2.142) 69.3 (2.728) 105.9 (4.169) 218.2 (8.591) 160.8 (6.331) 235.7 (9.28) 164.1 (6.461) 161.8 (6.37) 80.5 (3.169) 49.8 (1.961) 1,389.4 (54.701) Average precipitation days 8 6 7 8 10 15 17 19 17 15 10 8 140 Mean monthly sunshine hours 220.1 220.4 257.3 276.0 269.7 231.0 272.8 266.6 213.0 223.2 222.0 213.9 2,886 Source: World Meteorological Organization ( UN ), Hong Kong Observatory (sun only) Average Sea Temperature Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 23 °C 73 °F 23 °C 73 °F 24 °C 75 °F 26 °C 79 °F 27 °C 81 °F 28 °C 82 °F 28 °C 82 °F 28 °C 82 °F 28 °C 82 °F 27 °C 81 °F 26 °C 79 °F 24 °C 75 °F Geology [ edit ] Dean's Blue Hole in Clarence Town on Long Island, Bahamas . The Blue Lagoon Island , Bahamas. The Bahamas is part of the Lucayan Archipelago , which continues into the Turks and Caicos Islands, the Mouchoir Bank , the Silver Bank , and the Navidad Bank . The Bahamas Platform, which includes the Bahamas, Southern Florida, Northern Cuba, the Turks and Caicos, and the Blake Plateau , formed about 150 Ma , not long after the formation of the North Atlantic . The 6.4 km thick limestones , which predominately make up The Bahamas, date back to the Cretaceous . These limestones would have been deposited in shallow seas, assumed to be a stretched and thinned portion of the North American continental crust . Sediments were forming at about the same rate as the crust below was sinking due to the added weight. Thus, the entire area consisted of a large marine plain with some islands. Then, at about 80 Ma, the area became flooded by the Gulf Stream . This resulted in the drowning of the Blake Plateau, the separation of The Bahamas from Cuba and Florida, the separation of the southeastern Bahamas into separate banks, the creation of the Cay Sal Bank , plus the Little and Great Bahama Banks . Sedimentation from the "carbonate factory" of each bank, or atoll , continues today at the rate of about 2 cm per kyr . Coral reefs form the "retaining walls" of these atolls, within which oolites and pellets form. Coral growth was greater through the Tertiary , until the start of the Ice Ages , and hence those deposits are more abundant below a depth of 36 m. In fact, an ancient extinct reef exists half a km seaward of the present one, 30 m below sea level. Oolites form when oceanic water penetrate the shallow banks, increasing the temperature about 3 °C and the salinity by 0.5 per cent. Cemented ooids are referred to as grapestone. Additionally, giant stromatolites are found off the Exuma Cays . Sea level changes resulted in a drop in sea level, causing wind blown oolite to form sand dunes with distinct cross-bedding . Overlapping dunes form oolitic ridges, which become rapidly lithified through the action of rainwater, called eolianite . Most islands have ridges ranging from 30 to 45 m, though Cat Island has a ridge 60 m in height. The land between ridges is conducive to the formation of lakes and swamps. Solution weathering of the limestone results in a "Bahamian Karst " topography. This includes potholes , Blue holes such as Dean's Blue Hole , sinkholes , beachrock such as the Bimini Road ("pavements of Atlantis"), limestone crust , caves due to the lack of rivers, and sea caves . Several blue holes are aligned along the South Andros Fault line. Tidal flats and tidal creeks are common, but the more impressive drainage patterns are formed by troughs and canyons such as Great Bahama Canyon with the evidence of turbidity currents and turbidite deposition. The stratigraphy of the islands consists of the Middle Pleistocene Owl's Hole Formation , overlain by the Late Pleistocene Grotto Beach Formation, and then the Holocene Rice Bay Formation. However, these units are not necessarily stacked on top of each other but can be located laterally. The oldest formation, Owl's Hole, is capped by a terra rosa paleosoil , as is the Grotto Beach, unless eroded . The Grotto Beach Formation is the most widespread. Government and politics [ edit ] Main article: Politics of the Bahamas The Bahamian Parliament , located in Nassau The Bahamas is a parliamentary constitutional monarchy headed by Queen Elizabeth II in her role as Queen of the Bahamas. Political and legal traditions closely follow those of the United Kingdom and the Westminster system . The Bahamas is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations as a Commonwealth realm , retaining the Queen as head of state (represented by a Governor-General ). Legislative power is vested In a bicameral parliament , which consists of a 38-member House of Assembly (the lower house ), with members elected from single-member districts , and a 16-member Senate , with members appointed by the Governor-General, including nine on the advice of the Prime Minister, four on the advice of the Leader of Her Majesty's Loyal Opposition , and three on the advice of the Prime Minister after consultation with the Leader of the Opposition. The House of Assembly carries out all major legislative functions. As under the Westminster system, the Prime Minister may dissolve Parliament and call a general election at any time within a five-year term. The Prime Minister is the head of government and is the leader of the party with the most seats in the House of Assembly. Executive power is exercised by the Cabinet, selected by the Prime Minister and drawn from his supporters in the House of Assembly. The current Governor-General is Dame Marguerite Pindling , and the current Prime Minister is The Rt. Hon. Hubert Minnis MP . Constitutional safeguards include freedom of speech , press , worship , movement and association . The Judiciary of the Bahamas is independent of the executive and the legislature. Jurisprudence is based on English law . Political culture [ edit ] The Bahamas has a two-party system dominated by the centre-left Progressive Liberal Party and the centre-right Free National Movement . A handful of splinter parties have been unable to win election to parliament. These parties have included the Bahamas Democratic Movement , the Coalition for Democratic Reform, Bahamian Nationalist Party and the Democratic National Alliance . Foreign relations [ edit ] Further information: Foreign relations of the Bahamas The Bahamas has strong bilateral relationships with the United States and the United Kingdom , represented by an ambassador in Washington and High Commissioner in London . The Bahamas also associates closely with other nations of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM). Armed forces [ edit ] Main article: Royal Bahamas Defence Force HMBS Nassau (P-61) The Bahamanian military is the Royal Bahamas Defence Force (RBDF), the navy of the Bahamas which includes a land unit called Commando Squadron (Regiment) and an Air Wing (Air Force). Under the Defence Act, the RBDF has been mandated, in the name of the Queen , to defend the Bahamas, protect its territorial integrity, patrol its waters, provide assistance and relief in times of disaster, maintain order in conjunction with the law enforcement agencies of the Bahamas, and carry out any such duties as determined by the National Security Council. The Defence Force is also a member of the Caribbean Community ( CARICOM )'s Regional Security Task Force. The RBDF came into existence on 31 March 1980. Their duties include defending the Bahamas, stopping drug smuggling , illegal immigration and poaching, and providing assistance to mariners. The Defence Force has a fleet of 26 coastal and inshore patrol craft along with 3 aircraft and over 1,100 personnel including 65 officers and 74 women. Administrative divisions [ edit ] Main article: Local government in the Bahamas Districts of the Bahamas The districts of the Bahamas provide a system of local government everywhere except New Providence (which holds 70% of the national population), whose affairs are handled directly by the central government. In 1996, the Bahamian Parliament passed the "Local Government Act" to facilitate the establishment of Family Island Administrators, Local Government Districts, Local District Councillors and Local Town Committees for the various island communities. The overall goal of this act is to allow the various elected leaders to govern and oversee the affairs of their respective districts without the interference of Central Government. In total, there are 32 districts, with elections being held every five years. There are 110 Councillors and 281 Town Committee members are elected to represent the various districts. Each Councillor or Town Committee member is responsible for the proper use of public funds for the maintenance and development of their constituency. The Bahamas uses drive-on-the-Left traffic rules throughout the Commonwealth. The districts other than New Providence are: Acklins Berry Islands Bimini Black Point , Exuma Cat Island Central Abaco Central Andros Central Eleuthera City of Freeport, Grand Bahama Crooked Island East Grand Bahama Exuma Grand Cay , Abaco Harbour Island , Eleuthera Hope Town , Abaco Inagua Long Island Mangrove Cay , Andros Mayaguana Moore's Island , Abaco North Abaco North Andros North Eleuthera Ragged Island Rum Cay San Salvador South Abaco South Andros South Eleuthera Spanish Wells , Eleuthera West Grand Bahama National flag [ edit ] Main article: Flag of the Bahamas The national flag of the Bahamas The Bahamian flag was adopted in 1973. Its colours symbolise the strength of the Bahamian people; its design reflects aspects of the natural environment (sun and sea) and economic and social development. The flag is a black equilateral triangle against the mast, superimposed on a horizontal background made up of three equal stripes of aquamarine, gold and aquamarine. Coat of arms [ edit ] Main article: Coat of arms of the Bahamas Bahamian Coat of Arms The coat of arms of the Bahamas contains a shield with the national symbols as its focal point. The shield is supported by a marlin and a flamingo , which are the national animals of the Bahamas. The flamingo is located on the land, and the marlin on the sea, indicating the geography of the islands. On top of the shield is a conch shell, which represents the varied marine life of the island chain. The conch shell rests on a helmet. Below this is the actual shield, the main symbol of which is a ship representing the Santa María of Christopher Columbus, shown sailing beneath the sun. Along the bottom, below the shield appears a banner upon which is the national motto: "Forward, Upward, Onward Together." National flower [ edit ] The yellow elder was chosen as the national flower of the Bahamas because it is native to the Bahama islands, and it blooms throughout the year. Selection of the yellow elder over many other flowers was made through the combined popular vote of members of all four of New Providence's garden clubs of the 1970s—the Nassau Garden Club, the Carver Garden Club, the International Garden Club and the YWCA Garden Club. They reasoned that other flowers grown there—such as the bougainvillea , hibiscus and poinciana —had already been chosen as the national flowers of other countries. The yellow elder, on the other hand, was unclaimed by other countries (although it is now also the national flower of the United States Virgin Islands ) and also the yellow elder is native to the family islands. Economy [ edit ] Main article: Economy of the Bahamas By the terms of GDP per capita , the Bahamas is one of the richest countries in the Americas . It was revealed in the Panama Papers that The Bahamas is the jurisdiction with the most offshore entities or companies. Tourism [ edit ] The Atlantis Paradise Island in Nassau The Bahamas relies on tourism to generate most of its economic activity. Tourism as an industry not only accounts for over 60% of the Bahamian GDP, but provides jobs for more than half the country's workforce. The Bahamas attracted 5.8 million visitors in 2012, more than 70% of whom were cruise visitors. Financial services [ edit ] After tourism, the next most important economic sector is banking and offshore international financial services , accounting for some 15% of GDP. The government has adopted incentives to encourage foreign financial business, and further banking and finance reforms are in progress. The government plans to merge the regulatory functions of key financial institutions, including the Central Bank of the Bahamas (CBB) and the Securities and Exchange Commission. [ citation needed ] The Central Bank administers restrictions and controls on capital and money market instruments. The Bahamas International Securities Exchange consists of 19 listed public companies. Reflecting the relative soundness of the banking system (mostly populated by Canadian banks), the impact of the global financial crisis on the financial sector has been limited. [ citation needed ] A proportional representation of the Bahamas exports. The economy has a very competitive tax regime (classified as a tax haven ). The government derives its revenue from import tariffs, VAT , licence fees, property and stamp taxes, but there is no income tax, corporate tax, capital gains tax, or wealth tax. Payroll taxes fund social insurance benefits and amount to 3.9% paid by the employee and 5.9% paid by the employer. In 2010, overall tax revenue as a percentage of GDP was 17.2%. Agriculture [ edit ] Further information: Agriculture in the Bahamas Agriculture is the third largest sector of the Bahamian economy, representing 5–7% of total GDP. An estimated 80% of the Bahamian food supply is imported. Major crops include onions , okra , tomatoes , oranges , grapefruit , cucumbers , sugar cane , lemons , limes , and sweet potatoes . Demographics [ edit ] Main article: Demographics of the Bahamas The Bahamas has an estimated population of 391,232, of which 25.9% are under 14, 67.2% 15 to 64 and 6.9% over 65. It has a population growth rate of 0.925% (2010), with a birth rate of 17.81/1,000 population, death rate of 9.35/1,000, and net migration rate of −2.13 migrant(s)/1,000 population. The infant mortality rate is 23.21 deaths/1,000 live births. Residents have a life expectancy at birth of 69.87 years: 73.49 years for females, 66.32 years for males. The total fertility rate is 2.0 children born/woman (2010). The most populous islands are New Providence, where Nassau, the capital and largest city, is located; and Grand Bahama, home to the second largest city of Freeport . Racial and ethnic groups [ edit ] According to the 99% response rate obtained from the race question on the 2010 Census questionnaire, 90.6% of the population identified themselves as being Black, 4.7% White and 2.1% of a mixed race (Black and White). Three centuries prior, in 1722 when the first official census of the Bahamas was taken, 74% of the population was White and 26% Black. Afro-Bahamian children at a local school Since the colonial era of plantations, Africans or Afro-Bahamians have been the largest ethnic group in the Bahamas, whose primary ancestry was based in West Africa . The first Africans to arrive to the Bahamas were freed slaves from Bermuda ; they arrived with the Eleutheran Adventurers looking for new lives. The Haitian community in the Bahamas is also largely of African descent and numbers about 80,000. Due to an extremely high immigration of Haitians to the Bahamas, the Bahamian government started deporting illegal Haitian immigrants to their homeland in late 2014. The White Bahamian population are mainly the descendants of the English Puritans looking to flee religious persecution in England and American Loyalists escaping the American Revolution who arrived in 1649 and 1783, respectively. Many Southern Loyalists went to the Abaco Islands , half of whose population was of European descent as of 1985. The term white is usually used to identify Bahamians with Anglo ancestry, as well as "light-skinned" Afro-Bahamians. Sometimes Bahamians use the term Conchy Joe to describe people of Anglo descent. A small portion of the Euro-Bahamian population is descended from Greek labourers who came to help develop the sponging industry in the 1900s. They make up less than 1% of the nation's population, but have still preserved their distinct Greek Bahamian culture. [ citation needed ] Bahamians typically identify themselves simply as either black or white . Languages [ edit ] The official language of the Bahamas is English. Many people speak an English-based creole language called Bahamian dialect (known simply as "dialect") or "Bahamianese." Laurente Gibbs, a Bahamian writer and actor, was the first to coin the latter name in a poem and has since promoted its usage. Both are used as autoglossonyms. Haitian Creole , a French-based creole language is spoken by Haitians and their descendants, who make up of about 25% of the total population. It is known simply as Creole to differentiate it from Bahamian English. Also note that the Bahamas was once under British rule and therefore the English taught in the Bahamian schools is still "British-based". Religion [ edit ] Further information: Religion in the Bahamas Religion in the Bahamas (2010) Protestant (80%) Roman Catholic (14.5%) Other Christian (1.3%) Unaffiliated (3.1%) Other religion (1.1%) According to International Religious Freedom Report 2008 prepared by United States Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor , the islands' population is predominantly Christian . Protestant denominations are widespread and collectively account for more than 70% of the population, with Baptists representing 35% of the population, Anglicans 15%, Pentecostals 8%, Church of God 5%, Seventh-day Adventists 5% and Methodists 4%. There is also a significant Roman Catholic community accounting for about 14%. There are also smaller communities of Jews , Muslims , Baha'is , Hindus , Rastafarians and practitioners of Obeah . Culture [ edit ] Main articles: Culture of the Bahamas and Music of the Bahamas Junkanoo celebration in Nassau In the less developed outer islands (or Family Islands), handicrafts include basketry made from palm fronds. This material, commonly called "straw", is plaited into hats and bags that are popular tourist items. Another use is for so-called "Voodoo dolls", even though such dolls are the result of foreign influences and not based in historic fact. A form of folk magic ( obeah ) is practised by some Bahamians, mainly in the Family Islands (out-islands) of the Bahamas. The practice of obeah is illegal in the Bahamas and punishable by law. Junkanoo is a traditional Afro-Bahamian street parade of 'rushing', music, dance and art held in Nassau (and a few other settlements) every Boxing Day and New Year's Day . Junkanoo is also used to celebrate other holidays and events such as Emancipation Day. Regattas are important social events in many family island settlements. They usually feature one or more days of sailing by old-fashioned work boats , as well as an onshore festival. Many dishes are associated with Bahamian cuisine , which reflects Caribbean, African and European influences. Some settlements have festivals associated with the traditional crop or food of that area, such as the "Pineapple Fest" in Gregory Town, Eleuthera or the "Crab Fest" on Andros. Other significant traditions include story telling . Bahamians have created a rich literature of poetry, short stories, plays and short fictional works. Common themes in these works are (1) an awareness of change, (2) a striving for sophistication, (3) a search for identity, (4) nostalgia for the old ways and (5) an appreciation of beauty. Some contributing writers are Susan Wallace, Percival Miller, Robert Johnson, Raymond Brown, O.M. Smith, William Johnson, Eddie Minnis and Winston Saunders . Bahamas culture is rich with beliefs, traditions, folklore and legend. The most well-known folklore and legends in the Bahamas includes Lusca in Andros Bahamas, Pretty Molly on Exuma Bahamas, the Chickcharnies of Andro Bahamas, and the Lost City of Atlantis on Bimini Bahamas. Sport [ edit ] Sport is a significant part of Bahamian culture. The national sport is cricket . Cricket has been played in the Bahamas from 1846, the oldest sport being played in the country today. The Bahamas Cricket Association was formed in 1936, and from the 1940s to the 1970s, cricket was played amongst many Bahamians. Bahamas is not a part of the West Indies Cricket Board , so players are not eligible to play for the West Indies cricket team . The late 1970s saw the game begin to decline in the country as teachers, who had previously come from the United Kingdom with a passion for cricket, were replaced by teachers who had been trained in the United States. The Bahamian physical education teachers had no knowledge of the game and instead taught track and field , basketball , baseball , softball , volleyball and football where primary and high schools compete against each other. Today cricket is still enjoyed by a few locals and immigrants in the country usually from Jamaica , Guyana , Haiti and Barbados . Cricket is played on Saturdays and Sundays at Windsor Park and Haynes Oval. The only other sporting event that began before cricket was horse racing , which started in 1796. The most popular spectator sports are those imported from United States, such as basketball , American football and baseball , rather than from Great Britain, due to the country's close proximity to the United States, unlike their other Caribbean counterparts, where cricket , rugby , and netball have proven to be more popular. Dexter Cambridge , Rick Fox , Ian Lockhart , Magnum Rolle , Buddy Hield and Deandre Ayton are a few Bahamians who joined Bahamian Mychal Thompson of the Los Angeles Lakers in the NBA ranks. Over the years American football has become much more popular than soccer , though not implemented in the high school system yet. Leagues for teens and adults have been developed by the Bahamas American Football Federation. However soccer, as it is commonly known in the country, is still a very popular sport amongst high school pupils. Leagues are governed by the Bahamas Football Association . Recently the Bahamian government has been working closely with Tottenham Hotspur of London to promote the sport in the country as well as promoting the Bahamas in the European market. In 2013 'Spurs' became the first Premier League club to play an exhibition match in the Bahamas, facing the Jamaican national team . Joe Lewis , the owner of the club, is based in the Bahamas. Other popular sports are swimming , tennis and boxing , where Bahamians have enjoyed some degree of success at the international level. Other sports such as golf , rugby league , rugby union , beach soccer , and netball are considered growing sports. Athletics , commonly known as 'track and field' in the country, is the most successful sport by far amongst Bahamians. Bahamians have a strong tradition in the sprints and jumps. Track and field is probably the most popular spectator sport in the country next to basketball due to their success over the years. Triathlons are gaining popularity in Nassau and the Family Islands. Bahamians have gone on to win numerous track and field medals at the Olympic Games , IAAF World Championships in Athletics , Commonwealth Games and Pan American Games . Frank Rutherford is the first athletics olympic medallist for the country. He won a bronze medal for triple jump during the 1992 Summer Olympics . Pauline Davis-Thompson , Debbie Ferguson , Chandra Sturrup , Savatheda Fynes and Eldece Clarke-Lewis teamed up for the first athletics Olympic Gold medal for the country when they won the 4 × 100 m relay at the 2000 Summer Olympics . They are affectionately known as the "Golden Girls". Tonique Williams-Darling became the first athletics individual Olympic gold medallist when she won the 400m sprint in 2004 Summer Olympics . In 2007, with the disqualification of Marion Jones , Pauline Davis-Thompson was advanced to the gold medal position in the 200 metres at the 2000 Olympics , predating William-Darling. The Bahamas were hosts of the first men's senior FIFA tournament to be staged in the Caribbean, the 2017 FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup . Education [ edit ] Main article: Education in the Bahamas According to 1995 estimates, 98.2% of the Bahamian adult population is literate. [ citation needed ] See also [ edit ] Bahamas portal New Spain portal Outline of the Bahamas Index of Bahamas-related articles Bahamas – Wikipedia book References [ edit ] Bibliography Horne, Gerald (2012). Negro Comrades of the Crown: African Americans and the British Empire Fight the U.S. Before Emancipation . NYU Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-4463-5 . Higham, Charles (1988). The Dutchess of Windsor: The Secret Life . McGraw Hill. ISBN 0471485233 . Further reading [ edit ] Main article: Bibliography of the Bahamas General history [ edit ] Cash Philip et al. (Don Maples, Alison Packer). The Making of The Bahamas: A History for Schools . London: Collins, 1978. Miller, Hubert W. The Colonization of The Bahamas, 1647–1670, The William and Mary Quarterly 2 no.1 (January 1945): 33–46. Craton, Michael. A History of The Bahamas . London: Collins, 1962. Craton, Michael and Saunders, Gail. Islanders in the Stream: A History of the Bahamian People . Athens: University of Georgia Press , 1992 Collinwood, Dean. "Columbus and the Discovery of Self," Weber Studies , Vol. 9 No. 3 (Fall) 1992: 29–44. Dodge, Steve. Abaco: The History of an Out Island and its Cays , Tropic Isle Publications, 1983. Dodge, Steve. The Compleat Guide to Nassau , White Sound Press, 1987. Boultbee, Paul G. The Bahamas. Oxford: ABC-Clio Press, 1990. Wood, David E., comp., A Guide to Selected Sources to the History of the Seminole Settlements of Red Bays, Andros, 1817–1980 , Nassau: Department of Archives Economic history [ edit ] Johnson, Howard. The Bahamas in Slavery and Freedom . Kingston: Ian Randle Publishing, 1991. Johnson, Howard. The Bahamas from Slavery to Servitude, 1783–1933 . Gainesville: University of Florida Press , 1996. Alan A. Block. Masters of Paradise , New Brunswick and London, Transaction Publishers, 1998. Storr, Virgil H. Enterprising Slaves and Master Pirates: Understanding Economic Life in the Bahamas . New York: Peter Lang , 2004. Social history [ edit ] Johnson, Wittington B. Race Relations in the Bahamas, 1784–1834: The Nonviolent Transformation from a Slave to a Free Society , Fayetteville: University of Arkansas , 2000. Shirley, Paul. "Tek Force Wid Force", History Today 54, no. 41 (April 2004): 30–35. Saunders, Gail. The Social Life in the Bahamas 1880s–1920s . Nassau: Media Publishing, 1996. Saunders, Gail. Bahamas Society After Emancipation . Kingston: Ian Randle Publishing, 1990. Curry, Jimmy. Filthy Rich Gangster/First Bahamian Movie . Movie Mogul Pictures: 1996. Curry, Jimmy. To the Rescue/First Bahamian Rap/Hip Hop Song . Royal Crown Records, 1985. Collinwood, Dean. The Bahamas Between Worlds , White Sound Press, 1989. Collinwood, Dean and Steve Dodge. Modern Bahamian Society , Caribbean Books, 1989. Dodge, Steve, Robert McIntire and Dean Collinwood. The Bahamas Index , White Sound Press, 1989. Collinwood, Dean. "The Bahamas," in The Whole World Handbook 1992–1995 , 12th ed., New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994. Collinwood, Dean. "The Bahamas," chapters in Jack W. Hopkins, ed., Latin American and Caribbean Contemporary Record , Vols. 1,2,3,4, Holmes and Meier Publishers, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1986. Collinwood, Dean. "Problems of Research and Training in Small Islands with a Social Science Faculty," in Social Science in Latin America and the Caribbean , UNESCO, No. 48, 1982. Collinwood, Dean and Rick Phillips, "The National Literature of the New Bahamas," Weber Studies , Vol.7, No. 1 (Spring) 1990: 43–62. Collinwood, Dean. "Writers, Social Scientists and Sexual Norms in the Caribbean," Tsuda Review , No. 31 (November) 1986: 45–57. Collinwood, Dean. "Terra Incognita: Research on the Modern Bahamian Society," Journal of Caribbean Studies, Vol. 1, Nos. 2–3 (Winter) 1981: 284–297. Collinwood, Dean and Steve Dodge. "Political Leadership in the Bahamas," The Bahamas Research Institute, No.1, May 1987. External links [ edit ] Official website Wikimedia Atlas of Bahamas "Bahamas" . The World Factbook . Central Intelligence Agency . The Bahamas from UCB Libraries GovPubs The Bahamas at Curlie The Bahamas from the BBC News Key Development Forecasts for The Bahamas from International Futures Maps of the Bahamas from the American Geographical Society Library

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what is the primary language in the bahamas

The official language of the Bahamas is English. Many people speak an English - based creole language called Bahamian dialect (known simply as `` dialect '') or `` Bahamianese. '' Laurente Gibbs, a Bahamian writer and actor was the first to coin the latter name in a poem and has since promoted its usage. Both are used as autoglossonyms. Haitian Creole, a French - based creole language is spoken by Haitians and their descendants, who make up of about 25 % of the total population. It is known simply as Creole to differentiate languages. Also note that the Bahamas was once under British rule and therefore the English taught in the Bahamian schools is still `` British - based ''.

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dárúkọ àmì ọ̀pá àṣẹ méjì ti ìpínlẹ̀ kamẹrúùnù

No

['Àwọn Bàhámà (pípè /ðə bəˈhɑːməz/ ( listen)) tabi lonibise bi Orílẹ̀-èdè Àjọni ilẹ̀ awọn Bàhámà, je orile-ede elede Geesi to ni awon erekusu 29, 661 cays, ati 2,387 erekusu kekere 2,387 (apata).']

['o je orile-ede elede Geesi']

['P1']

Àwọn Bàhámà (pípè /ðə bəˈhɑːməz/ ( listen ) ) tabi lonibise bi Orílẹ̀-èdè Àjọni ilẹ̀ awọn Bàhámà , je orile-ede elede Geesi to ni awon erekusu 29, 661 cays , ati 2,387 erekusu kekere 2,387 (apata). O budo si inu Okun Atlantiki ni ariwa Kuba ati Hispaniola ( Dominiki Olominira ati Haiti ), ariwaiwoorun awon Erekusu Turks ati Caicos , ati guusuilaorun orile-ede Awon Ipinle Aparapo ile Amerika (nitosi ipinle Florida ). Apapo iye aala ile re je 13,939 km 2 (5,382 sq. mi.), pelu idiye olugbe to to 330,000. Oluilu re ni Nassau . Bi jeografi, awon Bahama wa ni asopo erekusu kanna bi Kuba , Hispaniola ( Dominiki Olominira ati Haiti ) ati Awon Erekusu Turks ati Caicos . Awon onibudo ibe tele ni awon Taino ti Arawaka , awon Bahama ni ibi ti Columbus koko gunle si ni Ile Aye Tuntun ni 1492. Botilejepe awon ara Spein ko se amunisin awon Bahama, won ko awon Lucaya abinibi ibe (eyi ni oruko ti awon Taino Bahama unpe ara won) lo si oko eru ni Hispaniola. Lati 1513 de 1650 enikankan ko gbe ori awon erekusu yi, ko to di pe awon olumunisin ara Britani lati Bermuda tedo si erekusu Eleuthera . Itoka [ àtúnṣe | àtúnṣe àmìọ̀rọ̀ ]

"Bahama" and "Bahamas" redirect here. For other uses, see Bahama (disambiguation) . Coordinates : 24°15′N 76°00′W  /  24.250°N 76.000°W  / 24.250; -76.000 The Bahamas ( / b ə ˈ h ɑː m ə z / ( listen ) ), known officially as the Commonwealth of The Bahamas , is an archipelagic state within the Lucayan Archipelago . It consists of more than 700 islands , cays , and islets in the Atlantic Ocean , and is located north of Cuba and Hispaniola ( Haiti and the Dominican Republic ), northwest of the Turks and Caicos Islands , southeast of the United States state of Florida , and east of the Florida Keys . The capital is Nassau on the island of New Providence . The designation of "the Bahamas" can refer either to the country or to the larger island chain that it shares with the Turks and Caicos Islands . As stated in the mandate/manifesto of the Royal Bahamas Defence Force , the Bahamas territory encompasses 470,000 km 2 (180,000 sq mi) of ocean space. The Bahamas is the site of Columbus ' first landfall in the New World in 1492. At that time, the islands were inhabited by the Lucayan , a branch of the Arawakan -speaking Taino people. Although the Spanish never colonised The Bahamas, they shipped the native Lucayans to slavery in Hispaniola. The islands were mostly deserted from 1513 until 1648, when English colonists from Bermuda settled on the island of Eleuthera . The Bahamas became a British crown colony in 1718, when the British clamped down on piracy . After the American War of Independence , the Crown resettled thousands of American Loyalists in the Bahamas; they brought their slaves with them and established plantations on land grants. Africans constituted the majority of the population from this period. The slave trade was abolished by the British in 1807; slavery in the Bahamas was abolished in 1834. The Bahamas became a haven for freed African slaves; the Royal Navy resettled Africans here liberated from illegal slave ships, American slaves and Seminoles escaped here from Florida, and the government freed American slaves carried on United States domestic ships that had reached the Bahamas due to weather. Today, Afro-Bahamians make up nearly 90% of the population. The Bahamas became an independent Commonwealth realm in 1973, retaining the British monarch, then and currently Queen Elizabeth II , as its head of state. In terms of gross domestic product per capita, The Bahamas is one of the richest countries in the Americas (following the United States and Canada), with an economy based on tourism and finance. Contents [ hide ] 1 Etymology 2 History 2.1 18th–19th centuries 2.2 20th century 2.3 Post-Second World War 3 Geography 3.1 Castaway Cay 3.2 Climate 4 Geology 5 Government and politics 5.1 Political culture 5.2 Foreign relations 5.3 Armed forces 5.4 Administrative divisions 5.5 National flag 5.6 Coat of arms 5.7 National flower 6 Economy 6.1 Tourism 6.2 Financial services 6.3 Agriculture 7 Demographics 7.1 Racial and ethnic groups 7.2 Languages 7.3 Religion 8 Culture 8.1 Sport 9 Education 10 In popular culture 11 See also 12 References 13 Bibliography 14 Further reading 14.1 General history 14.2 Economic history 14.3 Social history 15 External links Etymology [ edit ] The name Bahamas is mostly likely derived from either the Taíno ba ha ma ("big upper middle land"), which was a term for the region used by the indigenous Native Americans, or possibly from the Spanish baja mar ("shallow water or sea" or " low tide ") reflecting the shallow waters of the area. Alternatively, it may originate from Guanahani , a local name of unclear meaning. A peculiarity of the name is that the word The is a formal part of the abbreviated name and is, therefore, capitalised. So in contrast to "the Congo" and "the United Kingdom", it is proper to write "The Bahamas". History [ edit ] Main article: History of the Bahamas A depiction of Columbus' first landing, claiming possession of the New World for Spain in caravels ; the Niña and the Pinta , on Watling Island, an island of The Bahamas that the natives called Guanahani and that he named San Salvador , on 12 October 1492. Taino people moved into the uninhabited southern Bahamas from Hispaniola and Cuba around the 11th century, having migrated there from South America. They came to be known as the Lucayan people . An estimated 30,000 Lucayan inhabited the Bahamas at the time of Christopher Columbus ' arrival in 1492. Columbus's first landfall in the New World was on an island he named San Salvador (known to the Lucayan as Guanahani ). Some researchers believe this site to be present-day San Salvador Island (formerly known as Watling's Island), situated in the southeastern Bahamas. An alternative theory holds that Columbus landed to the southeast on Samana Cay , according to calculations made in 1986 by National Geographic writer and editor Joseph Judge , based on Columbus's log. Evidence in support of this remains inconclusive. On the landfall island, Columbus made first contact with the Lucayan and exchanged goods with them. The Spanish forced much of the Lucayan population to Hispaniola for use as forced labour. The slaves suffered from harsh conditions and most died from contracting diseases to which they had no immunity ; half of the Taino died from smallpox alone. The population of the Bahamas was severely diminished. In 1648, the Eleutherian Adventurers , led by William Sayle , migrated from Bermuda. These English Puritans established the first permanent European settlement on an island which they named Eleuthera —the name derives from the Greek word for freedom. They later settled New Providence , naming it Sayle's Island after one of their leaders. To survive, the settlers salvaged goods from wrecks . In 1670, King Charles II granted the islands to the Lords Proprietors of the Carolinas in North America. They rented the islands from the king with rights of trading, tax, appointing governors , and administering the country. In 1684 Spanish corsair Juan de Alcon raided the capital , Charles Town (later renamed Nassau ). In 1703, a joint Franco-Spanish expedition briefly occupied the Bahamian capital during the War of the Spanish Succession . 18th–19th centuries [ edit ] Sign at Bill Baggs Cape Florida State Park commemorating hundreds of African-American slaves who escaped to freedom in the early 1820s in the Bahamas During proprietary rule, the Bahamas became a haven for pirates , including the infamous Blackbeard ( circa 1680–1718). To put an end to the ' Pirates' republic ' and restore orderly government, Britain made the Bahamas a crown colony in 1718 under the royal governorship of Woodes Rogers . After a difficult struggle, he succeeded in suppressing piracy. In 1720, Rogers led local militia to drive off a Spanish attack . During the American War of Independence in the late 18th century, the islands became a target for American naval forces under the command of Commodore Esek Hopkins . US Marines occupied the capital of Nassau for a fortnight . In 1782, following the British defeat at Yorktown , a Spanish fleet appeared off the coast of Nassau. The city surrendered without a fight . Spain returned possession of the Bahamas to Britain the following year, under the terms of the Treaty of Paris . Before the news was received, however, the islands were recaptured by a small British force led by Andrew Deveaux . After American independence, the British resettled some 7,300 Loyalists with their slaves in the Bahamas, and granted land to the planters to help compensate for losses on the continent. These Loyalists, who included Deveaux, established plantations on several islands and became a political force in the capital. European Americans were outnumbered by the African-American slaves they brought with them, and ethnic Europeans remained a minority in the territory. In 1807, the British abolished the slave trade , followed by the United States the next year. During the following decades, the Royal Navy intercepted the trade; they resettled in the Bahamas thousands of Africans liberated from slave ships. In the 1820s during the period of the Seminole Wars in Florida, hundreds of American slaves and African Seminoles escaped from Cape Florida to the Bahamas. They settled mostly on northwest Andros Island , where they developed the village of Red Bays. From eyewitness accounts, 300 escaped in a mass flight in 1823, aided by Bahamians in 27 sloops , with others using canoes for the journey. This was commemorated in 2004 by a large sign at Bill Baggs Cape Florida State Park . Some of their descendants in Red Bays continue African Seminole traditions in basket making and grave marking. The United States' National Park Service , which administers the National Underground Railroad Network to Freedom, is working with the African Bahamian Museum and Research Center (ABAC) in Nassau on development to identify Red Bays as a site related to American slaves' search for freedom. The museum has researched and documented the African Seminoles' escape from southern Florida. It plans to develop interpretive programs at historical sites in Red Bay associated with the period of their settlement in the Bahamas. In 1818, the Home Office in London had ruled that "any slave brought to the Bahamas from outside the British West Indies would be manumitted." This led to a total of nearly 300 slaves owned by US nationals being freed from 1830 to 1835. The American slave ships Comet and Encomium used in the United States domestic coastwise slave trade , were wrecked off Abaco Island in December 1830 and February 1834, respectively. When wreckers took the masters, passengers and slaves into Nassau, customs officers seized the slaves and British colonial officials freed them, over the protests of the Americans. There were 165 slaves on the Comet and 48 on the Encomium . Britain finally paid an indemnity to the United States in those two cases in 1855, under the Treaty of Claims of 1853, which settled several compensation cases between the two nations. Slavery was abolished in the British Empire on 1 August 1834. After that British colonial officials freed 78 American slaves from the Enterprise , which went into Bermuda in 1835; and 38 from the Hermosa , which wrecked off Abaco Island in 1840. The most notable case was that of the Creole in 1841: as a result of a slave revolt on board, the leaders ordered the American brig to Nassau. It was carrying 135 slaves from Virginia destined for sale in New Orleans . The Bahamian officials freed the 128 slaves who chose to stay in the islands. The Creole case has been described as the "most successful slave revolt in U.S. history". These incidents, in which a total of 447 slaves belonging to US nationals were freed from 1830 to 1842, increased tension between the United States and Great Britain . They had been co-operating in patrols to suppress the international slave trade. But, worried about the stability of its large domestic slave trade and its value, the United States argued that Britain should not treat its domestic ships that came to its colonial ports under duress, as part of the international trade. The United States worried that the success of the Creole slaves in gaining freedom would encourage more slave revolts on merchant ships. 20th century [ edit ] The Duke of Windsor and Governor of the Bahamas from 1940 to 1945 In August 1940, the Duke of Windsor was appointed Governor of the Bahamas . He arrived in the colony with his wife, the Duchess . Although disheartened at the condition of Government House, they "tried to make the best of a bad situation". He did not enjoy the position, and referred to the islands as "a third-class British colony". He opened the small local parliament on 29 October 1940. The couple visited the "Out Islands" that November, on Axel Wenner-Gren 's yacht, which caused controversy; the British Foreign Office strenuously objected because they had been advised (mistakenly) by United States intelligence that Wenner-Gren was a close friend of the Luftwaffe commander Hermann Göring of Nazi Germany. The Duke was praised at the time for his efforts to combat poverty on the islands. A 1991 biography by Philip Ziegler, however, described him as contemptuous of the Bahamians and other non-European peoples of the Empire. He was praised for his resolution of civil unrest over low wages in Nassau in June 1942, when there was a "full-scale riot". Ziegler said that the Duke blamed the trouble on "mischief makers – communists " and "men of Central European Jewish descent, who had secured jobs as a pretext for obtaining a deferment of draft". The Duke resigned the post on 16 March 1945. Post-Second World War [ edit ] Sign at the entrance of the Sir Roland Symonette Park in North Eleuthera district commemorating Sir Roland Theodore Symonette , the Bahamas' first Premier Modern political development began after the Second World War . The first political parties were formed in the 1950s. The British Parliament authorised the islands as internally self-governing in 1964, with Sir Roland Symonette , of the United Bahamian Party , as the first Premier. A new constitution granting the Bahamas internal autonomy went into effect on 7 January 1964. In 1967, Lynden Pindling of the Progressive Liberal Party , became the first native born Premier of the majority native Bahamian colony; in 1968 the title of the position was changed to Prime Minister . In 1968, Pindling announced that the Bahamas would seek full independence. A new constitution giving the Bahamas increased control over its own affairs was adopted in 1968. The British House of Lords voted to give the Bahamas its independence on 22 June 1973. Prince Charles delivered the official documents to Prime Minister Lynden Pindling , officially declaring the Bahamas a fully independent nation on 10 July 1973. It joined the Commonwealth of Nations on the same day. Sir Milo Butler was appointed the first Governor-General of the Bahamas (the official representative of Queen Elizabeth II ) shortly after independence. The Bahamas joined the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank on 22 August 1973, and it joined the United Nations on 18 September 1973. Based on the twin pillars of tourism and offshore finance , the Bahamian economy has prospered since the 1950s. Significant challenges in areas such as education, health care, housing, international narcotics trafficking and illegal immigration from Haiti continue to be issues. The University of The Bahamas (UB) is the national higher education/tertiary system. Offering baccalaureate, masters and associate degrees, UB has three campuses, and teaching and research centres throughout the Bahamas. The University of the Bahamas was chartered on November 10, 2016. Geography [ edit ] Main article: Geography of the Bahamas The Bahamas from space. NASA Aqua satellite image, 2009 The country lies between latitudes 20° and 28°N , and longitudes 72° and 80°W . In 1864, the Governor of the Bahamas reported that there were 29 islands, 661 cays, and 2,387 rocks in the colony. The closest island to the United States is Bimini , which is also known as the gateway to the Bahamas. The island of Abaco is to the east of Grand Bahama . The southeasternmost island is Inagua . The largest island is Andros Island . Other inhabited islands include Eleuthera , Cat Island , Rum Cay , Long Island , San Salvador Island , Ragged Island , Acklins , Crooked Island , Exuma , Berry Islands and Mayaguana . Nassau , capital city of the Bahamas, lies on the island of New Providence . All the islands are low and flat, with ridges that usually rise no more than 15 to 20 m (49 to 66 ft). The highest point in the country is Mount Alvernia (formerly Como Hill) on Cat Island. It has an elevation of 63 metres (207 ft). Damaged homes in the Bahamas in the aftermath of Hurricane Wilma in 2005 To the southeast, the Turks and Caicos Islands , and three more extensive submarine features called Mouchoir Bank , Silver Bank and Navidad Bank , are geographically a continuation of the Bahamas. Castaway Cay [ edit ] Main article: Castaway Cay Disney has its own private island in the Bahamas called Castaway Cay . It is located near Great Abaco Island and was formerly known as Gorda Cay. In 1997, The Walt Disney Company purchased a 99-year land lease for the cay from the Bahamian government, set to expire in 2096. Climate [ edit ] See also: Geography of the Bahamas § Climate The climate of the Bahamas is tropical savannah climate or Aw according to Köppen climate classification . The low latitude, warm tropical Gulf Stream , and low elevation give the Bahamas a warm and winterless climate. As such, there has never been a frost or freeze reported in the Bahamas, although every few decades low temperatures can fall below 10 °C (50 °F) for a few hours when a severe cold outbreak comes off the North American mainland. There is only an 8 °C difference between the warmest month and coolest month in most of the Bahama islands. As with most tropical climates, seasonal rainfall follows the sun, and summer is the wettest season. The Bahamas are often sunny and dry for long periods of time, and average more than 3,000 hours or 340 days of sunlight annually. Tropical storms and hurricanes can on occasion impact the Bahamas. In 1992, Hurricane Andrew passed over the northern portions of the islands, and Hurricane Floyd passed near the eastern portions of the islands in 1999. [ hide ] Climate data for Nassau Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Average high °C (°F) 25.4 (77.7) 25.5 (77.9) 26.6 (79.9) 27.9 (82.2) 29.7 (85.5) 31.0 (87.8) 32.0 (89.6) 32.1 (89.8) 31.6 (88.9) 29.9 (85.8) 27.8 (82) 26.2 (79.2) 28.8 (83.9) Daily mean °C (°F) 21.4 (70.5) 21.4 (70.5) 22.3 (72.1) 23.8 (74.8) 25.6 (78.1) 27.2 (81) 28.0 (82.4) 28.1 (82.6) 27.7 (81.9) 26.2 (79.2) 24.2 (75.6) 22.3 (72.1) 24.85 (76.73) Average low °C (°F) 17.3 (63.1) 17.3 (63.1) 17.9 (64.2) 19.6 (67.3) 21.4 (70.5) 23.3 (73.9) 24.0 (75.2) 24.0 (75.2) 23.7 (74.7) 22.5 (72.5) 20.6 (69.1) 18.3 (64.9) 20.8 (69.5) Average precipitation mm (inches) 39.4 (1.551) 49.5 (1.949) 54.4 (2.142) 69.3 (2.728) 105.9 (4.169) 218.2 (8.591) 160.8 (6.331) 235.7 (9.28) 164.1 (6.461) 161.8 (6.37) 80.5 (3.169) 49.8 (1.961) 1,389.4 (54.701) Average precipitation days 8 6 7 8 10 15 17 19 17 15 10 8 140 Mean monthly sunshine hours 220.1 220.4 257.3 276.0 269.7 231.0 272.8 266.6 213.0 223.2 222.0 213.9 2,886 Source: World Meteorological Organization ( UN ), Hong Kong Observatory (sun only) Average Sea Temperature Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 23 °C 73 °F 23 °C 73 °F 24 °C 75 °F 26 °C 79 °F 27 °C 81 °F 28 °C 82 °F 28 °C 82 °F 28 °C 82 °F 28 °C 82 °F 27 °C 81 °F 26 °C 79 °F 24 °C 75 °F Geology [ edit ] The Bahamas is part of the Lucayan Archipelago , which continues into the Turks and Caicos Islands, the Mouchoir Bank , the Silver Bank , and the Navidad Bank . The Bahamas Platform, which includes the Bahamas, Southern Florida, Northern Cuba, the Turks and Caicos, and the Blake Plateau , formed about 150 Ma , not long after the formation of the North Atlantic . The 6.4 km thick limestones , which predominately make up The Bahamas, date back to the Cretaceous . These limestones would have been deposited in shallow seas, assumed to be a stretched and thinned portion of the North American continental crust . Sediments were forming at about the same rate as the crust below was sinking due to the added weight. Thus, the entire area consisted of a large marine plain with some islands. Then, at about 80 Ma, the area became flooded by the Gulf Stream . This resulted in the drowning of the Blake Plateau, the separation of The Bahamas from Cuba and Florida, the separation of the southeastern Bahamas into separate banks, the creation of the Cay Sal Bank , plus the Little and Great Bahama Banks . Sedimentation from the "carbonate factory" of each bank, or atoll , continues today at the rate of about 2 cm per kyr . Coral reefs form the "retaining walls" of these atolls, within which oolites and pellets form. Coral growth was greater through the Tertiary , until the start of the Ice Ages , and hence those deposits are more abundant below a depth of 36 m. In fact, an ancient extinct reef exists half a km seaward of the present one, 30 m below sea level. Oolites form when oceanic water penetrate the shallow banks, increasing the temperature about 3 °C and the salinity by 0.5 per cent. Cemented ooids are referred to as grapestone. Additionally, giant stromatolites are found off the Exuma Cays . Sea level changes resulted in a drop in sea level, causing wind blown oolite to form sand dunes with distinct cross-bedding . Overlapping dunes form oolitic ridges, which become rapidly lithified through the action of rainwater, called eolianite . Most islands have ridges ranging from 30 to 45 m, though Cat Island has a ridge 60 m in height. The land between ridges is conducive to the formation of lakes and swamps. Solution weathering of the limestone results in a "Bahamian Karst " topography. This includes potholes , Blue holes such as Dean's Blue Hole , sinkholes , beachrock such as the Bimini Road ("pavements of Atlantis"), limestone crust , caves due to the lack of rivers, and sea caves . Several blue holes are aligned along the South Andros Fault line. Tidal flats and tidal creeks are common, but the more impressive drainage patterns are formed by troughs and canyons such as Great Bahama Canyon with the evidence of turbidity currents and turbidite deposition. The stratigraphy of the islands consists of the Middle Pleistocene Owl's Hole Formation , overlain by the Late Pleistocene Grotto Beach Formation, and then the Holocene Rice Bay Formation. However, these units are not necessarily stacked on top of each other but can be located laterally. The oldest formation, Owl's Hole, is capped by a terra rosa paleosoil , as is the Grotto Beach, unless eroded . The Grotto Beach Formation is the most widespread. Government and politics [ edit ] Main article: Politics of the Bahamas The Bahamian Parliament , located in Nassau The Bahamas is a parliamentary constitutional monarchy headed by Queen Elizabeth II in her role as Queen of the Bahamas. Political and legal traditions closely follow those of the United Kingdom and the Westminster system . The Bahamas is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations as a Commonwealth realm , retaining the Queen as head of state (represented by a Governor-General ). Legislative power is vested In a bicameral parliament , which consists of a 38-member House of Assembly (the lower house ), with members elected from single-member districts , and a 16-member Senate , with members appointed by the Governor-General, including nine on the advice of the Prime Minister, four on the advice of the Leader of Her Majesty's Loyal Opposition , and three on the advice of the Prime Minister after consultation with the Leader of the Opposition. The House of Assembly carries out all major legislative functions. As under the Westminster system, the Prime Minister may dissolve Parliament and call a general election at any time within a five-year term. The Prime Minister is the head of government and is the leader of the party with the most seats in the House of Assembly. Executive power is exercised by the Cabinet, selected by the Prime Minister and drawn from his supporters in the House of Assembly. The current Governor-General is Dame Marguerite Pindling , and the current Prime Minister is The Rt. Hon. Hubert Minnis M.P. . Constitutional safeguards include freedom of speech , press , worship , movement and association . The Judiciary of the Bahamas is independent of the executive and the legislature. Jurisprudence is based on English law . Political culture [ edit ] The Bahamas has a two-party system dominated by the centre-left Progressive Liberal Party and the centre-right Free National Movement . A handful of splinter parties have been unable to win election to parliament. These parties have included the Bahamas Democratic Movement , the Coalition for Democratic Reform, Bahamian Nationalist Party and the Democratic National Alliance . Foreign relations [ edit ] Further information: Foreign relations of the Bahamas The Bahamas has strong bilateral relationships with the United States and the United Kingdom , represented by an ambassador in Washington and High Commissioner in London . The Bahamas also associates closely with other nations of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM). Armed forces [ edit ] Main article: Royal Bahamas Defence Force HMBS Nassau (P-61) Its military is the Royal Bahamas Defence Force (the RBDF), the navy of the Bahamas which includes a land unit called Commando Squadron (Regiment) and an Air Wing (Air Force). Under the Defence Act, the RBDF has been mandated, in the name of the Queen , to defend the Bahamas, protect its territorial integrity, patrol its waters, provide assistance and relief in times of disaster, maintain order in conjunction with the law enforcement agencies of the Bahamas, and carry out any such duties as determined by the National Security Council. The Defence Force is also a member of the Caribbean Community ( CARICOM )'s Regional Security Task Force. The RBDF came into existence on 31 March 1980. Their duties include defending the Bahamas, stopping drug smuggling , illegal immigration and poaching, and providing assistance to mariners. The Defence Force has a fleet of 26 coastal and inshore patrol craft along with 3 aircraft and over 1,100 personnel including 65 officers and 74 women. Administrative divisions [ edit ] Main article: Local government in the Bahamas Districts of the Bahamas The districts of the Bahamas provide a system of local government everywhere except New Providence (which holds 70% of the national population), whose affairs are handled directly by the central government. In 1996, the Bahamian Parliament passed the "Local Government Act" to facilitate the establishment of Family Island Administrators, Local Government Districts, Local District Councillors and Local Town Committees for the various island communities. The overall goal of this act is to allow the various elected leaders to govern and oversee the affairs of their respective districts without the interference of Central Government. In total, there are 32 districts, with elections being held every five years. There are 110 Councillors and 281 Town Committee members are elected to represent the various districts. Each Councillor or Town Committee member is responsible for the proper use of public funds for the maintenance and development of their constituency. The Bahamas uses drive-on-the-Left traffic rules throughout the Commonwealth. The districts other than New Providence are: Acklins Berry Islands Bimini Black Point , Exuma Cat Island Central Abaco Central Andros Central Eleuthera City of Freeport, Grand Bahama Crooked Island East Grand Bahama Exuma Grand Cay , Abaco Harbour Island , Eleuthera Hope Town , Abaco Inagua Long Island Mangrove Cay , Andros Mayaguana Moore's Island , Abaco North Abaco North Andros North Eleuthera Ragged Island Rum Cay San Salvador South Abaco South Andros South Eleuthera Spanish Wells , Eleuthera West Grand Bahama National flag [ edit ] Main article: Flag of the Bahamas National flag of the Bahamas The colors embodied in the design of the Bahamian flag symbolism the strength of the Bahamian people; the design reflects aspects of the natural environment (sun and sea) and the economic and social development. The flag is a black equilateral triangle against the mast, superimposed on a horizontal background made up of two colors on three equal stripes of aquamarine, gold and aquamarine. Coat of arms [ edit ] Main article: Coat of arms of the Bahamas Bahamian Coat of Arms The coat of arms of the Bahamas contains a shield with the national symbols as its focal point. The shield is supported by a marlin and a flamingo , which are the national animals of the Bahamas. The flamingo is located on the land, and the marlin on the sea, indicating the geography of the islands. On top of the shield is a conch shell, which represents the varied marine life of the island chain. The conch shell rests on a helmet. Below this is the actual shield, the main symbol of which is a ship representing the Santa María of Christopher Columbus, shown sailing beneath the sun. Along the bottom, below the shield appears a banner upon which is the national motto: "Forward, Upward, Onward Together." National flower [ edit ] The yellow elder was chosen as the national flower of the Bahamas because it is native to the Bahama islands, and it blooms throughout the year. Selection of the yellow elder over many other flowers was made through the combined popular vote of members of all four of New Providence's garden clubs of the 1970s—the Nassau Garden Club, the Carver Garden Club, the International Garden Club and the Y.W.C.A. Garden Club. They reasoned that other flowers grown there—such as the bougainvillea , hibiscus and poinciana —had already been chosen as the national flowers of other countries. The yellow elder, on the other hand, was unclaimed by other countries (although it is now also the national flower of the United States Virgin Islands ) and also the yellow elder is native to the family islands. Economy [ edit ] Main article: Economy of the Bahamas By the terms of GDP per capita , the Bahamas is one of the richest countries in the Americas . It was revealed in the Panama Papers that The Bahamas is the jurisdiction with the most offshore entities or companies. Tourism [ edit ] Cruise ships in Nassau Harbour The Bahamas relies on tourism to generate most of its economic activity. Tourism as an industry not only accounts for over 60% of the Bahamian GDP, but provides jobs for more than half the country's workforce. The Bahamas attracted 5.8 million visitors in 2012, more than 70% of whom were cruise visitors. Financial services [ edit ] After tourism, the next most important economic sector is banking and international financial services, accounting for some 15% of GDP. The government has adopted incentives to encourage foreign financial business, and further banking and finance reforms are in progress. The government plans to merge the regulatory functions of key financial institutions, including the Central Bank of the Bahamas (CBB) and the Securities and Exchange Commission. [ citation needed ] The Central Bank administers restrictions and controls on capital and money market instruments. The Bahamas International Securities Exchange consists of 19 listed public companies. Reflecting the relative soundness of the banking system (mostly populated by Canadian banks), the impact of the global financial crisis on the financial sector has been limited. [ citation needed ] A proportional representation of the Bahamas exports. The economy has a very competitive tax regime. The government derives its revenue from import tariffs, VAT , licence fees, property and stamp taxes, but there is no income tax, corporate tax, capital gains tax, or wealth tax. Payroll taxes fund social insurance benefits and amount to 3.9% paid by the employee and 5.9% paid by the employer. In 2010, overall tax revenue as a percentage of GDP was 17.2%. Agriculture [ edit ] Further information: Agriculture in the Bahamas Agriculture is the third largest sector of the Bahamian economy, representing 5–7% of total GDP. An estimated 80% of the Bahamian food supply is imported. Major crops include onions , okra , tomatoes , oranges , grapefruit , cucumbers , sugar cane , lemons , limes , and sweet potatoes . Demographics [ edit ] Main article: Demographics of the Bahamas The Bahamas has an estimated population of 391,232, of which 25.9% are under 14, 67.2% 15 to 64 and 6.9% over 65. It has a population growth rate of 0.925% (2010), with a birth rate of 17.81/1,000 population, death rate of 9.35/1,000, and net migration rate of −2.13 migrant(s)/1,000 population. The infant mortality rate is 23.21 deaths/1,000 live births. Residents have a life expectancy at birth of 69.87 years: 73.49 years for females, 66.32 years for males. The total fertility rate is 2.0 children born/woman (2010). The most populous islands are New Providence, where Nassau, the capital and largest city, is located; and Grand Bahama, home to the second largest city of Freeport . Racial and ethnic groups [ edit ] According to the 99% response rate obtained from the race question on the 2010 Census questionnaire, 90.6% of the population identified themselves as being Black, 4.7% White and 2.1% of a mixed race (Black and White). Three centuries prior, in 1722 when the first official census of the Bahamas was taken, 74% of the population was White and 26% Black. Afro-Bahamian children at a local school Since the colonial era of plantations, Africans or Afro-Bahamians have been the largest ethnic group in the Bahamas, whose primary ancestry was based in West Africa . The first Africans to arrive to the Bahamas were freed slaves from Bermuda ; they arrived with the Eleutheran Adventurers looking for new lives. The Haitian community in the Bahamas is also largely of African descent and numbers about 80,000. Due to an extremely high immigration of Haitians to the Bahamas, the Bahamian government started deporting illegal Haitian immigrants to their homeland in late 2014. The White Bahamian population are mainly the descendants of the English Puritans looking to flee religious persecution in England and American Loyalists escaping the American Revolution who arrived in 1649 and 1783, respectively. Many Southern Loyalists went to the Abaco Islands , half of whose population was of European descent as of 1985. The term white is usually used to identify Bahamians with Anglo ancestry, as well as "light-skinned" Afro-Bahamians. Sometimes Bahamians use the term Conchy Joe to describe people of Anglo descent. A small portion of the Euro-Bahamian population is descended from Greek labourers who came to help develop the sponging industry in the 1900s. They make up less than 1% of the nation's population, but have still preserved their distinct Greek Bahamian culture. [ citation needed ] Bahamians typically identify themselves simply as either black or white . Languages [ edit ] The official language of the Bahamas is English. Many people speak an English-based creole language called Bahamian dialect (known simply as "dialect") or "Bahamianese." Laurente Gibbs, a Bahamian writer and actor was the first to coin the latter name in a poem and has since promoted its usage. Both are used as autoglossonyms. Haitian Creole , a French-based creole language is spoken by Haitians and their descendants, who make up of about 25% of the total population. It is known simply as Creole to differentiate languages. Also note that the Bahamas was once under British rule and therefore the English taught in the Bahamian schools is still "British-based". Religion [ edit ] Further information: Religion in the Bahamas Religion in the Bahamas (2010) Protestant (80%) Roman Catholic (14.5%) Other Christian (1.3%) Unaffiliated (3.1%) Other religion (1.1%) According to International Religious Freedom Report 2008 prepared by United States Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, the islands' population is predominantly Christian . Protestant denominations are widespread and collectively account for more than 70% of the population, with Baptists representing 35% of the population, Anglicans 15%, Pentecostals 8%, Church of God 5%, Seventh-day Adventists 5% and Methodists 4%. There is also a significant Roman Catholic community accounting for about 14%. There are also smaller communities of Jews , Muslims , Baha'is , Hindus , Rastafarians and practitioners of Obeah . Culture [ edit ] Main articles: Culture of the Bahamas and Music of the Bahamas Junkanoo celebration in Nassau In the less developed outer islands (or Family Islands), handicrafts include basketry made from palm fronds. This material, commonly called "straw", is plaited into hats and bags that are popular tourist items. Another use is for so-called "Voodoo dolls", even though such dolls are the result of the American imagination and not based on historic fact. A form of folk magic ( obeah ) is practiced by some Bahamians, mainly in the Family Islands (out-islands) of the Bahamas. The practice of obeah is illegal in the Bahamas and punishable by law. Junkanoo is a traditional Afro-Bahamian street parade of 'rushing', music, dance and art held in Nassau (and a few other settlements) every Boxing Day and New Year's Day . Junkanoo is also used to celebrate other holidays and events such as Emancipation Day. Regattas are important social events in many family island settlements. They usually feature one or more days of sailing by old-fashioned work boats , as well as an onshore festival. Many dishes are associated with Bahamian cuisine , which reflects Caribbean, African and European influences. Some settlements have festivals associated with the traditional crop or food of that area, such as the "Pineapple Fest" in Gregory Town, Eleuthera or the "Crab Fest" on Andros. Other significant traditions include story telling . Bahamians have created a rich literature of poetry, short stories, plays and short fictional works. Common themes in these works are (1) an awareness of change, (2) a striving for sophistication, (3) a search for identity, (4) nostalgia for the old ways and (5) an appreciation of beauty. Some contributing writers are Susan Wallace, Percival Miller, Robert Johnson, Raymond Brown, O.M. Smith, William Johnson, Eddie Minnis and Winston Saunders. Bahamas culture is rich with beliefs, traditions, folklore and legend. The most well-known folklore and legends in the Bahamas includes Lusca in Andros Bahamas, Pretty Molly on Exuma Bahamas, the Chickcharnies of Andro Bahamas, and the Lost City of Atlantis on Bimini Bahamas. Sport [ edit ] Sport is a significant part of Bahamian culture. The national sport is cricket . Cricket has been played in the Bahamas from 1846. It is the oldest sport being played in the country today. The Bahamas Cricket Association was formed in 1936 as an organised body. From the 1940s to the 1970s, cricket was played amongst many Bahamians. Bahamas is not a part of the West Indies Cricket Board , so players are not eligible to play for the West Indies cricket team . The late 1970s saw the game begin to decline in the country as teachers, who had previously come from the United Kingdom with a passion for cricket were replaced by teachers who had been trained in the United States. The Bahamian Physical education teachers had no knowledge of the game and instead taught track & field , basketball , baseball , softball , volleyball and football where primary and high schools compete against each other. Today cricket is still enjoyed by a few locals and immigrants in the country usually from Jamaica , Guyana , Haiti and Barbados . Cricket is played on Saturdays and Sundays at Windsor Park and Haynes Oval. The only other sporting event that began before cricket was horse racing , which started in 1796. The most popular spectator sports are those imported from United States, such as basketball , American football and baseball rather than Great Britain due to the country's close proximity to the United States. Unlike their other Caribbean counterparts, cricket , rugby , and netball have proven to be more popular. Dexter Cambridge , Rick Fox , Ian Lockhart and Buddy Hield are a few Bahamians who joined Bahamian Mychal Thompson of the Los Angeles Lakers in the NBA ranks, Over the years American football has become much more popular than association football , though not implemented in the high school system yet. Leagues for teens and adults have been developed by the Bahamas American Football Federation. However association football, commonly known as 'soccer' in the country, is still a very popular sport amongst high school pupils. Leagues are governed by the Bahamas Football Association . Recently the Bahamian government has been working closely with Tottenham Hotspur of London to promote the sport in the country as well as promoting the Bahamas in the European market. In 2013 'Spurs' became the first Premier League club to play an exhibition match in the Bahamas to face the Jamaica national football team . Joe Lewis , the owner of the Tottenham Hotspur club, is based in the Bahamas. Other popular sports are swimming , tennis and boxing where Bahamians have enjoyed some degree of success at the international level. Other sports such as golf , rugby league , rugby union beach soccer and netball are considered growing sports. Athletics commonly known as track and field in the country is the most successful sport by far amongst Bahamians. Bahamians have a strong tradition in the sprints and jumps. Track and field is probably the most popular spectator sport in the country next to basketball due to their success over the years. Triathlons are gaining popularity in Nassau and the Family Islands. Bahamians have gone on to win numerous track and field medals at the Olympic Games , IAAF World Championships in Athletics , Commonwealth Games and Pan American Games . Frank Rutherford is the first athletics olympic medalist for the country. He won a bronze medal for triple jump during the 1992 Summer Olympics . Pauline Davis-Thompson , Debbie Ferguson , Chandra Sturrup , Savatheda Fynes and Eldece Clarke-Lewis teamed up for the first athletics Olympic Gold medal for the country when they won the 4 × 100 m relay at the 2000 Summer Olympics . They are affectionately known as the "Golden Girls". Tonique Williams-Darling became the first athletics individual Olympic gold medalist when she won the 400m sprint in 2004 Summer Olympics . In 2007, with the disqualification of Marion Jones , Pauline Davis-Thompson was advanced to the gold medal position in the 200 metres at the 2000 Olympics , predating William-Darling. The Bahamas were hosts of the first men's senior FIFA tournament to be staged in the Caribbean, the 2017 FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup . Education [ edit ] Main article: Education in the Bahamas According to 1995 estimates 98.2% of the adult population is literate. [ citation needed ] In popular culture [ edit ] Scenes from the final Jaws movie ( Jaws: The Revenge ) were filmed on a New Providence Island beach now known as "Jaws Beach". The fourth official James Bond film , Thunderball (1965), was partly filmed in Nassau , where much of the story is set. Eon Productions were to return for filming underwater sequences in the famously clear waters, even when a Bond film's story was set elsewhere; for example, for The Spy Who Loved Me (1977). The unofficial remake of Thunderball , Never Say Never Again (1983), was similarly partly filmed in the islands, though this version of the story was not as extensively set there. The twenty-first official James Bond film , Casino Royale (2006), was in part set and filmed in the islands. The Beatles ' film Help! was filmed in part on New Providence Island and Paradise Island also in 1965. Nassau is featured in the 2013 video game Assassin's Creed IV: Black Flag as a pirate haven, housing the main protagonists. Historical pirates are encountered there such as Benjamin Hornigold , Edward Teach /Blackbeard, Charles Vane , "Calico" Jack Rackham , Anne Bonney and Mary Read . See also [ edit ] West Indies portal Caricom portal Commonwealth realms portal Bahamas portal New Spain portal Bahamas – Wikipedia book Outline of the Bahamas Index of Bahamas-related articles Bibliography of the Bahamas References [ edit ] Bibliography [ edit ] Horne, Gerald (2012). Negro Comrades of the Crown: African Americans and the British Empire Fight the U.S. Before Emancipation . NYU Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-4463-5 . Higham, Charles (1988). The Dutchess of Windsor: The Secret Life . McGraw Hill. ISBN 0471485233 . Further reading [ edit ] General history [ edit ] Cash Philip et al. (Don Maples, Alison Packer). The Making of The Bahamas: A History for Schools . London: Collins, 1978. Miller, Hubert W. The Colonization of The Bahamas, 1647–1670, The William and Mary Quarterly 2 no.1 (January 1945): 33–46. Craton, Michael. A History of The Bahamas . London: Collins, 1962. Craton, Michael and Saunders, Gail. Islanders in the Stream: A History of the Bahamian People . Athens: University of Georgia Press , 1992 Collinwood, Dean. "Columbus and the Discovery of Self," Weber Studies , Vol. 9 No. 3 (Fall) 1992: 29–44. Dodge, Steve. Abaco: The History of an Out Island and its Cays , Tropic Isle Publications, 1983. Dodge, Steve. The Compleat Guide to Nassau , White Sound Press, 1987. Boultbee, Paul G. The Bahamas. Oxford: ABC-Clio Press, 1990. Wood, David E., comp., A Guide to Selected Sources to the History of the Seminole Settlements of Red Bays, Andros, 1817–1980 , Nassau: Department of Archives Economic history [ edit ] Johnson, Howard. The Bahamas in Slavery and Freedom . Kingston: Ian Randle Publishing, 1991. Johnson, Howard. The Bahamas from Slavery to Servitude, 1783–1933 . Gainesville: University of Florida Press , 1996. Alan A. Block. Masters of Paradise , New Brunswick and London, Transaction Publishers, 1998. Storr, Virgil H. Enterprising Slaves and Master Pirates: Understanding Economic Life in the Bahamas . New York: Peter Lang , 2004. Social history [ edit ] Johnson, Wittington B. Race Relations in the Bahamas, 1784–1834: The Nonviolent Transformation from a Slave to a Free Society , Fayetteville: University of Arkansas , 2000. Shirley, Paul. "Tek Force Wid Force", History Today 54, no. 41 (April 2004): 30–35. Saunders, Gail. The Social Life in the Bahamas 1880s–1920s . Nassau: Media Publishing, 1996. Saunders, Gail. Bahamas Society After Emancipation . Kingston: Ian Randle Publishing, 1990. Curry, Jimmy. Filthy Rich Gangster/First Bahamian Movie . Movie Mogul Pictures: 1996. Curry, Jimmy. To the Rescue/First Bahamian Rap/Hip Hop Song . Royal Crown Records, 1985. Collinwood, Dean. The Bahamas Between Worlds , White Sound Press, 1989. Collinwood, Dean and Steve Dodge. Modern Bahamian Society , Caribbean Books, 1989. Dodge, Steve, Robert McIntire and Dean Collinwood. The Bahamas Index , White Sound Press, 1989. Collinwood, Dean. "The Bahamas," in The Whole World Handbook 1992–1995 , 12th ed., New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994. Collinwood, Dean. "The Bahamas," chapters in Jack W. Hopkins, ed., Latin American and Caribbean Contemporary Record , Vols. 1,2,3,4, Holmes and Meier Publishers, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1986. Collinwood, Dean. "Problems of Research and Training in Small Islands with a Social Science Faculty," in Social Science in Latin America and the Caribbean , UNESCO, No. 48, 1982. Collinwood, Dean and Rick Phillips, "The National Literature of the New Bahamas," Weber Studies , Vol.7, No. 1 (Spring) 1990: 43–62. Collinwood, Dean. "Writers, Social Scientists and Sexual Norms in the Caribbean," Tsuda Review , No. 31 (November) 1986: 45–57. Collinwood, Dean. "Terra Incognita: Research on the Modern Bahamian Society," Journal of Caribbean Studies, Vol. 1, Nos. 2–3 (Winter) 1981: 284–297. Collinwood, Dean and Steve Dodge. "Political Leadership in the Bahamas," The Bahamas Research Institute, No.1, May 1987. External links [ edit ] Official website Wikimedia Atlas of Bahamas "Bahamas" . The World Factbook . Central Intelligence Agency . The Bahamas from UCB Libraries GovPubs The Bahamas at Curlie (based on DMOZ ) The Bahamas from the BBC News Key Development Forecasts for The Bahamas from International Futures Maps of the Bahamas from the American Geographical Society Library

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where are the bahamas islands located on a map

The Bahamas (/ bəˈhɑːməz / (listen)), known officially as the Commonwealth of The Bahamas, is an archipelagic state within the Lucayan Archipelago. It consists of more than 700 islands, cays, and islets in the Atlantic Ocean, and is located north of Cuba and Hispaniola (Haiti and the Dominican Republic), northwest of the Turks and Caicos Islands, southeast of the United States state of Florida, and east of the Florida Keys. The capital is Nassau on the island of New Providence. The designation of `` the Bahamas '' can refer either to the country or to the larger island chain that it shares with the Turks and Caicos Islands. The Royal Bahamas Defence Force describes the Bahamas territory as encompassing 470,000 km (180,000 sq mi) of ocean space.

['1901']

ibo ní àwọn erékùṣù bahamas wà lórí àwòrán ilẹ̀

No

['O budo si inu Okun Atlantiki ni ariwa Kuba ati Hispaniola (Dominiki Olominira ati Haiti), ariwaiwoorun awon Erekusu Turks ati Caicos, ati guusuilaorun orile-ede Awon Ipinle Aparapo ile Amerika (nitosi ipinle Florida).']

['O budo si inu Okun Atlantiki ni ariwa Kuba ati Hispaniola ariwaiwoorun awon Erekusu Turks ati Caicos, ati guusuilaorun orile-ede Awon Ipinle Aparapo ile Amerika']

['P1']

Àwọn Bàhámà (pípè /ðə bəˈhɑːməz/ ( listen ) ) tabi lonibise bi Orílẹ̀-èdè Àjọni ilẹ̀ awọn Bàhámà , je orile-ede elede Geesi to ni awon erekusu 29, 661 cays , ati 2,387 erekusu kekere 2,387 (apata). O budo si inu Okun Atlantiki ni ariwa Kuba ati Hispaniola ( Dominiki Olominira ati Haiti ), ariwaiwoorun awon Erekusu Turks ati Caicos , ati guusuilaorun orile-ede Awon Ipinle Aparapo ile Amerika (nitosi ipinle Florida ). Apapo iye aala ile re je 13,939 km 2 (5,382 sq. mi.), pelu idiye olugbe to to 330,000. Oluilu re ni Nassau . Bi jeografi, awon Bahama wa ni asopo erekusu kanna bi Kuba , Hispaniola ( Dominiki Olominira ati Haiti ) ati Awon Erekusu Turks ati Caicos . Awon onibudo ibe tele ni awon Taino ti Arawaka , awon Bahama ni ibi ti Columbus koko gunle si ni Ile Aye Tuntun ni 1492. Botilejepe awon ara Spein ko se amunisin awon Bahama, won ko awon Lucaya abinibi ibe (eyi ni oruko ti awon Taino Bahama unpe ara won) lo si oko eru ni Hispaniola. Lati 1513 de 1650 enikankan ko gbe ori awon erekusu yi, ko to di pe awon olumunisin ara Britani lati Bermuda tedo si erekusu Eleuthera . Itoka [ àtúnṣe | àtúnṣe àmìọ̀rọ̀ ]

"Bahama" and "Bahamas" redirect here. For other uses, see Bahama (disambiguation) . Coordinates : 24°15′N 76°00′W  /  24.250°N 76.000°W  / 24.250; -76.000 The Bahamas ( / b ə ˈ h ɑː m ə z / ( listen ) ), known officially as the Commonwealth of The Bahamas , is an archipelagic state within the Lucayan Archipelago . It consists of more than 700 islands , cays , and islets in the Atlantic Ocean , and is located north of Cuba and Hispaniola ( Haiti and the Dominican Republic ), northwest of the Turks and Caicos Islands , southeast of the United States state of Florida , and east of the Florida Keys . The capital is Nassau on the island of New Providence . The designation of "the Bahamas" can refer either to the country or to the larger island chain that it shares with the Turks and Caicos Islands . The Royal Bahamas Defence Force describes the Bahamas territory as encompassing 470,000 km 2 (180,000 sq mi) of ocean space. The Bahamas is the site of Columbus ' first landfall in the New World in 1492. At that time, the islands were inhabited by the Lucayan , a branch of the Arawakan -speaking Taino people. Although the Spanish never colonised The Bahamas, they shipped the native Lucayans to slavery in Hispaniola. The islands were mostly deserted from 1513 until 1648, when English colonists from Bermuda settled on the island of Eleuthera . The Bahamas became a British crown colony in 1718, when the British clamped down on piracy . After the American War of Independence , the Crown resettled thousands of American Loyalists in the Bahamas; they brought their slaves with them and established plantations on land grants. Africans constituted the majority of the population from this period. The slave trade was abolished by the British in 1807; slavery in the Bahamas was abolished in 1834. Subsequently, the Bahamas became a haven for freed African slaves; the Royal Navy resettled Africans there liberated from illegal slave ships, American slaves and Seminoles escaped here from Florida, and the government freed American slaves carried on United States domestic ships that had reached the Bahamas due to weather. Today, Afro-Bahamians make up nearly 90% of the population. The Bahamas became an independent Commonwealth realm in 1973, retaining the British monarch, then and currently Queen Elizabeth II , as its head of state. In terms of gross domestic product per capita, The Bahamas is one of the richest countries in the Americas (following the United States and Canada), with an economy based on tourism and finance. Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2.1 18th–19th centuries 2.2 20th century 2.3 Post-Second World War 3 Geography 3.1 Castaway Cay 3.2 Climate 4 Geology 5 Government and politics 5.1 Political culture 5.2 Foreign relations 5.3 Armed forces 5.4 Administrative divisions 5.5 National flag 5.6 Coat of arms 5.7 National flower 6 Economy 6.1 Tourism 6.2 Financial services 6.3 Agriculture 7 Demographics 7.1 Racial and ethnic groups 7.2 Languages 7.3 Religion 8 Culture 8.1 Sport 9 Education 10 In popular culture 11 Notable residents 12 See also 13 References 14 Bibliography 15 Further reading 15.1 General history 15.2 Economic history 15.3 Social history 16 External links Etymology [ edit ] The name Bahamas is most likely derived from either the Taíno ba ha ma ("big upper middle land"), which was a term for the region used by the indigenous Native Americans, or possibly from the Spanish baja mar ("shallow water or sea" or " low tide ") reflecting the shallow waters of the area. Alternatively, it may originate from Guanahani , a local name of unclear meaning. A peculiarity of the name is that the word The is a formal part of the abbreviated name and is, therefore, capitalised. So in contrast to "the Congo" and "the United Kingdom", it is proper to write "The Bahamas". History [ edit ] Main article: History of The Bahamas A depiction of Columbus' first landing, claiming possession of the New World for Spain in caravels ; the Niña and the Pinta , on Watling Island, an island of The Bahamas that the natives called Guanahani and that he named San Salvador , on 12 October 1492. Taino people moved into the uninhabited southern Bahamas from Hispaniola and Cuba around the 11th century, having migrated there from South America. They came to be known as the Lucayan people . An estimated 30,000 Lucayan inhabited the Bahamas at the time of Christopher Columbus ' arrival in 1492. Columbus's first landfall in the New World was on an island he named San Salvador (known to the Lucayan as Guanahani ). Some researchers believe this site to be present-day San Salvador Island (formerly known as Watling's Island), situated in the southeastern Bahamas. An alternative theory holds that Columbus landed to the southeast on Samana Cay , according to calculations made in 1986 by National Geographic writer and editor Joseph Judge , based on Columbus's log. Evidence in support of this remains inconclusive. On the landfall island, Columbus made first contact with the Lucayan and exchanged goods with them. The Spanish forced much of the Lucayan population to Hispaniola for use as forced labour. The slaves suffered from harsh conditions and most died from contracting diseases to which they had no immunity ; half of the Taino died from smallpox alone. The population of the Bahamas was severely diminished. In 1648, the Eleutherian Adventurers , led by William Sayle , migrated from Bermuda. These English Puritans established the first permanent European settlement on an island which they named Eleuthera —the name derives from the Greek word for freedom. They later settled New Providence , naming it Sayle's Island after one of their leaders. To survive, the settlers salvaged goods from wrecks . In 1670, King Charles II granted the islands to the Lords Proprietors of the Carolinas in North America. They rented the islands from the king with rights of trading, tax, appointing governors , and administering the country. In 1684 Spanish corsair Juan de Alcon raided the capital , Charles Town (later renamed Nassau ). In 1703, a joint Franco-Spanish expedition briefly occupied the Bahamian capital during the War of the Spanish Succession . 18th–19th centuries [ edit ] Sign at Bill Baggs Cape Florida State Park commemorating hundreds of African-American slaves who escaped to freedom in the early 1820s in the Bahamas During proprietary rule, the Bahamas became a haven for pirates , including the infamous Blackbeard ( circa 1680–1718). To put an end to the ' Pirates' republic ' and restore orderly government, Britain made the Bahamas a crown colony in 1718 under the royal governorship of Woodes Rogers . After a difficult struggle, he succeeded in suppressing piracy. In 1720, Rogers led local militia to drive off a Spanish attack . During the American War of Independence in the late 18th century, the islands became a target for American naval forces under the command of Commodore Esek Hopkins . US Marines occupied the capital of Nassau for a fortnight . In 1782, following the British defeat at Yorktown , a Spanish fleet appeared off the coast of Nassau. The city surrendered without a fight . Spain returned possession of the Bahamas to Britain the following year, under the terms of the Treaty of Paris . Before the news was received, however, the islands were recaptured by a small British force led by Andrew Deveaux . After American independence, the British resettled some 7,300 Loyalists with their slaves in the Bahamas, and granted land to the planters to help compensate for losses on the continent. These Loyalists, who included Deveaux, established plantations on several islands and became a political force in the capital. European Americans were outnumbered by the African-American slaves they brought with them, and ethnic Europeans remained a minority in the territory. In 1807, the British abolished the slave trade , followed by the United States the next year. During the following decades, the Royal Navy intercepted the trade; they resettled in the Bahamas thousands of Africans liberated from slave ships. In the 1820s during the period of the Seminole Wars in Florida, hundreds of American slaves and African Seminoles escaped from Cape Florida to the Bahamas. They settled mostly on northwest Andros Island , where they developed the village of Red Bays. From eyewitness accounts, 300 escaped in a mass flight in 1823, aided by Bahamians in 27 sloops , with others using canoes for the journey. This was commemorated in 2004 by a large sign at Bill Baggs Cape Florida State Park . Some of their descendants in Red Bays continue African Seminole traditions in basket making and grave marking. The United States' National Park Service , which administers the National Underground Railroad Network to Freedom, is working with the African Bahamian Museum and Research Center (ABAC) in Nassau on development to identify Red Bays as a site related to American slaves' search for freedom. The museum has researched and documented the African Seminoles' escape from southern Florida. It plans to develop interpretive programs at historical sites in Red Bay associated with the period of their settlement in the Bahamas. In 1818, the Home Office in London had ruled that "any slave brought to the Bahamas from outside the British West Indies would be manumitted." This led to a total of nearly 300 slaves owned by US nationals being freed from 1830 to 1835. The American slave ships Comet and Encomium used in the United States domestic coastwise slave trade , were wrecked off Abaco Island in December 1830 and February 1834, respectively. When wreckers took the masters, passengers and slaves into Nassau, customs officers seized the slaves and British colonial officials freed them, over the protests of the Americans. There were 165 slaves on the Comet and 48 on the Encomium . Britain finally paid an indemnity to the United States in those two cases in 1855, under the Treaty of Claims of 1853, which settled several compensation cases between the two nations. Slavery was abolished in the British Empire on 1 August 1834. After that British colonial officials freed 78 American slaves from the Enterprise , which went into Bermuda in 1835; and 38 from the Hermosa , which wrecked off Abaco Island in 1840. The most notable case was that of the Creole in 1841: as a result of a slave revolt on board, the leaders ordered the American brig to Nassau. It was carrying 135 slaves from Virginia destined for sale in New Orleans . The Bahamian officials freed the 128 slaves who chose to stay in the islands. The Creole case has been described as the "most successful slave revolt in U.S. history". These incidents, in which a total of 447 slaves belonging to US nationals were freed from 1830 to 1842, increased tension between the United States and Great Britain . They had been co-operating in patrols to suppress the international slave trade. But, worried about the stability of its large domestic slave trade and its value, the United States argued that Britain should not treat its domestic ships that came to its colonial ports under duress, as part of the international trade. The United States worried that the success of the Creole slaves in gaining freedom would encourage more slave revolts on merchant ships. 20th century [ edit ] The Duke of Windsor and Governor of the Bahamas from 1940 to 1945 In August 1940, the Duke of Windsor was appointed Governor of the Bahamas . He arrived in the colony with his wife, the Duchess . Although disheartened at the condition of Government House, they "tried to make the best of a bad situation". He did not enjoy the position, and referred to the islands as "a third-class British colony". He opened the small local parliament on 29 October 1940. The couple visited the "Out Islands" that November, on Axel Wenner-Gren 's yacht, which caused controversy; the British Foreign Office strenuously objected because they had been advised (mistakenly) by United States intelligence that Wenner-Gren was a close friend of the Luftwaffe commander Hermann Göring of Nazi Germany. The Duke was praised at the time for his efforts to combat poverty on the islands. A 1991 biography by Philip Ziegler, however, described him as contemptuous of the Bahamians and other non-European peoples of the Empire. He was praised for his resolution of civil unrest over low wages in Nassau in June 1942, when there was a "full-scale riot". Ziegler said that the Duke blamed the trouble on "mischief makers – communists " and "men of Central European Jewish descent, who had secured jobs as a pretext for obtaining a deferment of draft". The Duke resigned from the post on 16 March 1945. Post-Second World War [ edit ] Sign at the entrance of the Sir Roland Symonette Park in North Eleuthera district commemorating Sir Roland Theodore Symonette , the Bahamas' first Premier Modern political development began after the Second World War . The first political parties were formed in the 1950s. The British Parliament authorised the islands as internally self-governing in 1964, with Sir Roland Symonette , of the United Bahamian Party , as the first Premier. A new constitution granting the Bahamas internal autonomy went into effect on 7 January 1964. In 1967, Lynden Pindling of the Progressive Liberal Party , became the first native born Premier of the majority native Bahamian colony; in 1968 the title of the position was changed to Prime Minister . In 1968, Pindling announced that the Bahamas would seek full independence. A new constitution giving the Bahamas increased control over its own affairs was adopted in 1968. The British House of Lords voted to give the Bahamas its independence on 22 June 1973. Prince Charles delivered the official documents to Prime Minister Lynden Pindling , officially declaring the Bahamas a fully independent nation on 10 July 1973. It joined the Commonwealth of Nations on the same day. Sir Milo Butler was appointed the first Governor-General of the Bahamas (the official representative of Queen Elizabeth II ) shortly after independence. The Bahamas joined the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank on 22 August 1973, and it joined the United Nations on 18 September 1973. Based on the twin pillars of tourism and offshore finance , the Bahamian economy has prospered since the 1950s. Significant challenges in areas such as education, health care, housing, international narcotics trafficking and illegal immigration from Haiti continue to be issues. The University of The Bahamas (UB) is the national higher education/tertiary system. Offering baccalaureate, masters and associate degrees, UB has three campuses, and teaching and research centres throughout the Bahamas. The University of The Bahamas was chartered on 10 November 2016. Geography [ edit ] Main article: Geography of the Bahamas The Bahamas from space. NASA Aqua satellite image, 2009 The country lies between latitudes 20° and 28°N , and longitudes 72° and 80°W . In 1864, the Governor of the Bahamas reported that there were 29 islands, 661 cays, and 2,387 rocks in the colony. The closest island to the United States is Bimini , which is also known as the gateway to the Bahamas. The island of Abaco is to the east of Grand Bahama . The southeasternmost island is Inagua . The largest island is Andros Island . Other inhabited islands include Eleuthera , Cat Island , Rum Cay , Long Island , San Salvador Island , Ragged Island , Acklins , Crooked Island , Exuma , Berry Islands and Mayaguana . Nassau , capital city of the Bahamas, lies on the island of New Providence . All the islands are low and flat, with ridges that usually rise no more than 15 to 20 m (49 to 66 ft). The highest point in the country is Mount Alvernia (formerly Como Hill) on Cat Island. It has an elevation of 63 metres (207 ft). Damaged homes in the Bahamas in the aftermath of Hurricane Wilma in 2005 To the southeast, the Turks and Caicos Islands , and three more extensive submarine features called Mouchoir Bank , Silver Bank and Navidad Bank , are geographically a continuation of the Bahamas. Castaway Cay [ edit ] Main article: Castaway Cay Disney has its own private island in the Bahamas called Castaway Cay . It is located near Great Abaco Island and was formerly known as Gorda Cay. In 1997, The Walt Disney Company purchased a 99-year land lease for the cay from the Bahamian government, set to expire in 2096. Climate [ edit ] See also: Geography of the Bahamas § Climate The climate of the Bahamas is tropical savannah climate or Aw according to Köppen climate classification . The low latitude, warm tropical Gulf Stream , and low elevation give the Bahamas a warm and winterless climate. As such, there has never been a frost or freeze reported in the Bahamas, although every few decades low temperatures can fall below 10 °C (50 °F) for a few hours when a severe cold outbreak comes off the North American mainland. There is only an 8 °C difference between the warmest month and coolest month in most of the Bahama islands. As with most tropical climates, seasonal rainfall follows the sun, and summer is the wettest season. The Bahamas are often sunny and dry for long periods of time, and average more than 3,000 hours or 340 days of sunlight annually. Tropical storms and hurricanes can on occasion impact the Bahamas. In 1992, Hurricane Andrew passed over the northern portions of the islands, and Hurricane Floyd passed near the eastern portions of the islands in 1999. hide Climate data for Nassau Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Average high °C (°F) 25.4 (77.7) 25.5 (77.9) 26.6 (79.9) 27.9 (82.2) 29.7 (85.5) 31.0 (87.8) 32.0 (89.6) 32.1 (89.8) 31.6 (88.9) 29.9 (85.8) 27.8 (82) 26.2 (79.2) 28.8 (83.9) Daily mean °C (°F) 21.4 (70.5) 21.4 (70.5) 22.3 (72.1) 23.8 (74.8) 25.6 (78.1) 27.2 (81) 28.0 (82.4) 28.1 (82.6) 27.7 (81.9) 26.2 (79.2) 24.2 (75.6) 22.3 (72.1) 24.8 (76.7) Average low °C (°F) 17.3 (63.1) 17.3 (63.1) 17.9 (64.2) 19.6 (67.3) 21.4 (70.5) 23.3 (73.9) 24.0 (75.2) 24.0 (75.2) 23.7 (74.7) 22.5 (72.5) 20.6 (69.1) 18.3 (64.9) 20.8 (69.5) Average precipitation mm (inches) 39.4 (1.551) 49.5 (1.949) 54.4 (2.142) 69.3 (2.728) 105.9 (4.169) 218.2 (8.591) 160.8 (6.331) 235.7 (9.28) 164.1 (6.461) 161.8 (6.37) 80.5 (3.169) 49.8 (1.961) 1,389.4 (54.701) Average precipitation days 8 6 7 8 10 15 17 19 17 15 10 8 140 Mean monthly sunshine hours 220.1 220.4 257.3 276.0 269.7 231.0 272.8 266.6 213.0 223.2 222.0 213.9 2,886 Source: World Meteorological Organization ( UN ), Hong Kong Observatory (sun only) Average Sea Temperature Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 23 °C 73 °F 23 °C 73 °F 24 °C 75 °F 26 °C 79 °F 27 °C 81 °F 28 °C 82 °F 28 °C 82 °F 28 °C 82 °F 28 °C 82 °F 27 °C 81 °F 26 °C 79 °F 24 °C 75 °F Geology [ edit ] The Bahamas is part of the Lucayan Archipelago , which continues into the Turks and Caicos Islands, the Mouchoir Bank , the Silver Bank , and the Navidad Bank . The Bahamas Platform, which includes the Bahamas, Southern Florida, Northern Cuba, the Turks and Caicos, and the Blake Plateau , formed about 150 Ma , not long after the formation of the North Atlantic . The 6.4 km thick limestones , which predominately make up The Bahamas, date back to the Cretaceous . These limestones would have been deposited in shallow seas, assumed to be a stretched and thinned portion of the North American continental crust . Sediments were forming at about the same rate as the crust below was sinking due to the added weight. Thus, the entire area consisted of a large marine plain with some islands. Then, at about 80 Ma, the area became flooded by the Gulf Stream . This resulted in the drowning of the Blake Plateau, the separation of The Bahamas from Cuba and Florida, the separation of the southeastern Bahamas into separate banks, the creation of the Cay Sal Bank , plus the Little and Great Bahama Banks . Sedimentation from the "carbonate factory" of each bank, or atoll , continues today at the rate of about 2 cm per kyr . Coral reefs form the "retaining walls" of these atolls, within which oolites and pellets form. Coral growth was greater through the Tertiary , until the start of the Ice Ages , and hence those deposits are more abundant below a depth of 36 m. In fact, an ancient extinct reef exists half a km seaward of the present one, 30 m below sea level. Oolites form when oceanic water penetrate the shallow banks, increasing the temperature about 3 °C and the salinity by 0.5 per cent. Cemented ooids are referred to as grapestone. Additionally, giant stromatolites are found off the Exuma Cays . Sea level changes resulted in a drop in sea level, causing wind blown oolite to form sand dunes with distinct cross-bedding . Overlapping dunes form oolitic ridges, which become rapidly lithified through the action of rainwater, called eolianite . Most islands have ridges ranging from 30 to 45 m, though Cat Island has a ridge 60 m in height. The land between ridges is conducive to the formation of lakes and swamps. Solution weathering of the limestone results in a "Bahamian Karst " topography. This includes potholes , Blue holes such as Dean's Blue Hole , sinkholes , beachrock such as the Bimini Road ("pavements of Atlantis"), limestone crust , caves due to the lack of rivers, and sea caves . Several blue holes are aligned along the South Andros Fault line. Tidal flats and tidal creeks are common, but the more impressive drainage patterns are formed by troughs and canyons such as Great Bahama Canyon with the evidence of turbidity currents and turbidite deposition. The stratigraphy of the islands consists of the Middle Pleistocene Owl's Hole Formation , overlain by the Late Pleistocene Grotto Beach Formation, and then the Holocene Rice Bay Formation. However, these units are not necessarily stacked on top of each other but can be located laterally. The oldest formation, Owl's Hole, is capped by a terra rosa paleosoil , as is the Grotto Beach, unless eroded . The Grotto Beach Formation is the most widespread. Government and politics [ edit ] Main article: Politics of the Bahamas The Bahamian Parliament , located in Nassau The Bahamas is a parliamentary constitutional monarchy headed by Queen Elizabeth II in her role as Queen of the Bahamas. Political and legal traditions closely follow those of the United Kingdom and the Westminster system . The Bahamas is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations as a Commonwealth realm , retaining the Queen as head of state (represented by a Governor-General ). Legislative power is vested In a bicameral parliament , which consists of a 38-member House of Assembly (the lower house ), with members elected from single-member districts , and a 16-member Senate , with members appointed by the Governor-General, including nine on the advice of the Prime Minister, four on the advice of the Leader of Her Majesty's Loyal Opposition , and three on the advice of the Prime Minister after consultation with the Leader of the Opposition. The House of Assembly carries out all major legislative functions. As under the Westminster system, the Prime Minister may dissolve Parliament and call a general election at any time within a five-year term. The Prime Minister is the head of government and is the leader of the party with the most seats in the House of Assembly. Executive power is exercised by the Cabinet, selected by the Prime Minister and drawn from his supporters in the House of Assembly. The current Governor-General is Dame Marguerite Pindling , and the current Prime Minister is The Rt. Hon. Hubert Minnis M.P. . Constitutional safeguards include freedom of speech , press , worship , movement and association . The Judiciary of the Bahamas is independent of the executive and the legislature. Jurisprudence is based on English law . Political culture [ edit ] The Bahamas has a two-party system dominated by the centre-left Progressive Liberal Party and the centre-right Free National Movement . A handful of splinter parties have been unable to win election to parliament. These parties have included the Bahamas Democratic Movement , the Coalition for Democratic Reform, Bahamian Nationalist Party and the Democratic National Alliance . Foreign relations [ edit ] Further information: Foreign relations of the Bahamas The Bahamas has strong bilateral relationships with the United States and the United Kingdom , represented by an ambassador in Washington and High Commissioner in London . The Bahamas also associates closely with other nations of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM). Armed forces [ edit ] Main article: Royal Bahamas Defence Force HMBS Nassau (P-61) Its military is the Royal Bahamas Defence Force (the RBDF), the navy of the Bahamas which includes a land unit called Commando Squadron (Regiment) and an Air Wing (Air Force). Under the Defence Act, the RBDF has been mandated, in the name of the Queen , to defend the Bahamas, protect its territorial integrity, patrol its waters, provide assistance and relief in times of disaster, maintain order in conjunction with the law enforcement agencies of the Bahamas, and carry out any such duties as determined by the National Security Council. The Defence Force is also a member of the Caribbean Community ( CARICOM )'s Regional Security Task Force. The RBDF came into existence on 31 March 1980. Their duties include defending the Bahamas, stopping drug smuggling , illegal immigration and poaching, and providing assistance to mariners. The Defence Force has a fleet of 26 coastal and inshore patrol craft along with 3 aircraft and over 1,100 personnel including 65 officers and 74 women. Administrative divisions [ edit ] Main article: Local government in the Bahamas Districts of the Bahamas The districts of the Bahamas provide a system of local government everywhere except New Providence (which holds 70% of the national population), whose affairs are handled directly by the central government. In 1996, the Bahamian Parliament passed the "Local Government Act" to facilitate the establishment of Family Island Administrators, Local Government Districts, Local District Councillors and Local Town Committees for the various island communities. The overall goal of this act is to allow the various elected leaders to govern and oversee the affairs of their respective districts without the interference of Central Government. In total, there are 32 districts, with elections being held every five years. There are 110 Councillors and 281 Town Committee members are elected to represent the various districts. Each Councillor or Town Committee member is responsible for the proper use of public funds for the maintenance and development of their constituency. The Bahamas uses drive-on-the-Left traffic rules throughout the Commonwealth. The districts other than New Providence are: Acklins Berry Islands Bimini Black Point , Exuma Cat Island Central Abaco Central Andros Central Eleuthera City of Freeport, Grand Bahama Crooked Island East Grand Bahama Exuma Grand Cay , Abaco Harbour Island , Eleuthera Hope Town , Abaco Inagua Long Island Mangrove Cay , Andros Mayaguana Moore's Island , Abaco North Abaco North Andros North Eleuthera Ragged Island Rum Cay San Salvador South Abaco South Andros South Eleuthera Spanish Wells , Eleuthera West Grand Bahama National flag [ edit ] Main article: Flag of the Bahamas National flag of the Bahamas The colours of the Bahamian flag symbolise the strength of the Bahamian people; the design reflects aspects of the natural environment (sun and sea) and economic and social development. The flag is a black equilateral triangle against the mast, superimposed on a horizontal background made up of three equal stripes of aquamarine, gold and aquamarine. Coat of arms [ edit ] Main article: Coat of arms of the Bahamas Bahamian Coat of Arms The coat of arms of the Bahamas contains a shield with the national symbols as its focal point. The shield is supported by a marlin and a flamingo , which are the national animals of the Bahamas. The flamingo is located on the land, and the marlin on the sea, indicating the geography of the islands. On top of the shield is a conch shell, which represents the varied marine life of the island chain. The conch shell rests on a helmet. Below this is the actual shield, the main symbol of which is a ship representing the Santa María of Christopher Columbus, shown sailing beneath the sun. Along the bottom, below the shield appears a banner upon which is the national motto: "Forward, Upward, Onward Together." National flower [ edit ] The yellow elder was chosen as the national flower of the Bahamas because it is native to the Bahama islands, and it blooms throughout the year. Selection of the yellow elder over many other flowers was made through the combined popular vote of members of all four of New Providence's garden clubs of the 1970s—the Nassau Garden Club, the Carver Garden Club, the International Garden Club and the Y.W.C.A. Garden Club. They reasoned that other flowers grown there—such as the bougainvillea , hibiscus and poinciana —had already been chosen as the national flowers of other countries. The yellow elder, on the other hand, was unclaimed by other countries (although it is now also the national flower of the United States Virgin Islands ) and also the yellow elder is native to the family islands. Economy [ edit ] Main article: Economy of the Bahamas By the terms of GDP per capita , the Bahamas is one of the richest countries in the Americas . It was revealed in the Panama Papers that The Bahamas is the jurisdiction with the most offshore entities or companies. Tourism [ edit ] Cruise ships in Nassau Harbour The Bahamas relies on tourism to generate most of its economic activity. Tourism as an industry not only accounts for over 60% of the Bahamian GDP, but provides jobs for more than half the country's workforce. The Bahamas attracted 5.8 million visitors in 2012, more than 70% of whom were cruise visitors. Financial services [ edit ] After tourism, the next most important economic sector is banking and international financial services, accounting for some 15% of GDP. The government has adopted incentives to encourage foreign financial business, and further banking and finance reforms are in progress. The government plans to merge the regulatory functions of key financial institutions, including the Central Bank of the Bahamas (CBB) and the Securities and Exchange Commission. [ citation needed ] The Central Bank administers restrictions and controls on capital and money market instruments. The Bahamas International Securities Exchange consists of 19 listed public companies. Reflecting the relative soundness of the banking system (mostly populated by Canadian banks), the impact of the global financial crisis on the financial sector has been limited. [ citation needed ] A proportional representation of the Bahamas exports. The economy has a very competitive tax regime. The government derives its revenue from import tariffs, VAT , licence fees, property and stamp taxes, but there is no income tax, corporate tax, capital gains tax, or wealth tax. Payroll taxes fund social insurance benefits and amount to 3.9% paid by the employee and 5.9% paid by the employer. In 2010, overall tax revenue as a percentage of GDP was 17.2%. Agriculture [ edit ] Further information: Agriculture in the Bahamas Agriculture is the third largest sector of the Bahamian economy, representing 5–7% of total GDP. An estimated 80% of the Bahamian food supply is imported. Major crops include onions , okra , tomatoes , oranges , grapefruit , cucumbers , sugar cane , lemons , limes , and sweet potatoes . Demographics [ edit ] Main article: Demographics of the Bahamas The Bahamas has an estimated population of 391,232, of which 25.9% are under 14, 67.2% 15 to 64 and 6.9% over 65. It has a population growth rate of 0.925% (2010), with a birth rate of 17.81/1,000 population, death rate of 9.35/1,000, and net migration rate of −2.13 migrant(s)/1,000 population. The infant mortality rate is 23.21 deaths/1,000 live births. Residents have a life expectancy at birth of 69.87 years: 73.49 years for females, 66.32 years for males. The total fertility rate is 2.0 children born/woman (2010). The most populous islands are New Providence, where Nassau, the capital and largest city, is located; and Grand Bahama, home to the second largest city of Freeport . Racial and ethnic groups [ edit ] According to the 99% response rate obtained from the race question on the 2010 Census questionnaire, 90.6% of the population identified themselves as being Black, 4.7% White and 2.1% of a mixed race (Black and White). Three centuries prior, in 1722 when the first official census of the Bahamas was taken, 74% of the population was White and 26% Black. Afro-Bahamian children at a local school Since the colonial era of plantations, Africans or Afro-Bahamians have been the largest ethnic group in the Bahamas, whose primary ancestry was based in West Africa . The first Africans to arrive to the Bahamas were freed slaves from Bermuda ; they arrived with the Eleutheran Adventurers looking for new lives. The Haitian community in the Bahamas is also largely of African descent and numbers about 80,000. Due to an extremely high immigration of Haitians to the Bahamas, the Bahamian government started deporting illegal Haitian immigrants to their homeland in late 2014. The White Bahamian population are mainly the descendants of the English Puritans looking to flee religious persecution in England and American Loyalists escaping the American Revolution who arrived in 1649 and 1783, respectively. Many Southern Loyalists went to the Abaco Islands , half of whose population was of European descent as of 1985. The term white is usually used to identify Bahamians with Anglo ancestry, as well as "light-skinned" Afro-Bahamians. Sometimes Bahamians use the term Conchy Joe to describe people of Anglo descent. A small portion of the Euro-Bahamian population is descended from Greek labourers who came to help develop the sponging industry in the 1900s. They make up less than 1% of the nation's population, but have still preserved their distinct Greek Bahamian culture. [ citation needed ] Bahamians typically identify themselves simply as either black or white . Languages [ edit ] The official language of the Bahamas is English. Many people speak an English-based creole language called Bahamian dialect (or simply "dialect") or "Bahamianese." Laurente Gibbs, a Bahamian writer and actor, was the first to coin the latter name in a poem and has since promoted its usage. Both are used as autoglossonyms. Haitian Creole , a French-based creole language is spoken by Haitians and their descendants, who make up of about 25% of the total population. It is known simply as Creole to differentiate it from Bahamian English. Also note that the Bahamas was once under British rule and therefore the English taught in the Bahamian schools is still "British-based". Religion [ edit ] Further information: Religion in the Bahamas Religion in the Bahamas (2010) Protestant (80%) Roman Catholic (14.5%) Other Christian (1.3%) Unaffiliated (3.1%) Other religion (1.1%) According to International Religious Freedom Report 2008 prepared by United States Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor , the islands' population is predominantly Christian . Protestant denominations are widespread and collectively account for more than 70% of the population, with Baptists representing 35% of the population, Anglicans 15%, Pentecostals 8%, Church of God 5%, Seventh-day Adventists 5% and Methodists 4%. There is also a significant Roman Catholic community accounting for about 14%. There are also smaller communities of Jews , Muslims , Baha'is , Hindus , Rastafarians and practitioners of Obeah . Culture [ edit ] Main articles: Culture of the Bahamas and Music of the Bahamas Junkanoo celebration in Nassau In the less developed outer islands (or Family Islands), handicrafts include basketry made from palm fronds. This material, commonly called "straw", is plaited into hats and bags that are popular tourist items. Another use is for so-called "Voodoo dolls", even though such dolls are the result of the American imagination and not based on historic fact. A form of folk magic ( obeah ) is practised by some Bahamians, mainly in the Family Islands (out-islands) of the Bahamas. The practice of obeah is illegal in the Bahamas and punishable by law. Junkanoo is a traditional Afro-Bahamian street parade of 'rushing', music, dance and art held in Nassau (and a few other settlements) every Boxing Day and New Year's Day . Junkanoo is also used to celebrate other holidays and events such as Emancipation Day. Regattas are important social events in many family island settlements. They usually feature one or more days of sailing by old-fashioned work boats , as well as an onshore festival. Many dishes are associated with Bahamian cuisine , which reflects Caribbean, African and European influences. Some settlements have festivals associated with the traditional crop or food of that area, such as the "Pineapple Fest" in Gregory Town, Eleuthera or the "Crab Fest" on Andros. Other significant traditions include story telling . Bahamians have created a rich literature of poetry, short stories, plays and short fictional works. Common themes in these works are (1) an awareness of change, (2) a striving for sophistication, (3) a search for identity, (4) nostalgia for the old ways and (5) an appreciation of beauty. Some contributing writers are Susan Wallace, Percival Miller, Robert Johnson, Raymond Brown, O.M. Smith, William Johnson, Eddie Minnis and Winston Saunders. Bahamas culture is rich with beliefs, traditions, folklore and legend. The most well-known folklore and legends in the Bahamas includes Lusca in Andros Bahamas, Pretty Molly on Exuma Bahamas, the Chickcharnies of Andro Bahamas, and the Lost City of Atlantis on Bimini Bahamas. Sport [ edit ] Sport is a significant part of Bahamian culture. The national sport is cricket . Cricket has been played in the Bahamas from 1846, the oldest sport being played in the country today. The Bahamas Cricket Association was formed in 1936, and from the 1940s to the 1970s, cricket was played amongst many Bahamians. Bahamas is not a part of the West Indies Cricket Board , so players are not eligible to play for the West Indies cricket team . The late 1970s saw the game begin to decline in the country as teachers, who had previously come from the United Kingdom with a passion for cricket, were replaced by teachers who had been trained in the United States. The Bahamian physical education teachers had no knowledge of the game and instead taught track and field , basketball , baseball , softball , volleyball and football where primary and high schools compete against each other. Today cricket is still enjoyed by a few locals and immigrants in the country usually from Jamaica , Guyana , Haiti and Barbados . Cricket is played on Saturdays and Sundays at Windsor Park and Haynes Oval. The only other sporting event that began before cricket was horse racing , which started in 1796. The most popular spectator sports are those imported from United States, such as basketball , American football and baseball , rather than from Great Britain, due to the country's close proximity to the United States, unlike their other Caribbean counterparts, where cricket , rugby , and netball have proven to be more popular. Dexter Cambridge , Rick Fox , Ian Lockhart , Magnum Rolle , Buddy Hield and Deandre Ayton are a few Bahamians who joined Bahamian Mychal Thompson of the Los Angeles Lakers in the NBA ranks. Over the years American football has become much more popular than soccer , though not implemented in the high school system yet. Leagues for teens and adults have been developed by the Bahamas American Football Federation. However soccer, as it is commonly known in the country, is still a very popular sport amongst high school pupils. Leagues are governed by the Bahamas Football Association . Recently the Bahamian government has been working closely with Tottenham Hotspur of London to promote the sport in the country as well as promoting the Bahamas in the European market. In 2013 'Spurs' became the first Premier League club to play an exhibition match in the Bahamas, facing the Jamaican national team . Joe Lewis , the owner of the club, is based in the Bahamas. Other popular sports are swimming , tennis and boxing , where Bahamians have enjoyed some degree of success at the international level. Other sports such as golf , rugby league , rugby union , beach soccer , and netball are considered growing sports. Athletics , commonly known as 'track and field' in the country, is the most successful sport by far amongst Bahamians. Bahamians have a strong tradition in the sprints and jumps. Track and field is probably the most popular spectator sport in the country next to basketball due to their success over the years. Triathlons are gaining popularity in Nassau and the Family Islands. Bahamians have gone on to win numerous track and field medals at the Olympic Games , IAAF World Championships in Athletics , Commonwealth Games and Pan American Games . Frank Rutherford is the first athletics olympic medallist for the country. He won a bronze medal for triple jump during the 1992 Summer Olympics . Pauline Davis-Thompson , Debbie Ferguson , Chandra Sturrup , Savatheda Fynes and Eldece Clarke-Lewis teamed up for the first athletics Olympic Gold medal for the country when they won the 4 × 100 m relay at the 2000 Summer Olympics . They are affectionately known as the "Golden Girls". Tonique Williams-Darling became the first athletics individual Olympic gold medallist when she won the 400m sprint in 2004 Summer Olympics . In 2007, with the disqualification of Marion Jones , Pauline Davis-Thompson was advanced to the gold medal position in the 200 metres at the 2000 Olympics , predating William-Darling. The Bahamas were hosts of the first men's senior FIFA tournament to be staged in the Caribbean, the 2017 FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup . Education [ edit ] Main article: Education in the Bahamas According to 1995 estimates, 98.2% of the adult population is literate. [ citation needed ] In popular culture [ edit ] Scenes from the final Jaws film ( Jaws: The Revenge ) were filmed on a New Providence Island beach now known as "Jaws Beach". The fourth official James Bond film , Thunderball (1965), was partly filmed in Nassau , where much of the story is set. Eon Productions were to return for filming underwater sequences in the famously clear waters, even when a Bond film's story was set elsewhere; for example, for The Spy Who Loved Me (1977). The unofficial remake of Thunderball , Never Say Never Again (1983), was similarly partly filmed in the islands, though this version of the story was not as extensively set there. Zeus and Roxanne is a 1997 family comedy/adventure film directed by George T. Miller. It revolves around the friendship between the title characters, a dog and a dolphin, respectively. It stars Steve Guttenberg and Kathleen Quinlan. Parts of the Movie was filmed in Grand Bahama . Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest is a 2006 American fantasy swashbuckler film, the second installment of the Pirates of the Caribbean film series and the sequel to Pirates of the Caribbean. Parts of the movie was filmed in The Bahamas After the Sunset is a 2004 action comedy film starring Pierce Brosnan as Max Burdett, a master thief caught in a pursuit with FBI agent Stan Lloyd, played by Woody Harrelson. The film was directed by Brett Ratner and shot in the Bahamas. Into the Blue a 2005 American action-thriller film starring Paul Walker, Jessica Alba, Scott Caan, Ashley Scott, Josh Brolin, and James Frain. The film was directed by John Stockwell was filmed in the Bahamas Tyler Perry's Why Did I Get Married? is a 2007 American comedy-drama film adaptation written, produced, directed, and starring Tyler Perry. Parts of the film was filmed in Eleuthera The twenty-first official James Bond film , Casino Royale (2006), was in part set and filmed in the islands. The Beatles ' film Help! was filmed in part on New Providence Island and Paradise Island also in 1965. Nassau is featured in the 2013 video game Assassin's Creed IV: Black Flag as a pirate haven, housing the main protagonists. Historical pirates are encountered there such as Benjamin Hornigold , Edward Teach /Blackbeard, Charles Vane , "Calico" Jack Rackham , Anne Bonney and Mary Read . Notable residents [ edit ] Sidney Poitier (born 1927), Bahamian-American actor, film director, author, and diplomat Denis Shapovalov (born 1999), Israeli-Canadian tennis player Lexi Wilson (born 1991), Bahamian model and beauty pageant titleholder See also [ edit ] West Indies portal Caricom portal Commonwealth realms portal Bahamas portal New Spain portal Bahamas – Wikipedia book Outline of the Bahamas Index of Bahamas-related articles Bibliography of the Bahamas References [ edit ] Bibliography [ edit ] Horne, Gerald (2012). Negro Comrades of the Crown: African Americans and the British Empire Fight the U.S. Before Emancipation . NYU Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-4463-5 . Higham, Charles (1988). The Dutchess of Windsor: The Secret Life . McGraw Hill. ISBN 0471485233 . Further reading [ edit ] General history [ edit ] Cash Philip et al. (Don Maples, Alison Packer). The Making of The Bahamas: A History for Schools . London: Collins, 1978. Miller, Hubert W. The Colonization of The Bahamas, 1647–1670, The William and Mary Quarterly 2 no.1 (January 1945): 33–46. Craton, Michael. A History of The Bahamas . London: Collins, 1962. Craton, Michael and Saunders, Gail. Islanders in the Stream: A History of the Bahamian People . Athens: University of Georgia Press , 1992 Collinwood, Dean. "Columbus and the Discovery of Self," Weber Studies , Vol. 9 No. 3 (Fall) 1992: 29–44. Dodge, Steve. Abaco: The History of an Out Island and its Cays , Tropic Isle Publications, 1983. Dodge, Steve. The Compleat Guide to Nassau , White Sound Press, 1987. Boultbee, Paul G. The Bahamas. Oxford: ABC-Clio Press, 1990. Wood, David E., comp., A Guide to Selected Sources to the History of the Seminole Settlements of Red Bays, Andros, 1817–1980 , Nassau: Department of Archives Economic history [ edit ] Johnson, Howard. The Bahamas in Slavery and Freedom . Kingston: Ian Randle Publishing, 1991. Johnson, Howard. The Bahamas from Slavery to Servitude, 1783–1933 . Gainesville: University of Florida Press , 1996. Alan A. Block. Masters of Paradise , New Brunswick and London, Transaction Publishers, 1998. Storr, Virgil H. Enterprising Slaves and Master Pirates: Understanding Economic Life in the Bahamas . New York: Peter Lang , 2004. Social history [ edit ] Johnson, Wittington B. Race Relations in the Bahamas, 1784–1834: The Nonviolent Transformation from a Slave to a Free Society , Fayetteville: University of Arkansas , 2000. Shirley, Paul. "Tek Force Wid Force", History Today 54, no. 41 (April 2004): 30–35. Saunders, Gail. The Social Life in the Bahamas 1880s–1920s . Nassau: Media Publishing, 1996. Saunders, Gail. Bahamas Society After Emancipation . Kingston: Ian Randle Publishing, 1990. Curry, Jimmy. Filthy Rich Gangster/First Bahamian Movie . Movie Mogul Pictures: 1996. Curry, Jimmy. To the Rescue/First Bahamian Rap/Hip Hop Song . Royal Crown Records, 1985. Collinwood, Dean. The Bahamas Between Worlds , White Sound Press, 1989. Collinwood, Dean and Steve Dodge. Modern Bahamian Society , Caribbean Books, 1989. Dodge, Steve, Robert McIntire and Dean Collinwood. The Bahamas Index , White Sound Press, 1989. Collinwood, Dean. "The Bahamas," in The Whole World Handbook 1992–1995 , 12th ed., New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994. Collinwood, Dean. "The Bahamas," chapters in Jack W. Hopkins, ed., Latin American and Caribbean Contemporary Record , Vols. 1,2,3,4, Holmes and Meier Publishers, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1986. Collinwood, Dean. "Problems of Research and Training in Small Islands with a Social Science Faculty," in Social Science in Latin America and the Caribbean , UNESCO, No. 48, 1982. Collinwood, Dean and Rick Phillips, "The National Literature of the New Bahamas," Weber Studies , Vol.7, No. 1 (Spring) 1990: 43–62. Collinwood, Dean. "Writers, Social Scientists and Sexual Norms in the Caribbean," Tsuda Review , No. 31 (November) 1986: 45–57. Collinwood, Dean. "Terra Incognita: Research on the Modern Bahamian Society," Journal of Caribbean Studies, Vol. 1, Nos. 2–3 (Winter) 1981: 284–297. Collinwood, Dean and Steve Dodge. "Political Leadership in the Bahamas," The Bahamas Research Institute, No.1, May 1987. External links [ edit ] Official website Wikimedia Atlas of Bahamas "Bahamas" . The World Factbook . Central Intelligence Agency . The Bahamas from UCB Libraries GovPubs The Bahamas at Curlie (based on DMOZ ) The Bahamas from the BBC News Key Development Forecasts for The Bahamas from International Futures Maps of the Bahamas from the American Geographical Society Library

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why is the bahamas called a commonwealth sovereign nation

The British House of Lords voted to give the Bahamas its independence on 22 June 1973. Prince Charles delivered the official documents to Prime Minister Lynden Pindling, officially declaring the Bahamas a fully independent nation on 10 July 1973. It joined the Commonwealth of Nations on the same day. Sir Milo Butler was appointed the first Governor - General of the Bahamas (the official representative of Queen Elizabeth II) shortly after independence. The Bahamas joined the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank on 22 August 1973, and it joined the United Nations on 18 September 1973.

['1707']

kí ló dé tí wọ́n fi ń pe bahamas ní orílẹ̀-èdè aláṣẹ lábẹ́ ìjọba àpapọ̀

No

['Àwọn Bàhámà (pípè /ðə bəˈhɑːməz/ ( listen)) tabi lonibise bi Orílẹ̀-èdè Àjọni ilẹ̀ awọn Bàhámà, je orile-ede elede Geesi to ni awon erekusu 29, 661 cays, ati 2,387 erekusu kekere 2,387 (apata).']

['o je orile-ede elede Geesi']

['P1']

Àwọn Bàhámà (pípè /ðə bəˈhɑːməz/ ( listen ) ) tabi lonibise bi Orílẹ̀-èdè Àjọni ilẹ̀ awọn Bàhámà , je orile-ede elede Geesi to ni awon erekusu 29, 661 cays , ati 2,387 erekusu kekere 2,387 (apata). O budo si inu Okun Atlantiki ni ariwa Kuba ati Hispaniola ( Dominiki Olominira ati Haiti ), ariwaiwoorun awon Erekusu Turks ati Caicos , ati guusuilaorun orile-ede Awon Ipinle Aparapo ile Amerika (nitosi ipinle Florida ). Apapo iye aala ile re je 13,939 km 2 (5,382 sq. mi.), pelu idiye olugbe to to 330,000. Oluilu re ni Nassau . Bi jeografi, awon Bahama wa ni asopo erekusu kanna bi Kuba , Hispaniola ( Dominiki Olominira ati Haiti ) ati Awon Erekusu Turks ati Caicos . Awon onibudo ibe tele ni awon Taino ti Arawaka , awon Bahama ni ibi ti Columbus koko gunle si ni Ile Aye Tuntun ni 1492. Botilejepe awon ara Spein ko se amunisin awon Bahama, won ko awon Lucaya abinibi ibe (eyi ni oruko ti awon Taino Bahama unpe ara won) lo si oko eru ni Hispaniola. Lati 1513 de 1650 enikankan ko gbe ori awon erekusu yi, ko to di pe awon olumunisin ara Britani lati Bermuda tedo si erekusu Eleuthera . Itoka [ àtúnṣe | àtúnṣe àmìọ̀rọ̀ ]

"Bahama" and "Bahamas" redirect here. For other uses, see Bahama (disambiguation) . Coordinates : 24°15′N 76°00′W  /  24.250°N 76.000°W  / 24.250; -76.000 The Bahamas ( / b ə ˈ h ɑː m ə z / ( listen ) ), known officially as the Commonwealth of The Bahamas , is an archipelagic state within the Lucayan Archipelago . It consists of more than 700 islands , cays , and islets in the Atlantic Ocean , and is located north of Cuba and Hispaniola ( Haiti and the Dominican Republic ), northwest of the Turks and Caicos Islands , southeast of the United States state of Florida , and east of the Florida Keys . The capital is Nassau on the island of New Providence . The designation of "the Bahamas" can refer either to the country or to the larger island chain that it shares with the Turks and Caicos Islands . The Royal Bahamas Defence Force describes the Bahamas territory as encompassing 470,000 km 2 (180,000 sq mi) of ocean space. The Bahamas is the site of Columbus ' first landfall in the New World in 1492. At that time, the islands were inhabited by the Lucayan , a branch of the Arawakan -speaking Taino people. Although the Spanish never colonised The Bahamas, they shipped the native Lucayans to slavery in Hispaniola. The islands were mostly deserted from 1513 until 1648, when English colonists from Bermuda settled on the island of Eleuthera . The Bahamas became a British crown colony in 1718, when the British clamped down on piracy . After the American War of Independence , the Crown resettled thousands of American Loyalists in the Bahamas; they brought their slaves with them and established plantations on land grants. Africans constituted the majority of the population from this period. The slave trade was abolished by the British in 1807; slavery in the Bahamas was abolished in 1834. Subsequently, the Bahamas became a haven for freed African slaves; the Royal Navy resettled Africans there liberated from illegal slave ships, American slaves and Seminoles escaped here from Florida, and the government freed American slaves carried on United States domestic ships that had reached the Bahamas due to weather. Today, Afro-Bahamians make up nearly 90% of the population. The Bahamas became an independent Commonwealth realm in 1973, retaining the British monarch, then and currently Queen Elizabeth II , as its head of state. In terms of gross domestic product per capita, The Bahamas is one of the richest countries in the Americas (following the United States and Canada), with an economy based on tourism and finance. Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2.1 18th–19th centuries 2.2 20th century 2.3 Post-Second World War 3 Geography 3.1 Castaway Cay 3.2 Climate 4 Geology 5 Government and politics 5.1 Political culture 5.2 Foreign relations 5.3 Armed forces 5.4 Administrative divisions 5.5 National flag 5.6 Coat of arms 5.7 National flower 6 Economy 6.1 Tourism 6.2 Financial services 6.3 Agriculture 7 Demographics 7.1 Racial and ethnic groups 7.2 Languages 7.3 Religion 8 Culture 8.1 Sport 9 Education 10 In popular culture 11 Notable residents 12 See also 13 References 14 Bibliography 15 Further reading 15.1 General history 15.2 Economic history 15.3 Social history 16 External links Etymology [ edit ] The name Bahamas is most likely derived from either the Taíno ba ha ma ("big upper middle land"), which was a term for the region used by the indigenous Native Americans, or possibly from the Spanish baja mar ("shallow water or sea" or " low tide ") reflecting the shallow waters of the area. Alternatively, it may originate from Guanahani , a local name of unclear meaning. A peculiarity of the name is that the word The is a formal part of the abbreviated name and is, therefore, capitalised. So in contrast to "the Congo" and "the United Kingdom", it is proper to write "The Bahamas". History [ edit ] Main article: History of The Bahamas A depiction of Columbus' first landing, claiming possession of the New World for Spain in caravels ; the Niña and the Pinta , on Watling Island, an island of The Bahamas that the natives called Guanahani and that he named San Salvador , on 12 October 1492. Taino people moved into the uninhabited southern Bahamas from Hispaniola and Cuba around the 11th century, having migrated there from South America. They came to be known as the Lucayan people . An estimated 30,000 Lucayan inhabited the Bahamas at the time of Christopher Columbus ' arrival in 1492. Columbus's first landfall in the New World was on an island he named San Salvador (known to the Lucayan as Guanahani ). Some researchers believe this site to be present-day San Salvador Island (formerly known as Watling's Island), situated in the southeastern Bahamas. An alternative theory holds that Columbus landed to the southeast on Samana Cay , according to calculations made in 1986 by National Geographic writer and editor Joseph Judge , based on Columbus's log. Evidence in support of this remains inconclusive. On the landfall island, Columbus made first contact with the Lucayan and exchanged goods with them. The Spanish forced much of the Lucayan population to Hispaniola for use as forced labour. The slaves suffered from harsh conditions and most died from contracting diseases to which they had no immunity ; half of the Taino died from smallpox alone. The population of the Bahamas was severely diminished. In 1648, the Eleutherian Adventurers , led by William Sayle , migrated from Bermuda. These English Puritans established the first permanent European settlement on an island which they named Eleuthera —the name derives from the Greek word for freedom. They later settled New Providence , naming it Sayle's Island after one of their leaders. To survive, the settlers salvaged goods from wrecks . In 1670, King Charles II granted the islands to the Lords Proprietors of the Carolinas in North America. They rented the islands from the king with rights of trading, tax, appointing governors , and administering the country. In 1684 Spanish corsair Juan de Alcon raided the capital , Charles Town (later renamed Nassau ). In 1703, a joint Franco-Spanish expedition briefly occupied the Bahamian capital during the War of the Spanish Succession . 18th–19th centuries [ edit ] Sign at Bill Baggs Cape Florida State Park commemorating hundreds of African-American slaves who escaped to freedom in the early 1820s in the Bahamas During proprietary rule, the Bahamas became a haven for pirates , including the infamous Blackbeard ( circa 1680–1718). To put an end to the ' Pirates' republic ' and restore orderly government, Britain made the Bahamas a crown colony in 1718 under the royal governorship of Woodes Rogers . After a difficult struggle, he succeeded in suppressing piracy. In 1720, Rogers led local militia to drive off a Spanish attack . During the American War of Independence in the late 18th century, the islands became a target for American naval forces under the command of Commodore Esek Hopkins . US Marines occupied the capital of Nassau for a fortnight . In 1782, following the British defeat at Yorktown , a Spanish fleet appeared off the coast of Nassau. The city surrendered without a fight . Spain returned possession of the Bahamas to Britain the following year, under the terms of the Treaty of Paris . Before the news was received, however, the islands were recaptured by a small British force led by Andrew Deveaux . After American independence, the British resettled some 7,300 Loyalists with their slaves in the Bahamas, and granted land to the planters to help compensate for losses on the continent. These Loyalists, who included Deveaux, established plantations on several islands and became a political force in the capital. European Americans were outnumbered by the African-American slaves they brought with them, and ethnic Europeans remained a minority in the territory. In 1807, the British abolished the slave trade , followed by the United States the next year. During the following decades, the Royal Navy intercepted the trade; they resettled in the Bahamas thousands of Africans liberated from slave ships. In the 1820s during the period of the Seminole Wars in Florida, hundreds of American slaves and African Seminoles escaped from Cape Florida to the Bahamas. They settled mostly on northwest Andros Island , where they developed the village of Red Bays. From eyewitness accounts, 300 escaped in a mass flight in 1823, aided by Bahamians in 27 sloops , with others using canoes for the journey. This was commemorated in 2004 by a large sign at Bill Baggs Cape Florida State Park . Some of their descendants in Red Bays continue African Seminole traditions in basket making and grave marking. The United States' National Park Service , which administers the National Underground Railroad Network to Freedom, is working with the African Bahamian Museum and Research Center (ABAC) in Nassau on development to identify Red Bays as a site related to American slaves' search for freedom. The museum has researched and documented the African Seminoles' escape from southern Florida. It plans to develop interpretive programs at historical sites in Red Bay associated with the period of their settlement in the Bahamas. In 1818, the Home Office in London had ruled that "any slave brought to the Bahamas from outside the British West Indies would be manumitted." This led to a total of nearly 300 slaves owned by US nationals being freed from 1830 to 1835. The American slave ships Comet and Encomium used in the United States domestic coastwise slave trade , were wrecked off Abaco Island in December 1830 and February 1834, respectively. When wreckers took the masters, passengers and slaves into Nassau, customs officers seized the slaves and British colonial officials freed them, over the protests of the Americans. There were 165 slaves on the Comet and 48 on the Encomium . Britain finally paid an indemnity to the United States in those two cases in 1855, under the Treaty of Claims of 1853, which settled several compensation cases between the two nations. Slavery was abolished in the British Empire on 1 August 1834. After that British colonial officials freed 78 American slaves from the Enterprise , which went into Bermuda in 1835; and 38 from the Hermosa , which wrecked off Abaco Island in 1840. The most notable case was that of the Creole in 1841: as a result of a slave revolt on board, the leaders ordered the American brig to Nassau. It was carrying 135 slaves from Virginia destined for sale in New Orleans . The Bahamian officials freed the 128 slaves who chose to stay in the islands. The Creole case has been described as the "most successful slave revolt in U.S. history". These incidents, in which a total of 447 slaves belonging to US nationals were freed from 1830 to 1842, increased tension between the United States and Great Britain . They had been co-operating in patrols to suppress the international slave trade. But, worried about the stability of its large domestic slave trade and its value, the United States argued that Britain should not treat its domestic ships that came to its colonial ports under duress, as part of the international trade. The United States worried that the success of the Creole slaves in gaining freedom would encourage more slave revolts on merchant ships. 20th century [ edit ] The Duke of Windsor and Governor of the Bahamas from 1940 to 1945 In August 1940, the Duke of Windsor was appointed Governor of the Bahamas . He arrived in the colony with his wife, the Duchess . Although disheartened at the condition of Government House, they "tried to make the best of a bad situation". He did not enjoy the position, and referred to the islands as "a third-class British colony". He opened the small local parliament on 29 October 1940. The couple visited the "Out Islands" that November, on Axel Wenner-Gren 's yacht, which caused controversy; the British Foreign Office strenuously objected because they had been advised (mistakenly) by United States intelligence that Wenner-Gren was a close friend of the Luftwaffe commander Hermann Göring of Nazi Germany. The Duke was praised at the time for his efforts to combat poverty on the islands. A 1991 biography by Philip Ziegler, however, described him as contemptuous of the Bahamians and other non-European peoples of the Empire. He was praised for his resolution of civil unrest over low wages in Nassau in June 1942, when there was a "full-scale riot". Ziegler said that the Duke blamed the trouble on "mischief makers – communists " and "men of Central European Jewish descent, who had secured jobs as a pretext for obtaining a deferment of draft". The Duke resigned from the post on 16 March 1945. Post-Second World War [ edit ] Sign at the entrance of the Sir Roland Symonette Park in North Eleuthera district commemorating Sir Roland Theodore Symonette , the Bahamas' first Premier Modern political development began after the Second World War . The first political parties were formed in the 1950s. The British Parliament authorised the islands as internally self-governing in 1964, with Sir Roland Symonette , of the United Bahamian Party , as the first Premier. A new constitution granting the Bahamas internal autonomy went into effect on 7 January 1964. In 1967, Lynden Pindling of the Progressive Liberal Party , became the first native born Premier of the majority native Bahamian colony; in 1968 the title of the position was changed to Prime Minister . In 1968, Pindling announced that the Bahamas would seek full independence. A new constitution giving the Bahamas increased control over its own affairs was adopted in 1968. The British House of Lords voted to give the Bahamas its independence on 22 June 1973. Prince Charles delivered the official documents to Prime Minister Lynden Pindling , officially declaring the Bahamas a fully independent nation on 10 July 1973. It joined the Commonwealth of Nations on the same day. Sir Milo Butler was appointed the first Governor-General of the Bahamas (the official representative of Queen Elizabeth II ) shortly after independence. The Bahamas joined the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank on 22 August 1973, and it joined the United Nations on 18 September 1973. Based on the twin pillars of tourism and offshore finance , the Bahamian economy has prospered since the 1950s. Significant challenges in areas such as education, health care, housing, international narcotics trafficking and illegal immigration from Haiti continue to be issues. The University of The Bahamas (UB) is the national higher education/tertiary system. Offering baccalaureate, masters and associate degrees, UB has three campuses, and teaching and research centres throughout the Bahamas. The University of The Bahamas was chartered on 10 November 2016. Geography [ edit ] Main article: Geography of the Bahamas The Bahamas from space. NASA Aqua satellite image, 2009 The country lies between latitudes 20° and 28°N , and longitudes 72° and 80°W . In 1864, the Governor of the Bahamas reported that there were 29 islands, 661 cays, and 2,387 rocks in the colony. The closest island to the United States is Bimini , which is also known as the gateway to the Bahamas. The island of Abaco is to the east of Grand Bahama . The southeasternmost island is Inagua . The largest island is Andros Island . Other inhabited islands include Eleuthera , Cat Island , Rum Cay , Long Island , San Salvador Island , Ragged Island , Acklins , Crooked Island , Exuma , Berry Islands and Mayaguana . Nassau , capital city of the Bahamas, lies on the island of New Providence . All the islands are low and flat, with ridges that usually rise no more than 15 to 20 m (49 to 66 ft). The highest point in the country is Mount Alvernia (formerly Como Hill) on Cat Island. It has an elevation of 63 metres (207 ft). Damaged homes in the Bahamas in the aftermath of Hurricane Wilma in 2005 To the southeast, the Turks and Caicos Islands , and three more extensive submarine features called Mouchoir Bank , Silver Bank and Navidad Bank , are geographically a continuation of the Bahamas. Castaway Cay [ edit ] Main article: Castaway Cay Disney has its own private island in the Bahamas called Castaway Cay . It is located near Great Abaco Island and was formerly known as Gorda Cay. In 1997, The Walt Disney Company purchased a 99-year land lease for the cay from the Bahamian government, set to expire in 2096. Climate [ edit ] See also: Geography of the Bahamas § Climate The climate of the Bahamas is tropical savannah climate or Aw according to Köppen climate classification . The low latitude, warm tropical Gulf Stream , and low elevation give the Bahamas a warm and winterless climate. As such, there has never been a frost or freeze reported in the Bahamas, although every few decades low temperatures can fall below 10 °C (50 °F) for a few hours when a severe cold outbreak comes off the North American mainland. There is only an 8 °C difference between the warmest month and coolest month in most of the Bahama islands. As with most tropical climates, seasonal rainfall follows the sun, and summer is the wettest season. The Bahamas are often sunny and dry for long periods of time, and average more than 3,000 hours or 340 days of sunlight annually. Tropical storms and hurricanes can on occasion impact the Bahamas. In 1992, Hurricane Andrew passed over the northern portions of the islands, and Hurricane Floyd passed near the eastern portions of the islands in 1999. hide Climate data for Nassau Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Average high °C (°F) 25.4 (77.7) 25.5 (77.9) 26.6 (79.9) 27.9 (82.2) 29.7 (85.5) 31.0 (87.8) 32.0 (89.6) 32.1 (89.8) 31.6 (88.9) 29.9 (85.8) 27.8 (82) 26.2 (79.2) 28.8 (83.9) Daily mean °C (°F) 21.4 (70.5) 21.4 (70.5) 22.3 (72.1) 23.8 (74.8) 25.6 (78.1) 27.2 (81) 28.0 (82.4) 28.1 (82.6) 27.7 (81.9) 26.2 (79.2) 24.2 (75.6) 22.3 (72.1) 24.8 (76.7) Average low °C (°F) 17.3 (63.1) 17.3 (63.1) 17.9 (64.2) 19.6 (67.3) 21.4 (70.5) 23.3 (73.9) 24.0 (75.2) 24.0 (75.2) 23.7 (74.7) 22.5 (72.5) 20.6 (69.1) 18.3 (64.9) 20.8 (69.5) Average precipitation mm (inches) 39.4 (1.551) 49.5 (1.949) 54.4 (2.142) 69.3 (2.728) 105.9 (4.169) 218.2 (8.591) 160.8 (6.331) 235.7 (9.28) 164.1 (6.461) 161.8 (6.37) 80.5 (3.169) 49.8 (1.961) 1,389.4 (54.701) Average precipitation days 8 6 7 8 10 15 17 19 17 15 10 8 140 Mean monthly sunshine hours 220.1 220.4 257.3 276.0 269.7 231.0 272.8 266.6 213.0 223.2 222.0 213.9 2,886 Source: World Meteorological Organization ( UN ), Hong Kong Observatory (sun only) Average Sea Temperature Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 23 °C 73 °F 23 °C 73 °F 24 °C 75 °F 26 °C 79 °F 27 °C 81 °F 28 °C 82 °F 28 °C 82 °F 28 °C 82 °F 28 °C 82 °F 27 °C 81 °F 26 °C 79 °F 24 °C 75 °F Geology [ edit ] The Bahamas is part of the Lucayan Archipelago , which continues into the Turks and Caicos Islands, the Mouchoir Bank , the Silver Bank , and the Navidad Bank . The Bahamas Platform, which includes the Bahamas, Southern Florida, Northern Cuba, the Turks and Caicos, and the Blake Plateau , formed about 150 Ma , not long after the formation of the North Atlantic . The 6.4 km thick limestones , which predominately make up The Bahamas, date back to the Cretaceous . These limestones would have been deposited in shallow seas, assumed to be a stretched and thinned portion of the North American continental crust . Sediments were forming at about the same rate as the crust below was sinking due to the added weight. Thus, the entire area consisted of a large marine plain with some islands. Then, at about 80 Ma, the area became flooded by the Gulf Stream . This resulted in the drowning of the Blake Plateau, the separation of The Bahamas from Cuba and Florida, the separation of the southeastern Bahamas into separate banks, the creation of the Cay Sal Bank , plus the Little and Great Bahama Banks . Sedimentation from the "carbonate factory" of each bank, or atoll , continues today at the rate of about 2 cm per kyr . Coral reefs form the "retaining walls" of these atolls, within which oolites and pellets form. Coral growth was greater through the Tertiary , until the start of the Ice Ages , and hence those deposits are more abundant below a depth of 36 m. In fact, an ancient extinct reef exists half a km seaward of the present one, 30 m below sea level. Oolites form when oceanic water penetrate the shallow banks, increasing the temperature about 3 °C and the salinity by 0.5 per cent. Cemented ooids are referred to as grapestone. Additionally, giant stromatolites are found off the Exuma Cays . Sea level changes resulted in a drop in sea level, causing wind blown oolite to form sand dunes with distinct cross-bedding . Overlapping dunes form oolitic ridges, which become rapidly lithified through the action of rainwater, called eolianite . Most islands have ridges ranging from 30 to 45 m, though Cat Island has a ridge 60 m in height. The land between ridges is conducive to the formation of lakes and swamps. Solution weathering of the limestone results in a "Bahamian Karst " topography. This includes potholes , Blue holes such as Dean's Blue Hole , sinkholes , beachrock such as the Bimini Road ("pavements of Atlantis"), limestone crust , caves due to the lack of rivers, and sea caves . Several blue holes are aligned along the South Andros Fault line. Tidal flats and tidal creeks are common, but the more impressive drainage patterns are formed by troughs and canyons such as Great Bahama Canyon with the evidence of turbidity currents and turbidite deposition. The stratigraphy of the islands consists of the Middle Pleistocene Owl's Hole Formation , overlain by the Late Pleistocene Grotto Beach Formation, and then the Holocene Rice Bay Formation. However, these units are not necessarily stacked on top of each other but can be located laterally. The oldest formation, Owl's Hole, is capped by a terra rosa paleosoil , as is the Grotto Beach, unless eroded . The Grotto Beach Formation is the most widespread. Government and politics [ edit ] Main article: Politics of the Bahamas The Bahamian Parliament , located in Nassau The Bahamas is a parliamentary constitutional monarchy headed by Queen Elizabeth II in her role as Queen of the Bahamas. Political and legal traditions closely follow those of the United Kingdom and the Westminster system . The Bahamas is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations as a Commonwealth realm , retaining the Queen as head of state (represented by a Governor-General ). Legislative power is vested In a bicameral parliament , which consists of a 38-member House of Assembly (the lower house ), with members elected from single-member districts , and a 16-member Senate , with members appointed by the Governor-General, including nine on the advice of the Prime Minister, four on the advice of the Leader of Her Majesty's Loyal Opposition , and three on the advice of the Prime Minister after consultation with the Leader of the Opposition. The House of Assembly carries out all major legislative functions. As under the Westminster system, the Prime Minister may dissolve Parliament and call a general election at any time within a five-year term. The Prime Minister is the head of government and is the leader of the party with the most seats in the House of Assembly. Executive power is exercised by the Cabinet, selected by the Prime Minister and drawn from his supporters in the House of Assembly. The current Governor-General is Dame Marguerite Pindling , and the current Prime Minister is The Rt. Hon. Hubert Minnis M.P. . Constitutional safeguards include freedom of speech , press , worship , movement and association . The Judiciary of the Bahamas is independent of the executive and the legislature. Jurisprudence is based on English law . Political culture [ edit ] The Bahamas has a two-party system dominated by the centre-left Progressive Liberal Party and the centre-right Free National Movement . A handful of splinter parties have been unable to win election to parliament. These parties have included the Bahamas Democratic Movement , the Coalition for Democratic Reform, Bahamian Nationalist Party and the Democratic National Alliance . Foreign relations [ edit ] Further information: Foreign relations of the Bahamas The Bahamas has strong bilateral relationships with the United States and the United Kingdom , represented by an ambassador in Washington and High Commissioner in London . The Bahamas also associates closely with other nations of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM). Armed forces [ edit ] Main article: Royal Bahamas Defence Force HMBS Nassau (P-61) Its military is the Royal Bahamas Defence Force (the RBDF), the navy of the Bahamas which includes a land unit called Commando Squadron (Regiment) and an Air Wing (Air Force). Under the Defence Act, the RBDF has been mandated, in the name of the Queen , to defend the Bahamas, protect its territorial integrity, patrol its waters, provide assistance and relief in times of disaster, maintain order in conjunction with the law enforcement agencies of the Bahamas, and carry out any such duties as determined by the National Security Council. The Defence Force is also a member of the Caribbean Community ( CARICOM )'s Regional Security Task Force. The RBDF came into existence on 31 March 1980. Their duties include defending the Bahamas, stopping drug smuggling , illegal immigration and poaching, and providing assistance to mariners. The Defence Force has a fleet of 26 coastal and inshore patrol craft along with 3 aircraft and over 1,100 personnel including 65 officers and 74 women. Administrative divisions [ edit ] Main article: Local government in the Bahamas Districts of the Bahamas The districts of the Bahamas provide a system of local government everywhere except New Providence (which holds 70% of the national population), whose affairs are handled directly by the central government. In 1996, the Bahamian Parliament passed the "Local Government Act" to facilitate the establishment of Family Island Administrators, Local Government Districts, Local District Councillors and Local Town Committees for the various island communities. The overall goal of this act is to allow the various elected leaders to govern and oversee the affairs of their respective districts without the interference of Central Government. In total, there are 32 districts, with elections being held every five years. There are 110 Councillors and 281 Town Committee members are elected to represent the various districts. Each Councillor or Town Committee member is responsible for the proper use of public funds for the maintenance and development of their constituency. The Bahamas uses drive-on-the-Left traffic rules throughout the Commonwealth. The districts other than New Providence are: Acklins Berry Islands Bimini Black Point , Exuma Cat Island Central Abaco Central Andros Central Eleuthera City of Freeport, Grand Bahama Crooked Island East Grand Bahama Exuma Grand Cay , Abaco Harbour Island , Eleuthera Hope Town , Abaco Inagua Long Island Mangrove Cay , Andros Mayaguana Moore's Island , Abaco North Abaco North Andros North Eleuthera Ragged Island Rum Cay San Salvador South Abaco South Andros South Eleuthera Spanish Wells , Eleuthera West Grand Bahama National flag [ edit ] Main article: Flag of the Bahamas National flag of the Bahamas The colours of the Bahamian flag symbolise the strength of the Bahamian people; the design reflects aspects of the natural environment (sun and sea) and economic and social development. The flag is a black equilateral triangle against the mast, superimposed on a horizontal background made up of three equal stripes of aquamarine, gold and aquamarine. Coat of arms [ edit ] Main article: Coat of arms of the Bahamas Bahamian Coat of Arms The coat of arms of the Bahamas contains a shield with the national symbols as its focal point. The shield is supported by a marlin and a flamingo , which are the national animals of the Bahamas. The flamingo is located on the land, and the marlin on the sea, indicating the geography of the islands. On top of the shield is a conch shell, which represents the varied marine life of the island chain. The conch shell rests on a helmet. Below this is the actual shield, the main symbol of which is a ship representing the Santa María of Christopher Columbus, shown sailing beneath the sun. Along the bottom, below the shield appears a banner upon which is the national motto: "Forward, Upward, Onward Together." National flower [ edit ] The yellow elder was chosen as the national flower of the Bahamas because it is native to the Bahama islands, and it blooms throughout the year. Selection of the yellow elder over many other flowers was made through the combined popular vote of members of all four of New Providence's garden clubs of the 1970s—the Nassau Garden Club, the Carver Garden Club, the International Garden Club and the Y.W.C.A. Garden Club. They reasoned that other flowers grown there—such as the bougainvillea , hibiscus and poinciana —had already been chosen as the national flowers of other countries. The yellow elder, on the other hand, was unclaimed by other countries (although it is now also the national flower of the United States Virgin Islands ) and also the yellow elder is native to the family islands. Economy [ edit ] Main article: Economy of the Bahamas By the terms of GDP per capita , the Bahamas is one of the richest countries in the Americas . It was revealed in the Panama Papers that The Bahamas is the jurisdiction with the most offshore entities or companies. Tourism [ edit ] Cruise ships in Nassau Harbour The Bahamas relies on tourism to generate most of its economic activity. Tourism as an industry not only accounts for over 60% of the Bahamian GDP, but provides jobs for more than half the country's workforce. The Bahamas attracted 5.8 million visitors in 2012, more than 70% of whom were cruise visitors. Financial services [ edit ] After tourism, the next most important economic sector is banking and international financial services, accounting for some 15% of GDP. The government has adopted incentives to encourage foreign financial business, and further banking and finance reforms are in progress. The government plans to merge the regulatory functions of key financial institutions, including the Central Bank of the Bahamas (CBB) and the Securities and Exchange Commission. [ citation needed ] The Central Bank administers restrictions and controls on capital and money market instruments. The Bahamas International Securities Exchange consists of 19 listed public companies. Reflecting the relative soundness of the banking system (mostly populated by Canadian banks), the impact of the global financial crisis on the financial sector has been limited. [ citation needed ] A proportional representation of the Bahamas exports. The economy has a very competitive tax regime. The government derives its revenue from import tariffs, VAT , licence fees, property and stamp taxes, but there is no income tax, corporate tax, capital gains tax, or wealth tax. Payroll taxes fund social insurance benefits and amount to 3.9% paid by the employee and 5.9% paid by the employer. In 2010, overall tax revenue as a percentage of GDP was 17.2%. Agriculture [ edit ] Further information: Agriculture in the Bahamas Agriculture is the third largest sector of the Bahamian economy, representing 5–7% of total GDP. An estimated 80% of the Bahamian food supply is imported. Major crops include onions , okra , tomatoes , oranges , grapefruit , cucumbers , sugar cane , lemons , limes , and sweet potatoes . Demographics [ edit ] Main article: Demographics of the Bahamas The Bahamas has an estimated population of 391,232, of which 25.9% are under 14, 67.2% 15 to 64 and 6.9% over 65. It has a population growth rate of 0.925% (2010), with a birth rate of 17.81/1,000 population, death rate of 9.35/1,000, and net migration rate of −2.13 migrant(s)/1,000 population. The infant mortality rate is 23.21 deaths/1,000 live births. Residents have a life expectancy at birth of 69.87 years: 73.49 years for females, 66.32 years for males. The total fertility rate is 2.0 children born/woman (2010). The most populous islands are New Providence, where Nassau, the capital and largest city, is located; and Grand Bahama, home to the second largest city of Freeport . Racial and ethnic groups [ edit ] According to the 99% response rate obtained from the race question on the 2010 Census questionnaire, 90.6% of the population identified themselves as being Black, 4.7% White and 2.1% of a mixed race (Black and White). Three centuries prior, in 1722 when the first official census of the Bahamas was taken, 74% of the population was White and 26% Black. Afro-Bahamian children at a local school Since the colonial era of plantations, Africans or Afro-Bahamians have been the largest ethnic group in the Bahamas, whose primary ancestry was based in West Africa . The first Africans to arrive to the Bahamas were freed slaves from Bermuda ; they arrived with the Eleutheran Adventurers looking for new lives. The Haitian community in the Bahamas is also largely of African descent and numbers about 80,000. Due to an extremely high immigration of Haitians to the Bahamas, the Bahamian government started deporting illegal Haitian immigrants to their homeland in late 2014. The White Bahamian population are mainly the descendants of the English Puritans looking to flee religious persecution in England and American Loyalists escaping the American Revolution who arrived in 1649 and 1783, respectively. Many Southern Loyalists went to the Abaco Islands , half of whose population was of European descent as of 1985. The term white is usually used to identify Bahamians with Anglo ancestry, as well as "light-skinned" Afro-Bahamians. Sometimes Bahamians use the term Conchy Joe to describe people of Anglo descent. A small portion of the Euro-Bahamian population is descended from Greek labourers who came to help develop the sponging industry in the 1900s. They make up less than 1% of the nation's population, but have still preserved their distinct Greek Bahamian culture. [ citation needed ] Bahamians typically identify themselves simply as either black or white . Languages [ edit ] The official language of the Bahamas is English. Many people speak an English-based creole language called Bahamian dialect (or simply "dialect") or "Bahamianese." Laurente Gibbs, a Bahamian writer and actor, was the first to coin the latter name in a poem and has since promoted its usage. Both are used as autoglossonyms. Haitian Creole , a French-based creole language is spoken by Haitians and their descendants, who make up of about 25% of the total population. It is known simply as Creole to differentiate it from Bahamian English. Also note that the Bahamas was once under British rule and therefore the English taught in the Bahamian schools is still "British-based". Religion [ edit ] Further information: Religion in the Bahamas Religion in the Bahamas (2010) Protestant (80%) Roman Catholic (14.5%) Other Christian (1.3%) Unaffiliated (3.1%) Other religion (1.1%) According to International Religious Freedom Report 2008 prepared by United States Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor , the islands' population is predominantly Christian . Protestant denominations are widespread and collectively account for more than 70% of the population, with Baptists representing 35% of the population, Anglicans 15%, Pentecostals 8%, Church of God 5%, Seventh-day Adventists 5% and Methodists 4%. There is also a significant Roman Catholic community accounting for about 14%. There are also smaller communities of Jews , Muslims , Baha'is , Hindus , Rastafarians and practitioners of Obeah . Culture [ edit ] Main articles: Culture of the Bahamas and Music of the Bahamas Junkanoo celebration in Nassau In the less developed outer islands (or Family Islands), handicrafts include basketry made from palm fronds. This material, commonly called "straw", is plaited into hats and bags that are popular tourist items. Another use is for so-called "Voodoo dolls", even though such dolls are the result of the American imagination and not based on historic fact. A form of folk magic ( obeah ) is practised by some Bahamians, mainly in the Family Islands (out-islands) of the Bahamas. The practice of obeah is illegal in the Bahamas and punishable by law. Junkanoo is a traditional Afro-Bahamian street parade of 'rushing', music, dance and art held in Nassau (and a few other settlements) every Boxing Day and New Year's Day . Junkanoo is also used to celebrate other holidays and events such as Emancipation Day. Regattas are important social events in many family island settlements. They usually feature one or more days of sailing by old-fashioned work boats , as well as an onshore festival. Many dishes are associated with Bahamian cuisine , which reflects Caribbean, African and European influences. Some settlements have festivals associated with the traditional crop or food of that area, such as the "Pineapple Fest" in Gregory Town, Eleuthera or the "Crab Fest" on Andros. Other significant traditions include story telling . Bahamians have created a rich literature of poetry, short stories, plays and short fictional works. Common themes in these works are (1) an awareness of change, (2) a striving for sophistication, (3) a search for identity, (4) nostalgia for the old ways and (5) an appreciation of beauty. Some contributing writers are Susan Wallace, Percival Miller, Robert Johnson, Raymond Brown, O.M. Smith, William Johnson, Eddie Minnis and Winston Saunders. Bahamas culture is rich with beliefs, traditions, folklore and legend. The most well-known folklore and legends in the Bahamas includes Lusca in Andros Bahamas, Pretty Molly on Exuma Bahamas, the Chickcharnies of Andro Bahamas, and the Lost City of Atlantis on Bimini Bahamas. Sport [ edit ] Sport is a significant part of Bahamian culture. The national sport is cricket . Cricket has been played in the Bahamas from 1846, the oldest sport being played in the country today. The Bahamas Cricket Association was formed in 1936, and from the 1940s to the 1970s, cricket was played amongst many Bahamians. Bahamas is not a part of the West Indies Cricket Board , so players are not eligible to play for the West Indies cricket team . The late 1970s saw the game begin to decline in the country as teachers, who had previously come from the United Kingdom with a passion for cricket, were replaced by teachers who had been trained in the United States. The Bahamian physical education teachers had no knowledge of the game and instead taught track and field , basketball , baseball , softball , volleyball and football where primary and high schools compete against each other. Today cricket is still enjoyed by a few locals and immigrants in the country usually from Jamaica , Guyana , Haiti and Barbados . Cricket is played on Saturdays and Sundays at Windsor Park and Haynes Oval. The only other sporting event that began before cricket was horse racing , which started in 1796. The most popular spectator sports are those imported from United States, such as basketball , American football and baseball , rather than from Great Britain, due to the country's close proximity to the United States, unlike their other Caribbean counterparts, where cricket , rugby , and netball have proven to be more popular. Dexter Cambridge , Rick Fox , Ian Lockhart , Magnum Rolle , Buddy Hield and Deandre Ayton are a few Bahamians who joined Bahamian Mychal Thompson of the Los Angeles Lakers in the NBA ranks. Over the years American football has become much more popular than soccer , though not implemented in the high school system yet. Leagues for teens and adults have been developed by the Bahamas American Football Federation. However soccer, as it is commonly known in the country, is still a very popular sport amongst high school pupils. Leagues are governed by the Bahamas Football Association . Recently the Bahamian government has been working closely with Tottenham Hotspur of London to promote the sport in the country as well as promoting the Bahamas in the European market. In 2013 'Spurs' became the first Premier League club to play an exhibition match in the Bahamas, facing the Jamaican national team . Joe Lewis , the owner of the club, is based in the Bahamas. Other popular sports are swimming , tennis and boxing , where Bahamians have enjoyed some degree of success at the international level. Other sports such as golf , rugby league , rugby union , beach soccer , and netball are considered growing sports. Athletics , commonly known as 'track and field' in the country, is the most successful sport by far amongst Bahamians. Bahamians have a strong tradition in the sprints and jumps. Track and field is probably the most popular spectator sport in the country next to basketball due to their success over the years. Triathlons are gaining popularity in Nassau and the Family Islands. Bahamians have gone on to win numerous track and field medals at the Olympic Games , IAAF World Championships in Athletics , Commonwealth Games and Pan American Games . Frank Rutherford is the first athletics olympic medallist for the country. He won a bronze medal for triple jump during the 1992 Summer Olympics . Pauline Davis-Thompson , Debbie Ferguson , Chandra Sturrup , Savatheda Fynes and Eldece Clarke-Lewis teamed up for the first athletics Olympic Gold medal for the country when they won the 4 × 100 m relay at the 2000 Summer Olympics . They are affectionately known as the "Golden Girls". Tonique Williams-Darling became the first athletics individual Olympic gold medallist when she won the 400m sprint in 2004 Summer Olympics . In 2007, with the disqualification of Marion Jones , Pauline Davis-Thompson was advanced to the gold medal position in the 200 metres at the 2000 Olympics , predating William-Darling. The Bahamas were hosts of the first men's senior FIFA tournament to be staged in the Caribbean, the 2017 FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup . Education [ edit ] Main article: Education in the Bahamas According to 1995 estimates, 98.2% of the adult population is literate. [ citation needed ] In popular culture [ edit ] Scenes from the final Jaws film ( Jaws: The Revenge ) were filmed on a New Providence Island beach now known as "Jaws Beach". The fourth official James Bond film , Thunderball (1965), was partly filmed in Nassau , where much of the story is set. Eon Productions were to return for filming underwater sequences in the famously clear waters, even when a Bond film's story was set elsewhere; for example, for The Spy Who Loved Me (1977). The unofficial remake of Thunderball , Never Say Never Again (1983), was similarly partly filmed in the islands, though this version of the story was not as extensively set there. Zeus and Roxanne is a 1997 family comedy/adventure film directed by George T. Miller. It revolves around the friendship between the title characters, a dog and a dolphin, respectively. It stars Steve Guttenberg and Kathleen Quinlan. Parts of the Movie was filmed in Grand Bahama . Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest is a 2006 American fantasy swashbuckler film, the second installment of the Pirates of the Caribbean film series and the sequel to Pirates of the Caribbean. Parts of the movie was filmed in The Bahamas After the Sunset is a 2004 action comedy film starring Pierce Brosnan as Max Burdett, a master thief caught in a pursuit with FBI agent Stan Lloyd, played by Woody Harrelson. The film was directed by Brett Ratner and shot in the Bahamas. Into the Blue a 2005 American action-thriller film starring Paul Walker, Jessica Alba, Scott Caan, Ashley Scott, Josh Brolin, and James Frain. The film was directed by John Stockwell was filmed in the Bahamas Tyler Perry's Why Did I Get Married? is a 2007 American comedy-drama film adaptation written, produced, directed, and starring Tyler Perry. Parts of the film was filmed in Eleuthera The twenty-first official James Bond film , Casino Royale (2006), was in part set and filmed in the islands. The Beatles ' film Help! was filmed in part on New Providence Island and Paradise Island also in 1965. Nassau is featured in the 2013 video game Assassin's Creed IV: Black Flag as a pirate haven, housing the main protagonists. Historical pirates are encountered there such as Benjamin Hornigold , Edward Teach /Blackbeard, Charles Vane , "Calico" Jack Rackham , Anne Bonney and Mary Read . Notable residents [ edit ] Sidney Poitier (born 1927), Bahamian-American actor, film director, author, and diplomat Denis Shapovalov (born 1999), Israeli-Canadian tennis player Lexi Wilson (born 1991), Bahamian model and beauty pageant titleholder See also [ edit ] West Indies portal Caricom portal Commonwealth realms portal Bahamas portal New Spain portal Bahamas – Wikipedia book Outline of the Bahamas Index of Bahamas-related articles Bibliography of the Bahamas References [ edit ] Bibliography [ edit ] Horne, Gerald (2012). Negro Comrades of the Crown: African Americans and the British Empire Fight the U.S. Before Emancipation . NYU Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-4463-5 . Higham, Charles (1988). The Dutchess of Windsor: The Secret Life . McGraw Hill. ISBN 0471485233 . Further reading [ edit ] General history [ edit ] Cash Philip et al. (Don Maples, Alison Packer). The Making of The Bahamas: A History for Schools . London: Collins, 1978. Miller, Hubert W. The Colonization of The Bahamas, 1647–1670, The William and Mary Quarterly 2 no.1 (January 1945): 33–46. Craton, Michael. A History of The Bahamas . London: Collins, 1962. Craton, Michael and Saunders, Gail. Islanders in the Stream: A History of the Bahamian People . Athens: University of Georgia Press , 1992 Collinwood, Dean. "Columbus and the Discovery of Self," Weber Studies , Vol. 9 No. 3 (Fall) 1992: 29–44. Dodge, Steve. Abaco: The History of an Out Island and its Cays , Tropic Isle Publications, 1983. Dodge, Steve. The Compleat Guide to Nassau , White Sound Press, 1987. Boultbee, Paul G. The Bahamas. Oxford: ABC-Clio Press, 1990. Wood, David E., comp., A Guide to Selected Sources to the History of the Seminole Settlements of Red Bays, Andros, 1817–1980 , Nassau: Department of Archives Economic history [ edit ] Johnson, Howard. The Bahamas in Slavery and Freedom . Kingston: Ian Randle Publishing, 1991. Johnson, Howard. The Bahamas from Slavery to Servitude, 1783–1933 . Gainesville: University of Florida Press , 1996. Alan A. Block. Masters of Paradise , New Brunswick and London, Transaction Publishers, 1998. Storr, Virgil H. Enterprising Slaves and Master Pirates: Understanding Economic Life in the Bahamas . New York: Peter Lang , 2004. Social history [ edit ] Johnson, Wittington B. Race Relations in the Bahamas, 1784–1834: The Nonviolent Transformation from a Slave to a Free Society , Fayetteville: University of Arkansas , 2000. Shirley, Paul. "Tek Force Wid Force", History Today 54, no. 41 (April 2004): 30–35. Saunders, Gail. The Social Life in the Bahamas 1880s–1920s . Nassau: Media Publishing, 1996. Saunders, Gail. Bahamas Society After Emancipation . Kingston: Ian Randle Publishing, 1990. Curry, Jimmy. Filthy Rich Gangster/First Bahamian Movie . Movie Mogul Pictures: 1996. Curry, Jimmy. To the Rescue/First Bahamian Rap/Hip Hop Song . Royal Crown Records, 1985. Collinwood, Dean. The Bahamas Between Worlds , White Sound Press, 1989. Collinwood, Dean and Steve Dodge. Modern Bahamian Society , Caribbean Books, 1989. Dodge, Steve, Robert McIntire and Dean Collinwood. The Bahamas Index , White Sound Press, 1989. Collinwood, Dean. "The Bahamas," in The Whole World Handbook 1992–1995 , 12th ed., New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994. Collinwood, Dean. "The Bahamas," chapters in Jack W. Hopkins, ed., Latin American and Caribbean Contemporary Record , Vols. 1,2,3,4, Holmes and Meier Publishers, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1986. Collinwood, Dean. "Problems of Research and Training in Small Islands with a Social Science Faculty," in Social Science in Latin America and the Caribbean , UNESCO, No. 48, 1982. Collinwood, Dean and Rick Phillips, "The National Literature of the New Bahamas," Weber Studies , Vol.7, No. 1 (Spring) 1990: 43–62. Collinwood, Dean. "Writers, Social Scientists and Sexual Norms in the Caribbean," Tsuda Review , No. 31 (November) 1986: 45–57. Collinwood, Dean. "Terra Incognita: Research on the Modern Bahamian Society," Journal of Caribbean Studies, Vol. 1, Nos. 2–3 (Winter) 1981: 284–297. Collinwood, Dean and Steve Dodge. "Political Leadership in the Bahamas," The Bahamas Research Institute, No.1, May 1987. External links [ edit ] Official website Wikimedia Atlas of Bahamas "Bahamas" . The World Factbook . Central Intelligence Agency . The Bahamas from UCB Libraries GovPubs The Bahamas at Curlie (based on DMOZ ) The Bahamas from the BBC News Key Development Forecasts for The Bahamas from International Futures Maps of the Bahamas from the American Geographical Society Library

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where are the bahamas located in relation to the united states

The Bahamas (/ bəˈhɑːməz / (listen)), known officially as the Commonwealth of the Bahamas, is an archipelagic state within the Lucayan Archipelago. It consists of more than 700 islands, cays, and islets in the Atlantic Ocean, and is located north of Cuba and Hispaniola (Haiti and the Dominican Republic), northwest of the Turks and Caicos Islands, southeast of the US state of Florida, and east of the Florida Keys. The capital is Nassau on the island of New Providence. The designation of `` the Bahamas '' can refer either to the country or to the larger island chain that it shares with the Turks and Caicos Islands. As stated in the mandate / manifesto of the Royal Bahamas Defence Force, the Bahamas territory encompasses 470,000 km (180,000 sq mi) of ocean space.

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níbo ni bahamas wà ní ìbámu pẹ̀lú orílẹ̀-èdè amẹ́ríkà

No

['O budo si inu Okun Atlantiki ni ariwa Kuba ati Hispaniola (Dominiki Olominira ati Haiti), ariwaiwoorun awon Erekusu Turks ati Caicos, ati guusuilaorun orile-ede Awon Ipinle Aparapo ile Amerika (nitosi ipinle Florida).']

['O budo si inu Okun Atlantiki ni ariwa Kuba ati Hispaniola (Dominiki Olominira ati Haiti), ariwaiwoorun awon Erekusu Turks ati Caicos, ati guusuilaorun orile-ede Awon Ipinle Aparapo ile Amerika (nitosi ipinle Florida).']

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Àwọn Bàhámà (pípè /ðə bəˈhɑːməz/ ( listen ) ) tabi lonibise bi Orílẹ̀-èdè Àjọni ilẹ̀ awọn Bàhámà , je orile-ede elede Geesi to ni awon erekusu 29, 661 cays , ati 2,387 erekusu kekere 2,387 (apata). O budo si inu Okun Atlantiki ni ariwa Kuba ati Hispaniola ( Dominiki Olominira ati Haiti ), ariwaiwoorun awon Erekusu Turks ati Caicos , ati guusuilaorun orile-ede Awon Ipinle Aparapo ile Amerika (nitosi ipinle Florida ). Apapo iye aala ile re je 13,939 km 2 (5,382 sq. mi.), pelu idiye olugbe to to 330,000. Oluilu re ni Nassau . Bi jeografi, awon Bahama wa ni asopo erekusu kanna bi Kuba , Hispaniola ( Dominiki Olominira ati Haiti ) ati Awon Erekusu Turks ati Caicos . Awon onibudo ibe tele ni awon Taino ti Arawaka , awon Bahama ni ibi ti Columbus koko gunle si ni Ile Aye Tuntun ni 1492. Botilejepe awon ara Spein ko se amunisin awon Bahama, won ko awon Lucaya abinibi ibe (eyi ni oruko ti awon Taino Bahama unpe ara won) lo si oko eru ni Hispaniola. Lati 1513 de 1650 enikankan ko gbe ori awon erekusu yi, ko to di pe awon olumunisin ara Britani lati Bermuda tedo si erekusu Eleuthera . Itoka [ àtúnṣe | àtúnṣe àmìọ̀rọ̀ ]

"Bahama" and "Bahamas" redirect here. For other uses, see Bahama (disambiguation) . Coordinates : 24°15′N 76°00′W  /  24.250°N 76.000°W  / 24.250; -76.000 The Bahamas ( / b ə ˈ h ɑː m ə z / ( listen ) ), known officially as the Commonwealth of the Bahamas , is an archipelagic state within the Lucayan Archipelago . It consists of more than 700 islands , cays , and islets in the Atlantic Ocean , and is located north of Cuba and Hispaniola ( Haiti and the Dominican Republic ), northwest of the Turks and Caicos Islands , southeast of the US state of Florida , and east of the Florida Keys . The capital is Nassau on the island of New Providence . The designation of "the Bahamas" can refer either to the country or to the larger island chain that it shares with the Turks and Caicos Islands . As stated in the mandate/manifesto of the Royal Bahamas Defence Force , the Bahamas territory encompasses 470,000 km 2 (180,000 sq mi) of ocean space. The Bahamas is the site of Columbus ' first landfall in the New World in 1492. At that time, the islands were inhabited by the Lucayan , a branch of the Arawakan -speaking Taino people. Although the Spanish never colonised The Bahamas, they shipped the native Lucayans to slavery in Hispaniola. The islands were mostly deserted from 1513 until 1648, when English colonists from Bermuda settled on the island of Eleuthera . The Bahamas became a British crown colony in 1718, when the British clamped down on piracy . After the American War of Independence , the Crown resettled thousands of American Loyalists in the Bahamas; they brought their slaves with them and established plantations on land grants. Africans constituted the majority of the population from this period. The slave trade was abolished by the British in 1807; slavery in the Bahamas was abolished in 1834. The Bahamas became a haven for freed African slaves; the Royal Navy resettled Africans here liberated from illegal slave ships, American slaves and Seminoles escaped here from Florida, and the government freed American slaves carried on United States domestic ships that had reached the Bahamas due to weather. Today, Afro-Bahamians make up nearly 90% of the population. The Bahamas became an independent Commonwealth realm in 1973, retaining the British monarch, then and currently Queen Elizabeth II , as its head of state. In terms of gross domestic product per capita, The Bahamas is one of the richest countries in the Americas (following the United States and Canada), with an economy based on tourism and finance. Contents [ hide ] 1 Etymology 2 History 2.1 18th–19th centuries 2.2 20th century 2.3 Post-Second World War 3 Geography 3.1 Castaway Cay 3.2 Climate 4 Geology 5 Government and politics 5.1 Political culture 5.2 Foreign relations 5.3 Armed forces 5.4 Administrative divisions 5.5 National flag 5.6 Coat of arms 5.7 National flower 6 Economy 6.1 Tourism 6.2 Financial services 6.3 Agriculture 7 Demographics 7.1 Racial and ethnic groups 7.2 Languages 7.3 Religion 8 Culture 8.1 Sport 9 Education 10 Representation in other media 11 See also 12 References 13 Bibliography 14 Further reading 14.1 General history 14.2 Economic history 14.3 Social history 15 External links Etymology [ edit ] The name Bahamas is mostly likely derived from either the Taíno ba ha ma ("big upper middle land"), which was a term for the region used by the indigenous Native Americans, or possibly from the Spanish baja mar ("shallow water or sea" or " low tide ") reflecting the shallow waters of the area. Alternatively, it may originate from Guanahani , a local name of unclear meaning. A peculiarity of the name is that the word The is a formal part of the abbreviated name and is, therefore, capitalised. So in contrast to "the Congo" and "the United Kingdom", it is proper to write "The Bahamas". History [ edit ] Main article: History of the Bahamas A depiction of Columbus' first landing, claiming possession of the New World for Spain in caravels ; the Niña and the Pinta , on Watling Island, an island of The Bahamas that the natives called Guanahani and that he named San Salvador , on 12 October 1492. Taino people moved into the uninhabited southern Bahamas from Hispaniola and Cuba around the 11th century, having migrated there from South America. They came to be known as the Lucayan people . An estimated 30,000 Lucayan inhabited the Bahamas at the time of Christopher Columbus ' arrival in 1492. Columbus's first landfall in the New World was on an island he named San Salvador (known to the Lucayan as Guanahani ). Some researchers believe this site to be present-day San Salvador Island (formerly known as Watling's Island), situated in the southeastern Bahamas. An alternative theory holds that Columbus landed to the southeast on Samana Cay , according to calculations made in 1986 by National Geographic writer and editor Joseph Judge , based on Columbus's log. Evidence in support of this remains inconclusive. On the landfall island, Columbus made first contact with the Lucayan and exchanged goods with them. The Spanish forced much of the Lucayan population to Hispaniola for use as forced labour. The slaves suffered from harsh conditions and most died from contracting diseases to which they had no immunity ; half of the Taino died from smallpox alone. The population of the Bahamas was severely diminished. In 1648, the Eleutherian Adventurers , led by William Sayle , migrated from Bermuda. These English Puritans established the first permanent European settlement on an island which they named Eleuthera —the name derives from the Greek word for freedom. They later settled New Providence , naming it Sayle's Island after one of their leaders. To survive, the settlers salvaged goods from wrecks . In 1670, King Charles II granted the islands to the Lords Proprietors of the Carolinas in North America. They rented the islands from the king with rights of trading, tax, appointing governors , and administering the country. In 1684 Spanish corsair Juan de Alcon raided the capital , Charles Town (later renamed Nassau ). In 1703, a joint Franco-Spanish expedition briefly occupied the Bahamian capital during the War of the Spanish Succession . 18th–19th centuries [ edit ] Sign at Bill Baggs Cape Florida State Park commemorating hundreds of African-American slaves who escaped to freedom in the early 1820s in the Bahamas During proprietary rule, the Bahamas became a haven for pirates , including the infamous Blackbeard ( circa 1680–1718). To put an end to the ' Pirates' republic ' and restore orderly government, Britain made the Bahamas a crown colony in 1718 under the royal governorship of Woodes Rogers . After a difficult struggle, he succeeded in suppressing piracy. In 1720, Rogers led local militia to drive off a Spanish attack . During the American War of Independence in the late 18th century, the islands became a target for American naval forces under the command of Commodore Esek Hopkins . US Marines occupied the capital of Nassau for a fortnight . In 1782, following the British defeat at Yorktown , a Spanish fleet appeared off the coast of Nassau. The city surrendered without a fight . Spain returned possession of the Bahamas to Britain the following year, under the terms of the Treaty of Paris . Before the news was received, however, the islands were recaptured by a small British force led by Andrew Deveaux . After American independence, the British resettled some 7,300 Loyalists with their slaves in the Bahamas, and granted land to the planters to help compensate for losses on the continent. These Loyalists, who included Deveaux, established plantations on several islands and became a political force in the capital. European Americans were outnumbered by the African-American slaves they brought with them, and ethnic Europeans remained a minority in the territory. In 1807, the British abolished the slave trade , followed by the United States the next year. During the following decades, the Royal Navy intercepted the trade; they resettled in the Bahamas thousands of Africans liberated from slave ships. In the 1820s during the period of the Seminole Wars in Florida, hundreds of American slaves and African Seminoles escaped from Cape Florida to the Bahamas. They settled mostly on northwest Andros Island , where they developed the village of Red Bays. From eyewitness accounts, 300 escaped in a mass flight in 1823, aided by Bahamians in 27 sloops , with others using canoes for the journey. This was commemorated in 2004 by a large sign at Bill Baggs Cape Florida State Park . Some of their descendants in Red Bays continue African Seminole traditions in basket making and grave marking. The United States' National Park Service , which administers the National Underground Railroad Network to Freedom, is working with the African Bahamian Museum and Research Center (ABAC) in Nassau on development to identify Red Bays as a site related to American slaves' search for freedom. The museum has researched and documented the African Seminoles' escape from southern Florida. It plans to develop interpretive programs at historical sites in Red Bay associated with the period of their settlement in the Bahamas. In 1818, the Home Office in London had ruled that "any slave brought to the Bahamas from outside the British West Indies would be manumitted." This led to a total of nearly 300 slaves owned by US nationals being freed from 1830 to 1835. The American slave ships Comet and Encomium used in the United States domestic coastwise slave trade , were wrecked off Abaco Island in December 1830 and February 1834, respectively. When wreckers took the masters, passengers and slaves into Nassau, customs officers seized the slaves and British colonial officials freed them, over the protests of the Americans. There were 165 slaves on the Comet and 48 on the Encomium . Britain finally paid an indemnity to the United States in those two cases in 1855, under the Treaty of Claims of 1853, which settled several compensation cases between the two nations. Slavery was abolished in the British Empire on 1 August 1834. After that British colonial officials freed 78 American slaves from the Enterprise , which went into Bermuda in 1835; and 38 from the Hermosa , which wrecked off Abaco Island in 1840. The most notable case was that of the Creole in 1841: as a result of a slave revolt on board, the leaders ordered the American brig to Nassau. It was carrying 135 slaves from Virginia destined for sale in New Orleans . The Bahamian officials freed the 128 slaves who chose to stay in the islands. The Creole case has been described as the "most successful slave revolt in U.S. history". These incidents, in which a total of 447 slaves belonging to US nationals were freed from 1830 to 1842, increased tension between the United States and Great Britain . They had been co-operating in patrols to suppress the international slave trade. But, worried about the stability of its large domestic slave trade and its value, the United States argued that Britain should not treat its domestic ships that came to its colonial ports under duress, as part of the international trade. The United States worried that the success of the Creole slaves in gaining freedom would encourage more slave revolts on merchant ships. 20th century [ edit ] Edward VIII , the Duke of Windsor and Governor of the Bahamas from 1940 to 1945 In August 1940, after his abdication of the British throne, the Duke of Windsor was installed as Governor of the Bahamas , arriving with his wife, the Duchess . Although disheartened at the condition of Government House, they "tried to make the best of a bad situation". He did not enjoy the position, and referred to the islands as "a third-class British colony". He opened the small local parliament on 29 October 1940. The couple visited the "Out Islands" that November, on Axel Wenner-Gren 's yacht, which caused controversy; the British Foreign Office strenuously objected because they had been advised (mistakenly) by United States intelligence that Wenner-Gren was a close friend of the Luftwaffe commander Hermann Göring of Nazi Germany. The Duke was praised at the time for his efforts to combat poverty on the islands. A 1991 biography by Philip Ziegler, however, described him as contemptuous of the Bahamians and other non-European peoples of the Empire. He was praised for his resolution of civil unrest over low wages in Nassau in June 1942, when there was a "full-scale riot". Ziegler said that the Duke blamed the trouble on "mischief makers – communists " and "men of Central European Jewish descent, who had secured jobs as a pretext for obtaining a deferment of draft". The Duke resigned the post on 16 March 1945. Post-Second World War [ edit ] Sign at the entrance of the Sir Roland Symonette Park in North Eleuthera district commemorating Sir Roland Theodore Symonette , the Bahamas' first Premier Modern political development began after the Second World War . The first political parties were formed in the 1950s. The British Parliament authorised the islands as internally self-governing in 1964, with Sir Roland Symonette , of the United Bahamian Party , as the first Premier. A new constitution granting the Bahamas internal autonomy went into effect on 7 January 1964. In 1967, Lynden Pindling of the Progressive Liberal Party , became the first native born Premier of the majority native Bahamian colony; in 1968 the title of the position was changed to Prime Minister . In 1968, Pindling announced that the Bahamas would seek full independence. A new constitution giving the Bahamas increased control over its own affairs was adopted in 1968. The British House of Lords voted to give the Bahamas its independence on 22 June 1973. Prince Charles delivered the official documents to Prime Minister Lynden Pindling , officially declaring the Bahamas a fully independent nation on 10 July 1973. It joined the Commonwealth of Nations on the same day. Sir Milo Butler was appointed the first Governor-General of the Bahamas (the official representative of Queen Elizabeth II ) shortly after independence. The Bahamas joined the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank on 22 August 1973, and it joined the United Nations on 18 September 1973. Based on the twin pillars of tourism and offshore finance , the Bahamian economy has prospered since the 1950s. Significant challenges in areas such as education, health care, housing, international narcotics trafficking and illegal immigration from Haiti continue to be issues. The University of The Bahamas (UB) is the national higher education/tertiary system. Offering baccalaureate, masters and associate degrees, UB has three campuses, and teaching and research centres throughout the Bahamas. The University of the Bahamas was chartered on November 10, 2016 Geography [ edit ] Main article: Geography of the Bahamas The Bahamas from space. NASA Aqua satellite image, 2009 The country lies between latitudes 20° and 28°N , and longitudes 72° and 80°W . In 1864, the Governor of the Bahamas reported that there were 29 islands, 661 cays, and 2,387 rocks in the colony. The closest island to the United States is Bimini , which is also known as the gateway to the Bahamas. The island of Abaco is to the east of Grand Bahama . The southeasternmost island is Inagua . The largest island is Andros Island . Other inhabited islands include Eleuthera , Cat Island , Rum Cay , Long Island , San Salvador Island , Ragged Island , Acklins , Crooked Island , Exuma , Berry Islands and Mayaguana . Nassau , capital city of the Bahamas, lies on the island of New Providence . All the islands are low and flat, with ridges that usually rise no more than 15 to 20 m (49 to 66 ft). The highest point in the country is Mount Alvernia (formerly Como Hill) on Cat Island. It has an elevation of 63 metres (207 ft). Damaged homes in the Bahamas in the aftermath of Hurricane Wilma in 2005 To the southeast, the Turks and Caicos Islands , and three more extensive submarine features called Mouchoir Bank , Silver Bank and Navidad Bank , are geographically a continuation of the Bahamas. Castaway Cay [ edit ] Main article: Castaway Cay Disney Has it own private island in the Bahamas called Castaway Cay It is located near Great Abaco Island and was formerly known as Gorda Cay. In 1997, The Walt Disney Company purchased a 99-year land lease for the cay from the Bahamian government, set to expire in 2096 Climate [ edit ] See also: Geography of the Bahamas § Climate The climate of the Bahamas is tropical savannah climate or Aw according to Köppen climate classification . The low latitude, warm tropical Gulf Stream , and low elevation give the Bahamas a warm and winterless climate. As such, there has never been a frost or freeze reported in the Bahamas, although every few decades low temperatures can fall below 10 °C (50 °F) for a few hours when a severe cold outbreak comes off the North American mainland. There is only an 8 °C difference between the warmest month and coolest month in most of the Bahama islands. As with most tropical climates, seasonal rainfall follows the sun, and summer is the wettest season. The Bahamas are often sunny and dry for long periods of time, and average more than 3,000 hours or 340 days of sunlight annually. Tropical storms and hurricanes can on occasion impact the Bahamas. In 1992, Hurricane Andrew passed over the northern portions of the islands, and Hurricane Floyd passed near the eastern portions of the islands in 1999. [ hide ] Climate data for Nassau Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Average high °C (°F) 25.4 (77.7) 25.5 (77.9) 26.6 (79.9) 27.9 (82.2) 29.7 (85.5) 31.0 (87.8) 32.0 (89.6) 32.1 (89.8) 31.6 (88.9) 29.9 (85.8) 27.8 (82) 26.2 (79.2) 28.8 (83.9) Daily mean °C (°F) 21.4 (70.5) 21.4 (70.5) 22.3 (72.1) 23.8 (74.8) 25.6 (78.1) 27.2 (81) 28.0 (82.4) 28.1 (82.6) 27.7 (81.9) 26.2 (79.2) 24.2 (75.6) 22.3 (72.1) 24.85 (76.73) Average low °C (°F) 17.3 (63.1) 17.3 (63.1) 17.9 (64.2) 19.6 (67.3) 21.4 (70.5) 23.3 (73.9) 24.0 (75.2) 24.0 (75.2) 23.7 (74.7) 22.5 (72.5) 20.6 (69.1) 18.3 (64.9) 20.8 (69.5) Average precipitation mm (inches) 39.4 (1.551) 49.5 (1.949) 54.4 (2.142) 69.3 (2.728) 105.9 (4.169) 218.2 (8.591) 160.8 (6.331) 235.7 (9.28) 164.1 (6.461) 161.8 (6.37) 80.5 (3.169) 49.8 (1.961) 1,389.4 (54.701) Average precipitation days 8 6 7 8 10 15 17 19 17 15 10 8 140 Mean monthly sunshine hours 220.1 220.4 257.3 276.0 269.7 231.0 272.8 266.6 213.0 223.2 222.0 213.9 2,886 Source: World Meteorological Organization ( UN ), Hong Kong Observatory (sun only) Average Sea Temperature Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 23 °C 73 °F 23 °C 73 °F 24 °C 75 °F 26 °C 79 °F 27 °C 81 °F 28 °C 82 °F 28 °C 82 °F 28 °C 82 °F 28 °C 82 °F 27 °C 81 °F 26 °C 79 °F 24 °C 75 °F Geology [ edit ] The Bahamas Platform, which includes the Bahamas, Southern Florida, Northern Cuba, the Turks and Caicos, and the Blake Plateau , formed about 150 Ma , not long after the formation of the North Atlantic . The 6.4 km thick limestones , which predominately make up The Bahamas, date back to the Cretaceous . These limestones would have been deposited in shallow seas, assumed to be a stretched and thinned portion of the North American continental crust . Sediments were forming at about the same rate as the crust below was sinking due to the added weight. Thus, the entire area consisted of a large marine plain with some islands. Then, at about 80 Ma, the area became flooded by the Gulf Stream . The resulted in the drowning of the Blake Plateau, the separation of The Bahamas from Cuba and Florida, the separation of the southeastern Bahamas into separate banks, the creation of the Cay Sal Bank , plus the Little and Great Bahama Banks . Sedimentation from the "carbonate factory" of each bank, or atoll , continues today at the rate of about 2 cm per kyr . Coral reefs form the "retaining walls" of these atolls, within which oolites and pellets form. Coral growth was greater through the Tertiary , until the start of the Ice Ages , and hence those deposits are more abundant below a depth of 36 m. In fact, an ancient extinct reef exists half a km seaward of the present one, 30 m below sea level. Oolites form when oceanic water penetrate the shallow banks, increasing the temperature about 3 °C and the salinity by 0.5 per cent. Cemented ooids are referred to as grapestone. Additionally, giant stromatolites are found off the Exuma Cays . Sea level changes resulted in a drop in sea level, causing wind blown oolite to form sand dunes with distinct cross-bedding . Overlapping dunes form oolitic ridges, which become rapidly lithified through the action of rainwater. Most islands have ridges ranging from 30 to 45 m, though Cat Island has a ridge 60 m in height. The land between ridges is conducive to the formation of lakes and swamps. Solution weathering of the limestone results in a "Bahamian Karst " topography. This includes potholes , Blue holes such as Dean's Blue Hole , sinkholes , beachrock such as the Bimini Road ("pavements of Atlantis"), limestone crust , caves due to the lack of rivers, and sea caves . Several blue holes are aligned along the South Andros Fault line. Tidal flats and tidal creeks are common, but the more impressive drainage patterns are formed by troughs and canyons such as Great Bahama Canyon with the evidence of turbidity currents and turbidite deposition. Government and politics [ edit ] Main article: Politics of the Bahamas The Bahamian Parliament , located in Nassau The Bahamas is a parliamentary constitutional monarchy headed by Queen Elizabeth II in her role as Queen of the Bahamas. Political and legal traditions closely follow those of the United Kingdom and the Westminster system . The Bahamas is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations as a Commonwealth realm , retaining the Queen as head of state (represented by a Governor-General ). Legislative power is vested In a bicameral parliament , which consists of a 38-member House of Assembly (the lower house ), with members elected from single-member districts , and a 16-member Senate , with members appointed by the Governor-General, including nine on the advice of the Prime Minister, four on the advice of the Leader of Her Majesty's Loyal Opposition , and three on the advice of the Prime Minister after consultation with the Leader of the Opposition. The House of Assembly carries out all major legislative functions. As under the Westminster system, the Prime Minister may dissolve Parliament and call a general election at any time within a five-year term. The Prime Minister is the head of government and is the leader of the party with the most seats in the House of Assembly. Executive power is exercised by the Cabinet, selected by the Prime Minister and drawn from his supporters in the House of Assembly. The current Governor-General is Dame Marguerite Pindling , and the current Prime Minister is The Rt. Hon. Hubert Minnis M.P. . Constitutional safeguards include freedom of speech , press , worship , movement and association . The Judiciary of the Bahamas is independent of the executive and the legislature. Jurisprudence is based on English law . Political culture [ edit ] The Bahamas has a two-party system dominated by the centre-left Progressive Liberal Party and the centre-right Free National Movement . A handful of splinter parties have been unable to win election to parliament. These parties have included the Bahamas Democratic Movement , the Coalition for Democratic Reform, Bahamian Nationalist Party and the Democratic National Alliance . Foreign relations [ edit ] Further information: Foreign relations of the Bahamas The Bahamas has strong bilateral relationships with the United States and the United Kingdom , represented by an ambassador in Washington and High Commissioner in London . The Bahamas also associates closely with other nations of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM). Armed forces [ edit ] Main article: Royal Bahamas Defence Force HMBS Nassau (P-61) Its military is the Royal Bahamas Defence Force (the RBDF), the navy of the Bahamas which includes a land unit called Commando Squadron (Regiment) and an Air Wing (Air Force). Under the Defence Act, the RBDF has been mandated, in the name of the Queen , to defend the Bahamas, protect its territorial integrity, patrol its waters, provide assistance and relief in times of disaster, maintain order in conjunction with the law enforcement agencies of the Bahamas, and carry out any such duties as determined by the National Security Council. The Defence Force is also a member of the Caribbean Community ( CARICOM )'s Regional Security Task Force. The RBDF came into existence on 31 March 1980. Their duties include defending the Bahamas, stopping drug smuggling , illegal immigration and poaching, and providing assistance to mariners. The Defence Force has a fleet of 26 coastal and inshore patrol craft along with 3 aircraft and over 1,100 personnel including 65 officers and 74 women. Administrative divisions [ edit ] Main article: Local government in the Bahamas Districts of the Bahamas The districts of the Bahamas provide a system of local government everywhere except New Providence (which holds 70% of the national population), whose affairs are handled directly by the central government. In 1996, the Bahamian Parliament passed the "Local Government Act" to facilitate the establishment of Family Island Administrators, Local Government Districts, Local District Councillors and Local Town Committees for the various island communities. The overall goal of this act is to allow the various elected leaders to govern and oversee the affairs of their respective districts without the interference of Central Government. In total, there are 32 districts, with elections being held every five years. There are 110 Councillors and 281 Town Committee members are elected to represent the various districts. Each Councillor or Town Committee member is responsible for the proper use of public funds for the maintenance and development of their constituency. The Bahamas uses drive-on-the-Left traffic rules throughout the Commonwealth. The districts other than New Providence are: Acklins Berry Islands Bimini Black Point , Exuma Cat Island Central Abaco Central Andros Central Eleuthera City of Freeport, Grand Bahama Crooked Island East Grand Bahama Exuma Grand Cay , Abaco Harbour Island , Eleuthera Hope Town , Abaco Inagua Long Island Mangrove Cay , Andros Mayaguana Moore's Island , Abaco North Abaco North Andros North Eleuthera Ragged Island Rum Cay San Salvador South Abaco South Andros South Eleuthera Spanish Wells , Eleuthera West Grand Bahama National flag [ edit ] Main article: Flag of the Bahamas National flag of the Bahamas The colours embodied in the design of the Bahamian flag symbolise the strength of the Bahamian people; the design reflects aspects of the natural environment (sun and sea) and the economic and social development. The flag is a black equilateral triangle against the mast, superimposed on a horizontal background made up of two colours on three equal stripes of aquamarine, gold and aquamarine. Coat of arms [ edit ] Main article: Coat of arms of the Bahamas Bahamian Coat of Arms The coat of arms of the Bahamas contains a shield with the national symbols as its focal point. The shield is supported by a marlin and a flamingo , which are the national animals of the Bahamas. The flamingo is located on the land, and the marlin on the sea, indicating the geography of the islands. On top of the shield is a conch shell, which represents the varied marine life of the island chain. The conch shell rests on a helmet. Below this is the actual shield, the main symbol of which is a ship representing the Santa María of Christopher Columbus, shown sailing beneath the sun. Along the bottom, below the shield appears a banner upon which is the national motto: "Forward, Upward, Onward Together." National flower [ edit ] The yellow elder was chosen as the national flower of the Bahamas because it is native to the Bahama islands, and it blooms throughout the year. Selection of the yellow elder over many other flowers was made through the combined popular vote of members of all four of New Providence's garden clubs of the 1970s—the Nassau Garden Club, the Carver Garden Club, the International Garden Club and the Y.W.C.A. Garden Club. They reasoned that other flowers grown there—such as the bougainvillea , hibiscus and poinciana —had already been chosen as the national flowers of other countries. The yellow elder, on the other hand, was unclaimed by other countries (although it is now also the national flower of the United States Virgin Islands ) and also the yellow elder is native to the family islands. Economy [ edit ] Main article: Economy of the Bahamas By the terms of GDP per capita , the Bahamas is one of the richest countries in the Americas . It was revealed in the Panama Papers that The Bahamas is the jurisdiction with the most offshore entities or companies. Tourism [ edit ] Cruise ships in Nassau Harbour The Bahamas relies on tourism to generate most of its economic activity. Tourism as an industry not only accounts for over 60% of the Bahamian GDP, but provides jobs for more than half the country's workforce. The Bahamas attracted 5.8 million visitors in 2012, more than 70% of whom were cruise visitors. Financial services [ edit ] After tourism, the next most important economic sector is banking and international financial services, accounting for some 15% of GDP. The government has adopted incentives to encourage foreign financial business, and further banking and finance reforms are in progress. The government plans to merge the regulatory functions of key financial institutions, including the Central Bank of the Bahamas (CBB) and the Securities and Exchange Commission. [ citation needed ] The Central Bank administers restrictions and controls on capital and money market instruments. The Bahamas International Securities Exchange consists of 19 listed public companies. Reflecting the relative soundness of the banking system (mostly populated by Canadian banks), the impact of the global financial crisis on the financial sector has been limited. [ citation needed ] A proportional representation of the Bahamas exports. The economy has a very competitive tax regime. The government derives its revenue from import tariffs, VAT , licence fees, property and stamp taxes, but there is no income tax, corporate tax, capital gains tax, or wealth tax. Payroll taxes fund social insurance benefits and amount to 3.9% paid by the employee and 5.9% paid by the employer. In 2010, overall tax revenue as a percentage of GDP was 17.2%. Agriculture [ edit ] Further information: Agriculture in the Bahamas Agriculture is the third largest sector of the Bahamian economy, representing 5–7% of total GDP. An estimated 80% of the Bahamian food supply is imported. Major crops include onions , okra , tomatoes , oranges , grapefruit , cucumbers , sugar cane , lemons , limes , and sweet potatoes . Demographics [ edit ] Main article: Demographics of the Bahamas The Bahamas has an estimated population of 391,232, of which 25.9% are under 14, 67.2% 15 to 64 and 6.9% over 65. It has a population growth rate of 0.925% (2010), with a birth rate of 17.81/1,000 population, death rate of 9.35/1,000, and net migration rate of −2.13 migrant(s)/1,000 population. The infant mortality rate is 23.21 deaths/1,000 live births. Residents have a life expectancy at birth of 69.87 years: 73.49 years for females, 66.32 years for males. The total fertility rate is 2.0 children born/woman (2010). The most populous islands are New Providence, where Nassau, the capital and largest city, is located; and Grand Bahama, home to the second largest city of Freeport . Racial and ethnic groups [ edit ] According to the 99% response rate obtained from the race question on the 2010 Census questionnaire, 90.6% of the population identified themselves as being Black, 4.7% White and 2.1% of a mixed race (Black and White). according to the CIA Handbook. Other sources indicate whites number up to 12 to 15%, The Bahamas Guide, World Population Review. Three centuries prior, in 1722 when the first official census of the Bahamas was taken, 74% of the population was White and 26% Black. Afro-Bahamian children at a local school Since the colonial era of plantations, Africans or Afro-Bahamians have been the largest ethnic group in the Bahamas, whose primary ancestry was based in West Africa . The first Africans to arrive to the Bahamas were freed slaves from Bermuda ; they arrived with the Eleutheran Adventurers looking for new lives. The Haitian community in the Bahamas is also largely of African descent and numbers about 80,000. Due to an extremely high immigration of Haitians to the Bahamas, the Bahamian government started deporting illegal Haitian immigrants to their homeland in late 2014. The White Bahamian population are mainly the descendants of the English Puritans looking to flee religious persecution in England and American Loyalists escaping the American Revolution who arrived in 1649 and 1783, respectively. Many Southern Loyalists went to the Abaco Islands , half of whose population was of European descent as of 1985. The term white is usually used to identify Bahamians with Anglo ancestry, as well as "light-skinned" Afro-Bahamians. Sometimes Bahamians use the term Conchy Joe to describe people of Anglo descent. A small portion of the Euro-Bahamian population is descended from Greek labourers who came to help develop the sponging industry in the 1900s. They make up less than 1% of the nation's population, but have still preserved their distinct Greek Bahamian culture. [ citation needed ] Bahamians typically identify themselves simply as either black or white . Languages [ edit ] The official language of the Bahamas is English. Many Haitians who migrated to The Bahamas speak an English-based creole language . Bahamian dialect (known simply as "dialect") or as "Bahamianese." is a variety of broken English by Bahamian diasporas. James Catalyn, a Bahamian writer and actor was the first to coin the latter name in a poem and has since promoted its usage. Both are used as autoglossonyms. Haitian Creole , a French-based creole language is spoken by Haitians and their descendants, who make up of about 25% of the total population. It is known simply as Creole to differentiate languages. Also note that the Bahamas was once under British rule and therefore the English taught in the Bahamian schools is still "British-based". Religion [ edit ] Further information: Religion in the Bahamas According to International Religious Freedom Report 2008 prepared by United States Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, the islands' population is predominantly Christian . Protestant denominations are widespread and collectively account for more than 70% of the population, with Baptists representing 35% of the population, Anglicans 15%, Pentecostals 8%, Church of God 5%, Seventh-day Adventists 5% and Methodists 4%. There is also a significant Roman Catholic community accounting for about 14%. There are also smaller communities of Jews , Muslims , Baha'is , Hindus , Rastafarians and practitioners of Obeah . Culture [ edit ] Main articles: Culture of the Bahamas and Music of the Bahamas Junkanoo celebration in Nassau In the less developed outer islands (or Family Islands), handicrafts include basketry made from palm fronds. This material, commonly called "straw", is plaited into hats and bags that are popular tourist items. Another use is for so-called "Voodoo dolls", even though such dolls are the result of the American imagination and not based on historic fact. A form of folk magic ( obeah ) is practiced by some Bahamians, mainly in the Family Islands (out-islands) of the Bahamas. The practice of obeah is illegal in the Bahamas and punishable by law. Junkanoo is a traditional Afro-Bahamian street parade of 'rushing', music, dance and art held in Nassau (and a few other settlements) every Boxing Day and New Year's Day . Junkanoo is also used to celebrate other holidays and events such as Emancipation Day. Regattas are important social events in many family island settlements. They usually feature one or more days of sailing by old-fashioned work boats , as well as an onshore festival. Many dishes are associated with Bahamian cuisine , which reflects Caribbean, African and European influences. Some settlements have festivals associated with the traditional crop or food of that area, such as the "Pineapple Fest" in Gregory Town, Eleuthera or the "Crab Fest" on Andros. Other significant traditions include story telling . Bahamians have created a rich literature of poetry, short stories, plays and short fictional works. Common themes in these works are (1) an awareness of change, (2) a striving for sophistication, (3) a search for identity, (4) nostalgia for the old ways and (5) an appreciation of beauty. Some contributing writers are Susan Wallace, Percival Miller, Robert Johnson, Raymond Brown, O.M. Smith, William Johnson, Eddie Minnis and Winston Saunders. Bahamas culture is rich with beliefs, traditions, folklore and legend. The most well-known folklore and legends in the Bahamas includes Lusca in Andros Bahamas, Pretty Molly on Exuma Bahamas, the Chickcharnies of Andro Bahamas, and the Lost City of Atlantis on Bimini Bahamas. Sport [ edit ] Sport is a significant part of Bahamian culture. The national sport is Cricket . Cricket has been played in the Bahamas from 1846. It is the oldest sport being played in the country today. The Bahamas Cricket Association was formed in 1936 as an organised body. From the 1940s to the 1970s, cricket was played amongst many Bahamians. Bahamas is not a part of the West Indies Cricket Board , so players are not eligible to play for the West Indies cricket team . The late 1970s saw the game begin to decline in the country as teachers, who had previously come from the United Kingdom with a passion for cricket were replaced by teachers who had been trained in the United States. The Bahamian Physical education teachers had no knowledge of the game and instead taught track & field , basketball , baseball , softball , volleyball and football where primary and high schools compete against each other. Today cricket is still enjoyed by a few locals and immigrants in the country usually from Jamaica , Guyana , Haiti and Barbados . Cricket is played on Saturdays and Sundays at Windsor Park and Haynes Oval. The only other sporting event that began before cricket was horse racing , which started in 1796. The most popular spectator sports are those imported from United States, such as basketball , American football and baseball rather than Great Britain due to the country's close proximity to the United States. Unlike their other Caribbean counterparts, cricket , rugby , and netball have proven to be more popular. Dexter Cambridge , Rick Fox , Ian Lockhart and Buddy Hield are a few Bahamians who joined Bahamian Mychal Thompson of the Los Angeles Lakers in the NBA ranks, Over the years American football has become much more popular than association football , though not implemented in the high school system yet. Leagues for teens and adults have been developed by the Bahamas American Football Federation. However association football, commonly known as 'soccer' in the country, is still a very popular sport amongst high school pupils. Leagues are governed by the Bahamas Football Association . Recently the Bahamian government has been working closely with Tottenham Hotspur of London to promote the sport in the country as well as promoting the Bahamas in the European market. In 2013 'Spurs' became the first Premier League club to play an exhibition match in the Bahamas to face the Jamaica national football team . Joe Lewis , the owner of the Tottenham Hotspur club, is based in the Bahamas. Other popular sports are swimming , tennis and boxing where Bahamians have enjoyed some degree of success at the international level. Other sports such as golf , rugby league , rugby union beach soccer and netball are considered growing sports. Athletics commonly known as track and field in the country is the most successful sport by far amongst Bahamians. Bahamians have a strong tradition in the sprints and jumps. Track and field is probably the most popular spectator sport in the country next to basketball due to their success over the years. Triathlons are gaining popularity in Nassau and the Family Islands. Bahamians have gone on to win numerous track and field medals at the Olympic Games , IAAF World Championships in Athletics , Commonwealth Games and Pan American Games . Frank Rutherford is the first athletics olympic medalist for the country. He won a bronze medal for triple jump during the 1992 Summer Olympics . Pauline Davis-Thompson , Debbie Ferguson , Chandra Sturrup , Savatheda Fynes and Eldece Clarke-Lewis teamed up for the first athletics Olympic Gold medal for the country when they won the 4 × 100 m relay at the 2000 Summer Olympics . They are affectionately known as the "Golden Girls". Tonique Williams-Darling became the first athletics individual Olympic gold medalist when she won the 400m sprint in 2004 Summer Olympics . In 2007, with the disqualification of Marion Jones , Pauline Davis-Thompson was advanced to the gold medal position in the 200 metres at the 2000 Olympics , predating William-Darling. The Bahamas were hosts of the first men's senior FIFA tournament to be staged in the Caribbean, the 2017 FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup . Education [ edit ] Main article: Education in the Bahamas According to 1995 estimates 98.2% of the adult population is literate. [ citation needed ] Representation in other media [ edit ] Scenes from the final Jaws movie ( Jaws: The Revenge ) were filmed on a New Providence Island beach now known as "Jaws Beach". The fourth official James Bond film , Thunderball (1965), was partly filmed in Nassau , where much of the story is set. Eon Productions were to return for filming underwater sequences in the famously clear waters, even when a Bond film's story was set elsewhere; for example, for The Spy Who Loved Me (1977). The unofficial remake of Thunderball , Never Say Never Again (1983), was similarly partly filmed in the islands, though this version of the story was not as extensively set there. The twenty-first official James Bond film , Casino Royale (2006), was in part set and filmed in the islands. The Beatles ' film Help! was filmed in part on New Providence Island and Paradise Island also in 1965. Nassau is featured in the 2013 video game Assassin's Creed IV: Black Flag as a pirate haven, housing the main protagonists. Historical pirates are encountered there such as Benjamin Hornigold , Edward Teach /Blackbeard, Charles Vane , "Calico" Jack Rackham , Anne Bonney and Mary Read . See also [ edit ] West Indies portal Caricom portal Commonwealth realms portal Bahamas portal New Spain portal Bahamas – Wikipedia book Outline of the Bahamas Index of Bahamas-related articles Bibliography of the Bahamas References [ edit ] Bibliography [ edit ] Horne, Gerald (2012). Negro Comrades of the Crown: African Americans and the British Empire Fight the U.S. Before Emancipation . NYU Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-4463-5 . Higham, Charles (1988). The Dutchess of Windsor: The Secret Life . McGraw Hill. ISBN 0471485233 . Further reading [ edit ] General history [ edit ] Cash Philip et al. (Don Maples, Alison Packer). The Making of The Bahamas: A History for Schools . London: Collins, 1978. Miller, Hubert W. The Colonization of The Bahamas, 1647–1670, The William and Mary Quarterly 2 no.1 (January 1945): 33–46. Craton, Michael. A History of The Bahamas . London: Collins, 1962. Craton, Michael and Saunders, Gail. Islanders in the Stream: A History of the Bahamian People . Athens: University of Georgia Press , 1992 Collinwood, Dean. "Columbus and the Discovery of Self," Weber Studies , Vol. 9 No. 3 (Fall) 1992: 29–44. Dodge, Steve. Abaco: The History of an Out Island and its Cays , Tropic Isle Publications, 1983. Dodge, Steve. The Compleat Guide to Nassau , White Sound Press, 1987. Boultbee, Paul G. The Bahamas. Oxford: ABC-Clio Press, 1990. Wood, David E., comp., A Guide to Selected Sources to the History of the Seminole Settlements of Red Bays, Andros, 1817–1980 , Nassau: Department of Archives Economic history [ edit ] Johnson, Howard. The Bahamas in Slavery and Freedom . Kingston: Ian Randle Publishing, 1991. Johnson, Howard. The Bahamas from Slavery to Servitude, 1783–1933 . Gainesville: University of Florida Press , 1996. Alan A. Block. Masters of Paradise , New Brunswick and London, Transaction Publishers, 1998. Storr, Virgil H. Enterprising Slaves and Master Pirates: Understanding Economic Life in the Bahamas . New York: Peter Lang , 2004. Social history [ edit ] Johnson, Wittington B. Race Relations in the Bahamas, 1784–1834: The Nonviolent Transformation from a Slave to a Free Society , Fayetteville: University of Arkansas , 2000. Shirley, Paul. "Tek Force Wid Force", History Today 54, no. 41 (April 2004): 30–35. Saunders, Gail. The Social Life in the Bahamas 1880s–1920s . Nassau: Media Publishing, 1996. Saunders, Gail. Bahamas Society After Emancipation . Kingston: Ian Randle Publishing, 1990. Curry, Jimmy. Filthy Rich Gangster/First Bahamian Movie . Movie Mogul Pictures: 1996. Curry, Jimmy. To the Rescue/First Bahamian Rap/Hip Hop Song . Royal Crown Records, 1985. Collinwood, Dean. The Bahamas Between Worlds , White Sound Press, 1989. Collinwood, Dean and Steve Dodge. Modern Bahamian Society , Caribbean Books, 1989. Dodge, Steve, Robert McIntire and Dean Collinwood. The Bahamas Index , White Sound Press, 1989. Collinwood, Dean. "The Bahamas," in The Whole World Handbook 1992–1995 , 12th ed., New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994. Collinwood, Dean. "The Bahamas," chapters in Jack W. Hopkins, ed., Latin American and Caribbean Contemporary Record , Vols. 1,2,3,4, Holmes and Meier Publishers, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1986. Collinwood, Dean. "Problems of Research and Training in Small Islands with a Social Science Faculty," in Social Science in Latin America and the Caribbean , UNESCO, No. 48, 1982. Collinwood, Dean and Rick Phillips, "The National Literature of the New Bahamas," Weber Studies , Vol.7, No. 1 (Spring) 1990: 43–62. Collinwood, Dean. "Writers, Social Scientists and Sexual Norms in the Caribbean," Tsuda Review , No. 31 (November) 1986: 45–57. Collinwood, Dean. "Terra Incognita: Research on the Modern Bahamian Society," Journal of Caribbean Studies, Vol. 1, Nos. 2–3 (Winter) 1981: 284–297. Collinwood, Dean and Steve Dodge. "Political Leadership in the Bahamas," The Bahamas Research Institute, No.1, May 1987. External links [ edit ] Official website Wikimedia Atlas of Bahamas "Bahamas" . The World Factbook . Central Intelligence Agency . The Bahamas from UCB Libraries GovPubs The Bahamas at DMOZ The Bahamas from the BBC News Key Development Forecasts for The Bahamas from International Futures Maps of the Bahamas from the American Geographical Society Library

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where are the canary islands located on a world map

The Canary Islands (/ kəˈnɛəri ˈaɪləndz / ; Spanish : Islas Canarias) is a Spanish archipelago and autonomous community of Spain located in the Atlantic Ocean, 100 kilometres (62 miles) west of Morocco at the closest point. The Canaries are among the outermost regions (OMR) of the European Union proper. It is also one of the eight regions with special consideration of historical nationality recognized as such by the Spanish Government.

['1990', 'human development index (hdi)']

níbo ni àwọn erékùṣù canary wà lórí àwòrán ayé

Yes

['Ile okan yi budo si eti ariwaiwoorun bebe orile Afrika, 100 km iwoorun bode to fa ija larin Morocco ati Western Sahara.']

['o budo si eti ariwaiwoorun bebe orile Afrika, 100 km iwoorun bode to fa ija larin Morocco ati Western Sahara.']

['P1']

Awon Erekusu Kanari Awon Erekusu Kanari (pípè /k??ne?ri? ?a?l?ndz/; Spánì: [Islas Canarias]) je awon ile okan ti orile-ede Spain ti won je okan ninu Spanish Agbajo Adaduro ti Spain ati Agbegbe Ode ninu Àwùj? Àw?n Oríl??-Èdè Il?? Yúróòpù. Ile okan yi budo si eti ariwaiwoorun bebe orile Afrika, 100 km iwoorun bode to fa ija larin Morocco ati Western Sahara. Iwo okun to yapa lati ebado Kanari lo n mo gbe awon oko oju-omi lo si Amerika.[4] Awon erekusu ibe lati eyi to tobijulo si eyi kerejulo ni wonyi: Tenerife, Fuerteventura, Gran Canaria, Lanzarote, La Palma, La Gomera, El Hierro, Alegranza, La Graciosa ati Montaña Clara.

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how many african countries are there in the world

Africa is the world 's second - largest and second-most - populous continent (the first being Asia). At about 30.3 million km (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 6 % of Earth 's total surface area and 20.4 % of its total land area. With 1.2 billion people as of 2016, it accounts for about 16 % of the world 's human population. The continent is surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, both the Suez Canal and the Red Sea along the Sinai Peninsula to the northeast, the Indian Ocean to the southeast and the Atlantic Ocean to the west. The continent includes Madagascar and various archipelagos. It contains 54 fully recognised sovereign states (countries), nine territories and two de facto independent states with limited or no recognition.

[]

iye orílẹ̀-èdè ilẹ̀ adúláwọ̀ wo ló wà ní ayé

Yes

['Afrika ni orile-ede 54 lapapo mo Madagascar, opolopo erekusu ati orile-ede Olominira Sahrawi Arabu Toseluaralu, to je omo egbe Isokan Afrika botilejepe Morocco lodi si eyi.']

[]

['P1']

Áfríkà Áfríkà ni orile keji titobijulo ati toni awon eniyan julo lagbaye leyin Asia. Ni bi 30.2 egbegberun km² (11.7 million sq mi) lapapo mo awon erekusu to sunmo, ile re je 6% apapo gbogbo oju Aye ati 20.4% gbogbo ile Aye.[2] Pelu egbegberunkeji kan eniyan (ni 2009, e wo tabili) ni awon agbegbe 61, eyi je bi 14.72% gbogbo iye eniyan Agbaye. Ni ariwa re ni Okun Mediterraneani wa, si ariwailaorun re ni Ilaodo Suez ati Okun Pupa wa legbe Sinai Peninsula, si guusuilaorun re ni Okun India, ati si iwoorun re ni Okun Atlantiki wa. Afrika ni orile-ede 54 lapapo mo Madagascar, opolopo erekusu ati orile-ede Olominira Sahrawi Arabu Toseluaralu, to je omo egbe Isokan Afrika botilejepe Morocco lodi si eyi. Afrika, agaga gbongan apailaorun Afrika, je gbigba lopolopo latowo awon awujo onisayensi pe ibe ni ibi ti awon eniyan ti bere ati Hominidae clade (àw?n ìnàkí ?lá), gege bi o se han pelu iwari awon hominids pipejulo ati awon babanla won, ati awon ti won wa leyin won ti won peju bi odun legbegberun meje seyin – pelu eyi to pejulo ninu won Homo sapiens (eniyan odeoni) ti o je wiwari ni Ethiopia to je odun bi 200,000 seyin.[3] Afrika bo ibugedemeji mole, o si ni orisirisi awon agbegbe ojuojo; o je orile kan soso to gun lati agbegbe apaariwa aloworo de apaguusu alaworo.[4] Orisun itumo oro Afri ni oruko awon eniyan ti won gbe ni Ariwa Afrika leba Carthage. Oruko awon wonyi je siso mo "afar" ti awon Finiki, to tumosi "eruku", sugbon ero 1981 kan[5] ti so pe o wa lati oro ede Berber ifri tabi Ifran totumosi "ihò", àw?n tó ? gbé inú ihò àpáta.[6] Afrika tabi Ifri tabi Afer[6] ni oruko Banu Ifran lati Algeria ati Tripolitania (Eya Berber ti Yafran).[7] Labe ijoba awon Ara Romu, Carthage di oluilu Igberiko Afrika, to tun je kikomo apa eba odo Libya oni. "-ka" ("ca") to je ilemeyin Afrika je awon Ara Romu to tokasi "orile-ede tabi ile".[8] Bakanna, ile-oba Musulumi ayeijoun Ifriqiya to wa leyin, ti a mo loni bi Tunisia, na tun lo iru oruko yi. Awon orisun itumo miran ti won ti da laba bi orisun oruko ijoun "Afrika": omo Ju olukoitan ni orundun 1st Flavius Josephus (Ant. 1.15) so pe o je sisoloruko fun Epher, omokunrin omoomo Abraham gege bi Gen. 25:4, ti awon omomo re, bo se so, pe won bori Libya. oro Latin aprica ("ihan orun") ti Isidore of Seville menu ba ninu Etymologiae XIV.5.2. oro Griiki aphrike (??????), to tumosi "aini otutu." Olukoitan Leo Africanus (1488–1554) lo damoran yi, to daba oro Griiki phrike (to tumosi "otutu ati eru"), lapapo mo "a-", lati tumosi "ile ti ko ni otutu ati eru. Massey, ni 1881, mu orisun itumo kan wa lati oro Egypti af-rui-ka, "di dori ko ojuona Ka." Ka tokasi ibiomo. Nipa eyi Afrika je fun awon Ara Egypti, "ile ibimo."[9] Itan Itan atijo Ni ibere Igba Mesosoik, Afrika je jijapo mo awon orile Aye yioku gege bi Pangea.[10] Afrika pin awon fauna kanna ti orilegbangba yi ti o je sisori lowo awon theropods, prosauropods ati ornithischians akokolo nigbati igba Trias wa sopin.[10] Awon idokuta opin je wiwari kakiri Africa, sugbon won wopo ni guusu ju ariwa lo.[10] Ila to ya igba Triassic soto si Jurassic lo falasi ibere awon isele iparun to ni ip ni lagbaye, botilejepe strata Afrika igba yi ko ti je gbigbewo daada.[10] Awon ipele ile igba Ibere Jurassik pinkiri lona kanna bi ti isun Late Triassic, p??lú àw?n àlàfo tí ó w??p?? ní gúúsù àti àw?n àlàfo fósílì tí kò w??p?? tí ó j?? pé àw?n òpópónà ni ó j?? ??gá ní àríwá.[10] Bí Jurassic ?e ? t??síwájú, àw?n àwùj? tí ó tóbi tí w??n sì ?e pàtàkì jùl? ti àw?n dinosaur bí sauropods àti ornithopods p?? sí i ní Áfíríkà.[10] Middle Jurassic strata are neither well represented nor well studied in Africa.[10] Aw?n ipele Jurassic p? tun j? a?oju ti ko dara ju iyat? l? ti aw?n ?ranko Tendaguru ti o ni iyanu ni Tanzania.[10] Ìgbésí ayé tí Tendaguru gbé ní apá ìparí Jurassic j? èyí tí a rí ní apá ìw?? oòrùn Àríwá Am??ríkà ní Morrison Formation.[10] Orundun 9k–18k Afrika ki o to di ibialamusin o se e se ki o ni orisirisi orile-ede otooto to ju 10,000 lo ati asejoba[11] to ni orisirisi ilana ati agbajo oloselu. Ninu awon wonyi ni idipo ebi kekere awon asode bi awon San ni apaguusu Afrika; titobi, awon adipo adimule bi awon idipo ibatan ebi awon elede Bantu ni apaarin ati apaguusu Afrika, awon adipo ibatan adimule gidigidi ni Ibi Iwo Ori Afrika, awon ileoba Saheli titobi, ati awon ilu-orilejoba ati awon ileoba aladawa bi ti awon Yoruba ni Iwoorun Afrika, ati awon ilu oja etiodo awon Swahili ni Ilaorun Afrika. Nigba to fi di orundun 9k SK orisirisi awon orilejoba obairanderan, ti awon orilejoba Hausa akoko wa ninu won, ti san kakiri saffana abe-sahara lati awon agbegbe apaiwoorun de ibiarin Sudan. Awon to lagbarajulo larin awon orilejoba wonyi ni Ghana, Gao, ati Kanem-Bornu Empire. Agbara Ghana dinku ni orundun 11k sugbon Ileobaluaye Mali ropo re, eyi lo si di opo gbogbo apaiwoorun Afrika mu ni orundun 13k. Kanem gba esin Imale ni orundun 11k. Be sini ni awon agbegbe igbo etiodo Iwoorun Afrika, awon ileoba alominira jadide laini ipa kankan latodo ariwa Musulumi. Ife, to je akoko larin awon ilu-orilejoba tabi ileoba Yoruba, sedasile ijoba labe oba, ton unje Ooni. Ife je ibi pataki esin ati asa ni Afrika, ati fun asa ibile ere gbigbe. Iru ifijuwe ijoba Ile-Ife je gbigbamulo ni Oyo, nibiti awon oba, ti won unje Alaafin ti figba kan joba lori opo iye iluorilejoba ati ileoba Yoruba miran ati ti awon ti won ko je Yoruba, Ileoba Dahomey awon Fon je ibi ti won ko so ede Yoruba labe ijoba Oyo. Awon Almoraffidi, je obairanderan Beriberi lati Sahara ti won fon kiri ariwaapaiwoorun Afrika ati peninsula Iberian nigba orundun 11k.[12] Banu Hilal ati Banu Ma'qil je akopo aon eya Arab Bedouin lati Arabian peninsula ti on kolo si iwoorun lati Egypt larin orundun 11k ati 13k. Ikoreokere fa idapo awon Arabu ati Beriberi, nibi ti awon ara ile ti di Arabu,[13] be sini asa Arabu gba apilese asa ibile ibe, labe isokan Islam.[14] Awon agbegbe Àw?n oríl??-èdè tí w??n wà ní ìpele yí ni w??n wà láb?? àtò fún àw?n agbègbè ab??létí àj? Oríl??-èdè A?òkan, àti data tí ó r?? m?? ìt??ka sí fún àpil??k?. Níbi tí wó?n bá ti yàt?? síra, a máa ? fi àw?n àkàn?e gbólóhùn hàn kedere.

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how many countries are in the continent africa

Africa is the world 's second largest and second most - populous continent (the first being Asia in both categories). At about 30.3 million km (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 6 % of Earth 's total surface area and 20 % of its total land area. With 1.2 billion people as of 2016, it accounts for about 16 % of the world 's human population. The continent is surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, the Isthmus of Suez and the Red Sea to the northeast, the Indian Ocean to the southeast and the Atlantic Ocean to the west. The continent includes Madagascar and various archipelagos. It contains 54 fully recognised sovereign states (countries), nine territories and two de facto independent states with limited or no recognition. The majority of the continent and its countries are in the Northern Hemisphere, with a substantial portion and number of countries in the Southern Hemisphere.

['the allies (based on the triple entente of the russian empire, the french third republic, and the united kingdom of great britain and ireland) versus the central powers of germany and austria-hungary.', "the allies (based on the triple entente of the russian empire, the french third republic, and the united kingdom of great britain and ireland)', 'the central powers of germany and austria-hungary", 'the central powers of germany and austria-hungary']

àwọn orílẹ̀ èdè mélòó ló wà ní ilẹ̀ áfíríkà

Yes

['Afrika ni orile-ede 54 lapapo mo Madagascar, opolopo erekusu ati orile-ede Olominira Sahrawi Arabu Toseluaralu, to je omo egbe Isokan Afrika botilejepe Morocco lodi si eyi.']

[]

['P1']

Áfríkà Áfríkà ni orile keji titobijulo ati toni awon eniyan julo lagbaye leyin Asia. Ni bi 30.2 egbegberun km² (11.7 million sq mi) lapapo mo awon erekusu to sunmo, ile re je 6% apapo gbogbo oju Aye ati 20.4% gbogbo ile Aye.[2] Pelu egbegberunkeji kan eniyan (ni 2009, e wo tabili) ni awon agbegbe 61, eyi je bi 14.72% gbogbo iye eniyan Agbaye. Ni ariwa re ni Okun Mediterraneani wa, si ariwailaorun re ni Ilaodo Suez ati Okun Pupa wa legbe Sinai Peninsula, si guusuilaorun re ni Okun India, ati si iwoorun re ni Okun Atlantiki wa. Afrika ni orile-ede 54 lapapo mo Madagascar, opolopo erekusu ati orile-ede Olominira Sahrawi Arabu Toseluaralu, to je omo egbe Isokan Afrika botilejepe Morocco lodi si eyi. Afrika, agaga gbongan apailaorun Afrika, je gbigba lopolopo latowo awon awujo onisayensi pe ibe ni ibi ti awon eniyan ti bere ati Hominidae clade (àw?n ìnàkí ?lá), gege bi o se han pelu iwari awon hominids pipejulo ati awon babanla won, ati awon ti won wa leyin won ti won peju bi odun legbegberun meje seyin – pelu eyi to pejulo ninu won Homo sapiens (eniyan odeoni) ti o je wiwari ni Ethiopia to je odun bi 200,000 seyin.[3] Afrika bo ibugedemeji mole, o si ni orisirisi awon agbegbe ojuojo; o je orile kan soso to gun lati agbegbe apaariwa aloworo de apaguusu alaworo.[4] Orisun itumo oro Afri ni oruko awon eniyan ti won gbe ni Ariwa Afrika leba Carthage. Oruko awon wonyi je siso mo "afar" ti awon Finiki, to tumosi "eruku", sugbon ero 1981 kan[5] ti so pe o wa lati oro ede Berber ifri tabi Ifran totumosi "ihò", àw?n tó ? gbé inú ihò àpáta.[6] Afrika tabi Ifri tabi Afer[6] ni oruko Banu Ifran lati Algeria ati Tripolitania (Eya Berber ti Yafran).[7] Labe ijoba awon Ara Romu, Carthage di oluilu Igberiko Afrika, to tun je kikomo apa eba odo Libya oni. "-ka" ("ca") to je ilemeyin Afrika je awon Ara Romu to tokasi "orile-ede tabi ile".[8] Bakanna, ile-oba Musulumi ayeijoun Ifriqiya to wa leyin, ti a mo loni bi Tunisia, na tun lo iru oruko yi. Awon orisun itumo miran ti won ti da laba bi orisun oruko ijoun "Afrika": omo Ju olukoitan ni orundun 1st Flavius Josephus (Ant. 1.15) so pe o je sisoloruko fun Epher, omokunrin omoomo Abraham gege bi Gen. 25:4, ti awon omomo re, bo se so, pe won bori Libya. oro Latin aprica ("ihan orun") ti Isidore of Seville menu ba ninu Etymologiae XIV.5.2. oro Griiki aphrike (??????), to tumosi "aini otutu." Olukoitan Leo Africanus (1488–1554) lo damoran yi, to daba oro Griiki phrike (to tumosi "otutu ati eru"), lapapo mo "a-", lati tumosi "ile ti ko ni otutu ati eru. Massey, ni 1881, mu orisun itumo kan wa lati oro Egypti af-rui-ka, "di dori ko ojuona Ka." Ka tokasi ibiomo. Nipa eyi Afrika je fun awon Ara Egypti, "ile ibimo."[9] Itan Itan atijo Ni ibere Igba Mesosoik, Afrika je jijapo mo awon orile Aye yioku gege bi Pangea.[10] Afrika pin awon fauna kanna ti orilegbangba yi ti o je sisori lowo awon theropods, prosauropods ati ornithischians akokolo nigbati igba Trias wa sopin.[10] Awon idokuta opin je wiwari kakiri Africa, sugbon won wopo ni guusu ju ariwa lo.[10] Ila to ya igba Triassic soto si Jurassic lo falasi ibere awon isele iparun to ni ip ni lagbaye, botilejepe strata Afrika igba yi ko ti je gbigbewo daada.[10] Awon ipele ile igba Ibere Jurassik pinkiri lona kanna bi ti isun Late Triassic, p??lú àw?n àlàfo tí ó w??p?? ní gúúsù àti àw?n àlàfo fósílì tí kò w??p?? tí ó j?? pé àw?n òpópónà ni ó j?? ??gá ní àríwá.[10] Bí Jurassic ?e ? t??síwájú, àw?n àwùj? tí ó tóbi tí w??n sì ?e pàtàkì jùl? ti àw?n dinosaur bí sauropods àti ornithopods p?? sí i ní Áfíríkà.[10] Middle Jurassic strata are neither well represented nor well studied in Africa.[10] Aw?n ipele Jurassic p? tun j? a?oju ti ko dara ju iyat? l? ti aw?n ?ranko Tendaguru ti o ni iyanu ni Tanzania.[10] Ìgbésí ayé tí Tendaguru gbé ní apá ìparí Jurassic j? èyí tí a rí ní apá ìw?? oòrùn Àríwá Am??ríkà ní Morrison Formation.[10] Orundun 9k–18k Afrika ki o to di ibialamusin o se e se ki o ni orisirisi orile-ede otooto to ju 10,000 lo ati asejoba[11] to ni orisirisi ilana ati agbajo oloselu. Ninu awon wonyi ni idipo ebi kekere awon asode bi awon San ni apaguusu Afrika; titobi, awon adipo adimule bi awon idipo ibatan ebi awon elede Bantu ni apaarin ati apaguusu Afrika, awon adipo ibatan adimule gidigidi ni Ibi Iwo Ori Afrika, awon ileoba Saheli titobi, ati awon ilu-orilejoba ati awon ileoba aladawa bi ti awon Yoruba ni Iwoorun Afrika, ati awon ilu oja etiodo awon Swahili ni Ilaorun Afrika. Nigba to fi di orundun 9k SK orisirisi awon orilejoba obairanderan, ti awon orilejoba Hausa akoko wa ninu won, ti san kakiri saffana abe-sahara lati awon agbegbe apaiwoorun de ibiarin Sudan. Awon to lagbarajulo larin awon orilejoba wonyi ni Ghana, Gao, ati Kanem-Bornu Empire. Agbara Ghana dinku ni orundun 11k sugbon Ileobaluaye Mali ropo re, eyi lo si di opo gbogbo apaiwoorun Afrika mu ni orundun 13k. Kanem gba esin Imale ni orundun 11k. Be sini ni awon agbegbe igbo etiodo Iwoorun Afrika, awon ileoba alominira jadide laini ipa kankan latodo ariwa Musulumi. Ife, to je akoko larin awon ilu-orilejoba tabi ileoba Yoruba, sedasile ijoba labe oba, ton unje Ooni. Ife je ibi pataki esin ati asa ni Afrika, ati fun asa ibile ere gbigbe. Iru ifijuwe ijoba Ile-Ife je gbigbamulo ni Oyo, nibiti awon oba, ti won unje Alaafin ti figba kan joba lori opo iye iluorilejoba ati ileoba Yoruba miran ati ti awon ti won ko je Yoruba, Ileoba Dahomey awon Fon je ibi ti won ko so ede Yoruba labe ijoba Oyo. Awon Almoraffidi, je obairanderan Beriberi lati Sahara ti won fon kiri ariwaapaiwoorun Afrika ati peninsula Iberian nigba orundun 11k.[12] Banu Hilal ati Banu Ma'qil je akopo aon eya Arab Bedouin lati Arabian peninsula ti on kolo si iwoorun lati Egypt larin orundun 11k ati 13k. Ikoreokere fa idapo awon Arabu ati Beriberi, nibi ti awon ara ile ti di Arabu,[13] be sini asa Arabu gba apilese asa ibile ibe, labe isokan Islam.[14] Awon agbegbe Àw?n oríl??-èdè tí w??n wà ní ìpele yí ni w??n wà láb?? àtò fún àw?n agbègbè ab??létí àj? Oríl??-èdè A?òkan, àti data tí ó r?? m?? ìt??ka sí fún àpil??k?. Níbi tí wó?n bá ti yàt?? síra, a máa ? fi àw?n àkàn?e gbólóhùn hàn kedere.

train

how many countries are there in the continent of africa

Africa is the world 's second largest and second most - populous continent (behind Asia in both categories). At about 30.3 million km (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 6 % of Earth 's total surface area and 20 % of its land area. With 1.2 billion people as of 2016, it accounts for about 16 % of the world 's human population. The continent is surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, the Isthmus of Suez and the Red Sea to the northeast, the Indian Ocean to the southeast and the Atlantic Ocean to the west. The continent includes Madagascar and various archipelagos. It contains 54 fully recognised sovereign states (countries), nine territories and two de facto independent states with limited or no recognition. The majority of the continent and its countries are in the Northern Hemisphere, with a substantial portion and number of countries in the Southern Hemisphere.

["the first world war', 'the great war', 'the war to end all wars", 'europe', 'the allies (based on the triple entente of the russian empire, the french third republic, and the united kingdom of great britain and ireland) versus the central powers of germany and austria-hungary.', "28 july 1914', '11 november 1918", "assassination of archduke franz ferdinand of austria, heir to the throne of austria-hungary, by yugoslav nationalist gavrilo princip in sarajevo on 28 june 1914', 'assassination of", 'from 28 july 1914 to 11 november 1918', '11 november 1918', "the allies (based on the triple entente of the russian empire, the french third republic, and the united kingdom of great britain and ireland)', 'the central powers of germany and austria-hungary", '28 july 1914', 'austria-hungary', 'the central powers of germany and austria-hungary', '28 july 1914 to 11 november 1918']

àwọn orílẹ̀ èdè mélòó ló wà ní ilẹ̀ áfíríkà

Yes

['Afrika ni orile-ede 54 lapapo mo Madagascar, opolopo erekusu ati orile-ede Olominira Sahrawi Arabu Toseluaralu, to je omo egbe Isokan Afrika botilejepe Morocco lodi si eyi.']

['ilẹ̀ Austria-Hungary kéde ogun lé Serbia lórí ní ọjọ́ kejìdínlọ́gbọ̀n osù kẹjọ ọdún 1914']

['P1']

Áfríkà Áfríkà ni orile keji titobijulo ati toni awon eniyan julo lagbaye leyin Asia. Ni bi 30.2 egbegberun km² (11.7 million sq mi) lapapo mo awon erekusu to sunmo, ile re je 6% apapo gbogbo oju Aye ati 20.4% gbogbo ile Aye.[2] Pelu egbegberunkeji kan eniyan (ni 2009, e wo tabili) ni awon agbegbe 61, eyi je bi 14.72% gbogbo iye eniyan Agbaye. Ni ariwa re ni Okun Mediterraneani wa, si ariwailaorun re ni Ilaodo Suez ati Okun Pupa wa legbe Sinai Peninsula, si guusuilaorun re ni Okun India, ati si iwoorun re ni Okun Atlantiki wa. Afrika ni orile-ede 54 lapapo mo Madagascar, opolopo erekusu ati orile-ede Olominira Sahrawi Arabu Toseluaralu, to je omo egbe Isokan Afrika botilejepe Morocco lodi si eyi. Afrika, agaga gbongan apailaorun Afrika, je gbigba lopolopo latowo awon awujo onisayensi pe ibe ni ibi ti awon eniyan ti bere ati Hominidae clade (àw?n ìnàkí ?lá), gege bi o se han pelu iwari awon hominids pipejulo ati awon babanla won, ati awon ti won wa leyin won ti won peju bi odun legbegberun meje seyin – pelu eyi to pejulo ninu won Homo sapiens (eniyan odeoni) ti o je wiwari ni Ethiopia to je odun bi 200,000 seyin.[3] Afrika bo ibugedemeji mole, o si ni orisirisi awon agbegbe ojuojo; o je orile kan soso to gun lati agbegbe apaariwa aloworo de apaguusu alaworo.[4] Orisun itumo oro Afri ni oruko awon eniyan ti won gbe ni Ariwa Afrika leba Carthage. Oruko awon wonyi je siso mo "afar" ti awon Finiki, to tumosi "eruku", sugbon ero 1981 kan[5] ti so pe o wa lati oro ede Berber ifri tabi Ifran totumosi "ihò", àw?n tó ? gbé inú ihò àpáta.[6] Afrika tabi Ifri tabi Afer[6] ni oruko Banu Ifran lati Algeria ati Tripolitania (Eya Berber ti Yafran).[7] Labe ijoba awon Ara Romu, Carthage di oluilu Igberiko Afrika, to tun je kikomo apa eba odo Libya oni. "-ka" ("ca") to je ilemeyin Afrika je awon Ara Romu to tokasi "orile-ede tabi ile".[8] Bakanna, ile-oba Musulumi ayeijoun Ifriqiya to wa leyin, ti a mo loni bi Tunisia, na tun lo iru oruko yi. Awon orisun itumo miran ti won ti da laba bi orisun oruko ijoun "Afrika": omo Ju olukoitan ni orundun 1st Flavius Josephus (Ant. 1.15) so pe o je sisoloruko fun Epher, omokunrin omoomo Abraham gege bi Gen. 25:4, ti awon omomo re, bo se so, pe won bori Libya. oro Latin aprica ("ihan orun") ti Isidore of Seville menu ba ninu Etymologiae XIV.5.2. oro Griiki aphrike (??????), to tumosi "aini otutu." Olukoitan Leo Africanus (1488–1554) lo damoran yi, to daba oro Griiki phrike (to tumosi "otutu ati eru"), lapapo mo "a-", lati tumosi "ile ti ko ni otutu ati eru. Massey, ni 1881, mu orisun itumo kan wa lati oro Egypti af-rui-ka, "di dori ko ojuona Ka." Ka tokasi ibiomo. Nipa eyi Afrika je fun awon Ara Egypti, "ile ibimo."[9] Itan Itan atijo Ni ibere Igba Mesosoik, Afrika je jijapo mo awon orile Aye yioku gege bi Pangea.[10] Afrika pin awon fauna kanna ti orilegbangba yi ti o je sisori lowo awon theropods, prosauropods ati ornithischians akokolo nigbati igba Trias wa sopin.[10] Awon idokuta opin je wiwari kakiri Africa, sugbon won wopo ni guusu ju ariwa lo.[10] Ila to ya igba Triassic soto si Jurassic lo falasi ibere awon isele iparun to ni ip ni lagbaye, botilejepe strata Afrika igba yi ko ti je gbigbewo daada.[10] Awon ipele ile igba Ibere Jurassik pinkiri lona kanna bi ti isun Late Triassic, p??lú àw?n àlàfo tí ó w??p?? ní gúúsù àti àw?n àlàfo fósílì tí kò w??p?? tí ó j?? pé àw?n òpópónà ni ó j?? ??gá ní àríwá.[10] Bí Jurassic ?e ? t??síwájú, àw?n àwùj? tí ó tóbi tí w??n sì ?e pàtàkì jùl? ti àw?n dinosaur bí sauropods àti ornithopods p?? sí i ní Áfíríkà.[10] Middle Jurassic strata are neither well represented nor well studied in Africa.[10] Aw?n ipele Jurassic p? tun j? a?oju ti ko dara ju iyat? l? ti aw?n ?ranko Tendaguru ti o ni iyanu ni Tanzania.[10] Ìgbésí ayé tí Tendaguru gbé ní apá ìparí Jurassic j? èyí tí a rí ní apá ìw?? oòrùn Àríwá Am??ríkà ní Morrison Formation.[10] Orundun 9k–18k Afrika ki o to di ibialamusin o se e se ki o ni orisirisi orile-ede otooto to ju 10,000 lo ati asejoba[11] to ni orisirisi ilana ati agbajo oloselu. Ninu awon wonyi ni idipo ebi kekere awon asode bi awon San ni apaguusu Afrika; titobi, awon adipo adimule bi awon idipo ibatan ebi awon elede Bantu ni apaarin ati apaguusu Afrika, awon adipo ibatan adimule gidigidi ni Ibi Iwo Ori Afrika, awon ileoba Saheli titobi, ati awon ilu-orilejoba ati awon ileoba aladawa bi ti awon Yoruba ni Iwoorun Afrika, ati awon ilu oja etiodo awon Swahili ni Ilaorun Afrika. Nigba to fi di orundun 9k SK orisirisi awon orilejoba obairanderan, ti awon orilejoba Hausa akoko wa ninu won, ti san kakiri saffana abe-sahara lati awon agbegbe apaiwoorun de ibiarin Sudan. Awon to lagbarajulo larin awon orilejoba wonyi ni Ghana, Gao, ati Kanem-Bornu Empire. Agbara Ghana dinku ni orundun 11k sugbon Ileobaluaye Mali ropo re, eyi lo si di opo gbogbo apaiwoorun Afrika mu ni orundun 13k. Kanem gba esin Imale ni orundun 11k. Be sini ni awon agbegbe igbo etiodo Iwoorun Afrika, awon ileoba alominira jadide laini ipa kankan latodo ariwa Musulumi. Ife, to je akoko larin awon ilu-orilejoba tabi ileoba Yoruba, sedasile ijoba labe oba, ton unje Ooni. Ife je ibi pataki esin ati asa ni Afrika, ati fun asa ibile ere gbigbe. Iru ifijuwe ijoba Ile-Ife je gbigbamulo ni Oyo, nibiti awon oba, ti won unje Alaafin ti figba kan joba lori opo iye iluorilejoba ati ileoba Yoruba miran ati ti awon ti won ko je Yoruba, Ileoba Dahomey awon Fon je ibi ti won ko so ede Yoruba labe ijoba Oyo. Awon Almoraffidi, je obairanderan Beriberi lati Sahara ti won fon kiri ariwaapaiwoorun Afrika ati peninsula Iberian nigba orundun 11k.[12] Banu Hilal ati Banu Ma'qil je akopo aon eya Arab Bedouin lati Arabian peninsula ti on kolo si iwoorun lati Egypt larin orundun 11k ati 13k. Ikoreokere fa idapo awon Arabu ati Beriberi, nibi ti awon ara ile ti di Arabu,[13] be sini asa Arabu gba apilese asa ibile ibe, labe isokan Islam.[14] Awon agbegbe Àw?n oríl??-èdè tí w??n wà ní ìpele yí ni w??n wà láb?? àtò fún àw?n agbègbè ab??létí àj? Oríl??-èdè A?òkan, àti data tí ó r?? m?? ìt??ka sí fún àpil??k?. Níbi tí wó?n bá ti yàt?? síra, a máa ? fi àw?n àkàn?e gbólóhùn hàn kedere.

train

what type of government does gambia have today

Politics of the Gambia takes place in a framework of a presidential republic, whereby the President of the Gambia is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament.

['apatite (a group of minerals being, generally, pentacalcium triorthophosphate fluoride (hydroxide))']

irú ìjọba wo ni gambia ní lónìí

Yes

['Ìṣèlú ilẹ̀ Gámbíà únwáyé lórí àgbékalẹ̀ ààrẹ orílẹ̀-èdè olómìnira, ní bi tí Ààrẹ ilẹ̀ Gámbíà jẹ́ olórí orílẹ̀-èdè àti olórí ìjọba, lábẹ́ sístẹ́mù ẹgbẹ́ olóṣèlú púpọ̀.']

['Ìṣèlú ilẹ̀ Gámbíà únwáyé lórí àgbékalẹ̀ ààrẹ orílẹ̀-èdè olómìnira, ní bi tí Ààrẹ ilẹ̀ Gámbíà jẹ́ olórí orílẹ̀-èdè àti olórí ìjọba, lábẹ́ sístẹ́mù ẹgbẹ́ olóṣèlú púpọ̀.']

['P1']

Ì?èlú il?? Gámbíà Ì?èlú il?? Gámbíà únwáyé lórí àgbékal?? ààr? oríl??-èdè olómìnira, ní bi tí Ààr? il?? Gámbíà j?? olórí oríl??-èdè àti olórí ìj?ba, láb?? síst??mù ?gb?? oló?èlú púp??. Agbára alá?e wà l??w?? ìj?ba. Agbára a?òfin wà l??w?? ìj?ba àti l??w?? ilé-a?òfin.

The Gambia This article is part of a series on the politics and government of the Gambia Constitution Executive [show] President ( list ) Adama Barrow Cabinet Legislative [show] National Assembly Speaker : Abdoulie Bojang Elections [show] Political parties Politicians Recent elections Presidential: 2011 2016 Parliamentary: 2012 2017 Administrative divisions [show] Regions Districts Foreign relations [show] Minister of Foreign Affairs Diplomatic missions Passport Visa requirements Other countries Atlas v t e Politics of the Gambia takes place in a framework of a presidential republic , whereby the President of the Gambia is both head of state and head of government , and of a multi-party system . Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament. The 1970 constitution of the Gambia , which divided the government into independent executive, legislative, and judicial branches, was suspended after the 1994 military coup. As part of the transition process, the Armed Forces Provisional Ruling Council established the Constitution Review Commission (CRC) through decree in March 1995. In accordance with the timetable for the transition to a democratically elected government, the commission drafted a new constitution for the Gambia which was approved by referendum in August 1996. The constitution provides for a presidential system, a unicameral legislature, an independent judiciary, and the protection of human rights. Contents [ hide ] 1 Political conditions 2 Executive branch 3 Legislative branch 4 Judicial branch 5 Political parties and elections 5.1 Presidential elections 5.2 Parliamentary elections 6 Administrative divisions 7 International organization participation 8 References Political conditions [ edit ] Before the coup d'état in July 1994, the Gambia was one of the oldest existing multi-party democracies in Africa . It had conducted freely contested elections every 5 years since independence. After the military coup, politicians from deposed President Jawara 's People's Progressive Party (PPP) and other senior government officials were banned from participating in politics until July 2001. The People's Progressive Party (PPP), headed by former president Jawara, had dominated Gambian politics for nearly 30 years. The last elections under the PPP regime were held in April 1992. Following the coup, a presidential election took place in September 1996, in which retired Col. Yahya A.J.J. Jammeh won 56% of the vote. The legislative elections held in January 1997 were dominated by the Alliance for Patriotic Reorientation and Construction (the new incarnation of AFPRC), which captured 33 out of 45 seats. In July 2001, the ban on Jawara-era political parties and politicians was lifted. Four registered opposition parties participated in the 18 October 2001 presidential election, which the incumbent, President Yahya Jammeh, won with almost 53% of the votes. The APRC maintained its strong majority in the National Assembly in legislative elections held in January 2002, particularly after the main opposition United Democratic Party (UDP) boycotted the legislative elections. Arch 22 Monument commemorating the 1994 coup In 2005 the political scenario was changed, as five opposition parties united under the umbrella of the National Alliance for Democracy and Development . NADD thus represented virtually all political opposition forces in the country. Following the registration of NADD the High Court ruled that dual party membership was unconstitutional, and as NADD had been registered as a political party all four opposition MPs were dismissed from the National Assembly. By-elections were held on 29 September, in which NADD retained three of the four seats. On 15 November the same year, three high-ranking NADD leaders (including the Leader of Opposition in the National Assembly, Halifa Sallah ) were arrested on the grounds of subversion. On 21 and 22 March 2006, amid tensions preceding the 2006 presidential elections , an alleged planned military coup was uncovered. President Yahya Jammeh was forced to return from a trip to Mauritania , many suspected army officials were arrested, and prominent army officials, including the army chief of staff, fled the country. There are claims circulating that this whole event was fabricated by the President incumbent for his own devious purposes - however the veracity of these claims is not known, as no corroborating evidence has as yet been brought forward. It is doubtful whether the full truth will ever be known however, as anyone with any evidence would not be likely to come forward with it in light of the poor human rights record of the National Intelligence Agency, and their well-known penchant for torturing and detaining indefinitely anyone who speaks up against the Government. The next presidential election took place on 22 September 2006. The nominations for party Presidential candidates were held on 28 August 2006, amid reports of the Government intimidating and unfairly detaining Opposition members and sympathisers, and of using the machineries of state (including the national media arm of the Government, GRTS ), to gain an unfair advantage during political campaigns. These reports follow a widely publicised signing of a Meromandum of Understanding between the Government and Opposition parties, initiated by the Nigerian President Olusegun Obasanjo during a recent visit to the country. Incumbent president, Yahya Jammeh, was reelected. On 31 December 2014, a failed coup was attempted when a military deserter along with supporters attacked the presidential palace. The coup failed and the alleged ringleader, Lamin Sanneh was amongst those killed by forces loyal to Jammeh. Following the 1 December 2016 elections , the elections commission declared Adama Barrow the winner of the presidential election. Jammeh, who had ruled for 22 years, first announced he would step down after losing the 2016 election before declaring the results void and calling for a new vote, sparking a constitutional crisis and leading to an invasion by an ECOWAS coalition. On 20 January 2017, Jammeh announced that he had agreed to step down and would leave the country allowing Barrow to take up office. Executive branch [ edit ] A government ministry signboard Main office holders Office Name Party Since President Adama Barrow United Democratic Party 19 January 2017 Vice-President Fatoumata Tambajang United Democratic Party 23 January 2017 The president is elected by popular vote for a five-year term; the number of terms is not restricted. He appoints the members of the Cabinet . Legislative branch [ edit ] The National Assembly has 53 members, 48 members elected for a five-year term and 4 members appointed. Gambia was effectively a one party dominant state when the Alliance for Patriotic Reorientation and Construction was in power. Opposition parties were allowed, but were widely considered to have no real chance of gaining power. Judicial branch [ edit ] Supreme Court of The Gambia (since 1998). Until 1998, there was a right of appeal from the Court of Appeal of The Gambia to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in London . The last case from The Gambia to be decided by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council was 'West Coast Air Limited v. Gambia Civil Aviation Authority and Others U.K.P.C. 39 (15 September 1998) [1] Political parties and elections [ edit ] For other political parties, see List of political parties in the Gambia . An overview on elections and election results is included in Elections in the Gambia . Presidential elections [ edit ] Summary of the 1 December 2016 Gambian presidential election results Candidate Party Votes % Adama Barrow Coalition 2016 227,708 43.3 Yahya Jammeh Alliance for Patriotic Reorientation and Construction 208,487 39.6 Mamma Kandeh Gambia Democratic Congress 89,768 17.1 Total 525,963 100 Registered voters/turnout 886,578 59.3 Source: IEC (votes) IEC (registered voters) Parliamentary elections [ edit ] e • d Summary of the 29 March 2012 Gambian parliamentary election results Parties Votes % Seats +/– Alliance for Patriotic Reorientation and Construction 80,289 51.82 43 +1 National Reconciliation Party 14,606 9.43 1 – Independents 60,055 38.76 4 +3 Invalid/blank votes 0 – – – Total 154,950 100 48 0 Registered voters/turnout 796,929 38.71 – – Source: Independent Electoral Commission , IFES Administrative divisions [ edit ] Local government in the Gambia varies. The capital city, Banjul , has an elected town council. Five rural divisions exist (Lower River, Central River, North Bank, Upper River, Western), each with a council containing a majority of elected members. Each council has its own treasury and is responsible for local government services. Tribal chiefs retain traditional powers authorized by customary law in some instances. International organization participation [ edit ] The Gambia portal Politics portal The Gambia is a member of these international organisations; ACP , AfDB , Commonwealth of Nations CCC , ECA , ECOWAS , FAO , G-77 , IBRD , ICAO , ICFTU , ICRM , IDA , IDB , IFAD , IFC , IFRCS , ILO , IMF , IMO , Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol , IOC , ITU , NAM , Shelter Afrique-A regional housing institution owned by 42 African Countries OAU , (Now African Union abbreviated AU) OIC , OPCW , UN , UNCTAD , UNESCO , UNIDO , UPU , WCL , WFTU , WHO , WIPO , WMO , WToO , WTrO References [ edit ]

train

name the branch of science that deals with the study of heredity and variation

Trait inheritance and molecular inheritance mechanisms of genes are still primary principles of genetics in the 21st century, but modern genetics has expanded beyond inheritance to studying the function and behavior of genes. Gene structure and function, variation, and distribution are studied within the context of the cell, the organism (e.g. dominance), and within the context of a population. Genetics has given rise to a number of subfields, including epigenetics and population genetics. Organisms studied within the broad field span the domains of life (archaea, bacteria, and eukarya).

['the union of soviet socialist republics[9] (ussr, russian: ссср)', 'the united nations']

sọ ẹ̀ka ẹ̀kọ́ sáyẹ́ǹsì tó ń ṣe ìwádìí nípa àtọmọdọ́mọ àti ìyípadà

Yes

['Ìṣiṣẹ́àbínimọ́ da lori idimu ati imuse oniakinkinni awon abinimo, pelu iwa abinimo ninu ahamo tabi adirajo (f.a. ilagbaralori ati isiseabinimoju), pelu ogun latodo obi si omo, ati pelu ipinkari, iyasoto ati iyipada larin awon olugbe.']

['Ìṣiṣẹ́àbínimọ́ da lori idimu ati imuse oniakinkinni awon abinimo, pelu iwa abinimo ninu ahamo tabi adirajo pelu ogun latodo obi si omo, ati pelu ipinkari, iyasoto ati iyipada larin awon olugbe.']

['P1']

Ì?i???àbínim?? Ì?i???àbínim?? tabi G??n??tíkì (lati Èdè Gíríìkì aye atijo, “ibere”[1][2][3]) gegebi apa eko baoloji, je sayensi awon abimo, ijogun, ati iyasorisi larin awon adiarajo alaaye.[4][5] Ì?i???àbínim?? da lori idimu ati imuse oniakinkinni awon abinimo, pelu iwa abinimo ninu ahamo tabi adirajo (f.a. ilagbaralori ati isiseabinimoju), pelu ogun latodo obi si omo, ati pelu ipinkari, iyasoto ati iyipada larin awon olugbe. Nitoripe awon abinibi wa ninu gbogbo awon adirajo alaaye, isiseabinibi se lo lati se akomo gbogbo awon sistemu alaaye, latori awon eran ati bakteria, de ori awon ogbin (agaga awon eso oko) ati awon eran osin, de ori awon eniyan (bi ninu isiseabinibi oniwosan).

This article is about the general scientific term. For the scientific journal, see Genetics (journal) . For a more accessible and less technical introduction to this topic, see Introduction to genetics . Part of a series on Genetics Key components Chromosome DNA RNA Genome Heredity Mutation Nucleotide Variation Outline Index History and topics Introduction History Evolution ( molecular ) Population genetics Mendelian inheritance Quantitative genetics Molecular genetics Research DNA sequencing Genetic engineering Genomics ( template ) Medical genetics Branches of genetics Personalized medicine Personalized medicine Biology portal Molecular and cellular biology portal v t e Part of a series on Biochemistry Key components Biomolecules Metabolism Index Outline History and topics History Biochemistry Cell biology Bioinformatics Enzymology Genetics Immunology Molecular biology Plant biochemistry Structural biology Branches of biochemistry List of biochemists Glossaries Glossary of biology Glossary of chemistry Portals: Biology , MCB v t e Genetics is a branch of biology concerned with the study of genes , genetic variation , and heredity in living organisms . The discoverer of genetics is Gregor Mendel , a late 19th-century scientist and Augustinian friar . Mendel studied "trait inheritance", patterns in the way traits are handed down from parents to offspring. He observed that organisms (pea plants) inherit traits by way of discrete "units of inheritance". This term, still used today, is a somewhat ambiguous definition of what is referred to as a gene . Trait inheritance and molecular inheritance mechanisms of genes are still primary principles of genetics in the 21st century, but modern genetics has expanded beyond inheritance to studying the function and behavior of genes. Gene structure and function, variation, and distribution are studied within the context of the cell , the organism (e.g. dominance ), and within the context of a population. Genetics has given rise to a number of subfields, including epigenetics and population genetics . Organisms studied within the broad field span the domains of life ( archaea , bacteria , and eukarya ). Genetic processes work in combination with an organism's environment and experiences to influence development and behavior , often referred to as nature versus nurture . The intracellular or extracellular environment of a cell or organism may switch gene transcription on or off. A classic example is two seeds of genetically identical corn, one placed in a temperate climate and one in an arid climate. While the average height of the two corn stalks may be genetically determined to be equal, the one in the arid climate only grows to half the height of the one in the temperate climate due to lack of water and nutrients in its environment. Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2.1 Mendelian and classical genetics 2.2 Molecular genetics 3 Features of inheritance 3.1 Discrete inheritance and Mendel's laws 3.2 Notation and diagrams 3.3 Multiple gene interactions 4 Molecular basis for inheritance 4.1 DNA and chromosomes 4.2 Reproduction 4.3 Recombination and genetic linkage 5 Gene expression 5.1 Genetic code 5.2 Nature and nurture 5.3 Gene regulation 6 Genetic change 6.1 Mutations 6.2 Natural selection and evolution 6.3 Model organisms 6.4 Medicine 6.5 Research methods 6.6 DNA sequencing and genomics 7 Society and culture 8 See also 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links Etymology [ edit ] The word genetics stems from the ancient Greek γενετικός genetikos meaning "genitive"/"generative", which in turn derives from γένεσις genesis meaning "origin". History [ edit ] Main article: History of genetics The observation that living things inherit traits from their parents has been used since prehistoric times to improve crop plants and animals through selective breeding . The modern science of genetics, seeking to understand this process, began with the work of the Augustinian friar Gregor Mendel in the mid-19th century. Prior to Mendel, Imre Festetics , a Hungarian noble, who lived in Kőszeg before Mendel, was the first who used the word "genetics." He described several rules of genetic inheritance in his work The genetic law of the Nature (Die genetische Gesätze der Natur, 1819). His second law is the same as what Mendel published. In his third law, he developed the basic principles of mutation (he can be considered a forerunner of Hugo de Vries ). Blending inheritance leads to the averaging out of every characteristic, which as the engineer Fleeming Jenkin pointed out, makes evolution by natural selection impossible. Other theories of inheritance preceded Mendel's work. A popular theory during the 19th century, and implied by Charles Darwin 's 1859 On the Origin of Species , was blending inheritance : the idea that individuals inherit a smooth blend of traits from their parents. Mendel's work provided examples where traits were definitely not blended after hybridization, showing that traits are produced by combinations of distinct genes rather than a continuous blend. Blending of traits in the progeny is now explained by the action of multiple genes with quantitative effects . Another theory that had some support at that time was the inheritance of acquired characteristics : the belief that individuals inherit traits strengthened by their parents. This theory (commonly associated with Jean-Baptiste Lamarck ) is now known to be wrong—the experiences of individuals do not affect the genes they pass to their children, although evidence in the field of epigenetics has revived some aspects of Lamarck's theory. Other theories included the pangenesis of Charles Darwin (which had both acquired and inherited aspects) and Francis Galton 's reformulation of pangenesis as both particulate and inherited. Mendelian and classical genetics [ edit ] Morgan's observation of sex-linked inheritance of a mutation causing white eyes in Drosophila led him to the hypothesis that genes are located upon chromosomes. Further information: Mutationism and Modern synthesis (20th century) Modern genetics started with Mendel's studies of the nature of inheritance in plants. In his paper " Versuche über Pflanzenhybriden " (" Experiments on Plant Hybridization "), presented in 1865 to the Naturforschender Verein (Society for Research in Nature) in Brünn , Mendel traced the inheritance patterns of certain traits in pea plants and described them mathematically. Although this pattern of inheritance could only be observed for a few traits, Mendel's work suggested that heredity was particulate, not acquired, and that the inheritance patterns of many traits could be explained through simple rules and ratios. The importance of Mendel's work did not gain wide understanding until 1900, after his death, when Hugo de Vries and other scientists rediscovered his research. William Bateson , a proponent of Mendel's work, coined the word genetics in 1905 (the adjective genetic , derived from the Greek word genesis —γένεσις, "origin", predates the noun and was first used in a biological sense in 1860 ). Bateson both acted as a mentor and was aided significantly by the work of female scientists from Newnham College at Cambridge, specifically the work of Becky Saunders , Nora Darwin Barlow , and Muriel Wheldale Onslow . Bateson popularized the usage of the word genetics to describe the study of inheritance in his inaugural address to the Third International Conference on Plant Hybridization in London in 1906. After the rediscovery of Mendel's work, scientists tried to determine which molecules in the cell were responsible for inheritance. In 1911, Thomas Hunt Morgan argued that genes are on chromosomes , based on observations of a sex-linked white eye mutation in fruit flies . In 1913, his student Alfred Sturtevant used the phenomenon of genetic linkage to show that genes are arranged linearly on the chromosome. Molecular genetics [ edit ] DNA , the molecular basis for biological inheritance . Each strand of DNA is a chain of nucleotides , matching each other in the center to form what look like rungs on a twisted ladder. Although genes were known to exist on chromosomes, chromosomes are composed of both protein and DNA, and scientists did not know which of the two is responsible for inheritance. In 1928, Frederick Griffith discovered the phenomenon of transformation (see Griffith's experiment ): dead bacteria could transfer genetic material to "transform" other still-living bacteria. Sixteen years later, in 1944, the Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment identified DNA as the molecule responsible for transformation. The role of the nucleus as the repository of genetic information in eukaryotes had been established by Hämmerling in 1943 in his work on the single celled alga Acetabularia . The Hershey–Chase experiment in 1952 confirmed that DNA (rather than protein) is the genetic material of the viruses that infect bacteria, providing further evidence that DNA is the molecule responsible for inheritance. James Watson and Francis Crick determined the structure of DNA in 1953, using the X-ray crystallography work of Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins that indicated DNA has a helical structure (i.e., shaped like a corkscrew). Their double-helix model had two strands of DNA with the nucleotides pointing inward, each matching a complementary nucleotide on the other strand to form what look like rungs on a twisted ladder. This structure showed that genetic information exists in the sequence of nucleotides on each strand of DNA. The structure also suggested a simple method for replication : if the strands are separated, new partner strands can be reconstructed for each based on the sequence of the old strand. This property is what gives DNA its semi-conservative nature where one strand of new DNA is from an original parent strand. Although the structure of DNA showed how inheritance works, it was still not known how DNA influences the behavior of cells. In the following years, scientists tried to understand how DNA controls the process of protein production . It was discovered that the cell uses DNA as a template to create matching messenger RNA , molecules with nucleotides very similar to DNA. The nucleotide sequence of a messenger RNA is used to create an amino acid sequence in protein; this translation between nucleotide sequences and amino acid sequences is known as the genetic code . With the newfound molecular understanding of inheritance came an explosion of research. A notable theory arose from Tomoko Ohta in 1973 with her amendment to the neutral theory of molecular evolution through publishing the nearly neutral theory of molecular evolution . In this theory, Ohta stressed the importance of natural selection and the environment to the rate at which genetic evolution occurs. One important development was chain-termination DNA sequencing in 1977 by Frederick Sanger . This technology allows scientists to read the nucleotide sequence of a DNA molecule. In 1983, Kary Banks Mullis developed the polymerase chain reaction , providing a quick way to isolate and amplify a specific section of DNA from a mixture. The efforts of the Human Genome Project , Department of Energy, NIH, and parallel private efforts by Celera Genomics led to the sequencing of the human genome in 2003. Features of inheritance [ edit ] Discrete inheritance and Mendel's laws [ edit ] Main article: Mendelian inheritance A Punnett square depicting a cross between two pea plants heterozygous for purple (B) and white (b) blossoms. At its most fundamental level, inheritance in organisms occurs by passing discrete heritable units, called genes , from parents to offspring. This property was first observed by Gregor Mendel , who studied the segregation of heritable traits in pea plants. In his experiments studying the trait for flower color, Mendel observed that the flowers of each pea plant were either purple or white—but never an intermediate between the two colors. These different, discrete versions of the same gene are called alleles . In the case of the pea, which is a diploid species, each individual plant has two copies of each gene, one copy inherited from each parent. Many species, including humans, have this pattern of inheritance. Diploid organisms with two copies of the same allele of a given gene are called homozygous at that gene locus , while organisms with two different alleles of a given gene are called heterozygous . The set of alleles for a given organism is called its genotype , while the observable traits of the organism are called its phenotype . When organisms are heterozygous at a gene, often one allele is called dominant as its qualities dominate the phenotype of the organism, while the other allele is called recessive as its qualities recede and are not observed. Some alleles do not have complete dominance and instead have incomplete dominance by expressing an intermediate phenotype, or codominance by expressing both alleles at once. When a pair of organisms reproduce sexually , their offspring randomly inherit one of the two alleles from each parent. These observations of discrete inheritance and the segregation of alleles are collectively known as Mendel's first law or the Law of Segregation. Notation and diagrams [ edit ] Genetic pedigree charts help track the inheritance patterns of traits. Geneticists use diagrams and symbols to describe inheritance. A gene is represented by one or a few letters. Often a "+" symbol is used to mark the usual, non-mutant allele for a gene. In fertilization and breeding experiments (and especially when discussing Mendel's laws) the parents are referred to as the "P" generation and the offspring as the "F1" (first filial) generation. When the F1 offspring mate with each other, the offspring are called the "F2" (second filial) generation. One of the common diagrams used to predict the result of cross-breeding is the Punnett square . When studying human genetic diseases, geneticists often use pedigree charts to represent the inheritance of traits. These charts map the inheritance of a trait in a family tree. Multiple gene interactions [ edit ] Human height is a trait with complex genetic causes. Francis Galton 's data from 1889 shows the relationship between offspring height as a function of mean parent height. Organisms have thousands of genes, and in sexually reproducing organisms these genes generally assort independently of each other. This means that the inheritance of an allele for yellow or green pea color is unrelated to the inheritance of alleles for white or purple flowers. This phenomenon, known as " Mendel's second law " or the "law of independent assortment," means that the alleles of different genes get shuffled between parents to form offspring with many different combinations. (Some genes do not assort independently, demonstrating genetic linkage , a topic discussed later in this article.) Often different genes can interact in a way that influences the same trait. In the Blue-eyed Mary ( Omphalodes verna ), for example, there exists a gene with alleles that determine the color of flowers: blue or magenta. Another gene, however, controls whether the flowers have color at all or are white. When a plant has two copies of this white allele, its flowers are white—regardless of whether the first gene has blue or magenta alleles. This interaction between genes is called epistasis , with the second gene epistatic to the first. Many traits are not discrete features (e.g. purple or white flowers) but are instead continuous features (e.g. human height and skin color ). These complex traits are products of many genes. The influence of these genes is mediated, to varying degrees, by the environment an organism has experienced. The degree to which an organism's genes contribute to a complex trait is called heritability . Measurement of the heritability of a trait is relative—in a more variable environment, the environment has a bigger influence on the total variation of the trait. For example, human height is a trait with complex causes. It has a heritability of 89% in the United States. In Nigeria, however, where people experience a more variable access to good nutrition and health care , height has a heritability of only 62%. Molecular basis for inheritance [ edit ] DNA and chromosomes [ edit ] Main articles: DNA and Chromosome The molecular structure of DNA. Bases pair through the arrangement of hydrogen bonding between the strands. The molecular basis for genes is deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). DNA is composed of a chain of nucleotides , of which there are four types: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T). Genetic information exists in the sequence of these nucleotides, and genes exist as stretches of sequence along the DNA chain. Viruses are the only exception to this rule—sometimes viruses use the very similar molecule RNA instead of DNA as their genetic material. Viruses cannot reproduce without a host and are unaffected by many genetic processes, so tend not to be considered living organisms. DNA normally exists as a double-stranded molecule, coiled into the shape of a double helix . Each nucleotide in DNA preferentially pairs with its partner nucleotide on the opposite strand: A pairs with T, and C pairs with G. Thus, in its two-stranded form, each strand effectively contains all necessary information, redundant with its partner strand. This structure of DNA is the physical basis for inheritance: DNA replication duplicates the genetic information by splitting the strands and using each strand as a template for synthesis of a new partner strand. Genes are arranged linearly along long chains of DNA base-pair sequences. In bacteria , each cell usually contains a single circular genophore , while eukaryotic organisms (such as plants and animals) have their DNA arranged in multiple linear chromosomes. These DNA strands are often extremely long; the largest human chromosome, for example, is about 247 million base pairs in length. The DNA of a chromosome is associated with structural proteins that organize, compact, and control access to the DNA, forming a material called chromatin ; in eukaryotes, chromatin is usually composed of nucleosomes , segments of DNA wound around cores of histone proteins. The full set of hereditary material in an organism (usually the combined DNA sequences of all chromosomes) is called the genome . While haploid organisms have only one copy of each chromosome, most animals and many plants are diploid , containing two of each chromosome and thus two copies of every gene. The two alleles for a gene are located on identical loci of the two homologous chromosomes , each allele inherited from a different parent. Walther Flemming 's 1882 diagram of eukaryotic cell division. Chromosomes are copied, condensed, and organized. Then, as the cell divides, chromosome copies separate into the daughter cells. Many species have so-called sex chromosomes that determine the gender of each organism. In humans and many other animals, the Y chromosome contains the gene that triggers the development of the specifically male characteristics. In evolution, this chromosome has lost most of its content and also most of its genes, while the X chromosome is similar to the other chromosomes and contains many genes. The X and Y chromosomes form a strongly heterogeneous pair. Reproduction [ edit ] Main articles: Asexual reproduction and Sexual reproduction When cells divide, their full genome is copied and each daughter cell inherits one copy. This process, called mitosis , is the simplest form of reproduction and is the basis for asexual reproduction . Asexual reproduction can also occur in multicellular organisms, producing offspring that inherit their genome from a single parent. Offspring that are genetically identical to their parents are called clones . Eukaryotic organisms often use sexual reproduction to generate offspring that contain a mixture of genetic material inherited from two different parents. The process of sexual reproduction alternates between forms that contain single copies of the genome ( haploid ) and double copies ( diploid ). Haploid cells fuse and combine genetic material to create a diploid cell with paired chromosomes. Diploid organisms form haploids by dividing, without replicating their DNA, to create daughter cells that randomly inherit one of each pair of chromosomes. Most animals and many plants are diploid for most of their lifespan, with the haploid form reduced to single cell gametes such as sperm or eggs . Although they do not use the haploid/diploid method of sexual reproduction, bacteria have many methods of acquiring new genetic information. Some bacteria can undergo conjugation , transferring a small circular piece of DNA to another bacterium. Bacteria can also take up raw DNA fragments found in the environment and integrate them into their genomes, a phenomenon known as transformation . These processes result in horizontal gene transfer , transmitting fragments of genetic information between organisms that would be otherwise unrelated. Recombination and genetic linkage [ edit ] Main articles: Chromosomal crossover and Genetic linkage Thomas Hunt Morgan 's 1916 illustration of a double crossover between chromosomes. The diploid nature of chromosomes allows for genes on different chromosomes to assort independently or be separated from their homologous pair during sexual reproduction wherein haploid gametes are formed. In this way new combinations of genes can occur in the offspring of a mating pair. Genes on the same chromosome would theoretically never recombine. However, they do, via the cellular process of chromosomal crossover . During crossover, chromosomes exchange stretches of DNA, effectively shuffling the gene alleles between the chromosomes. This process of chromosomal crossover generally occurs during meiosis , a series of cell divisions that creates haploid cells. The first cytological demonstration of crossing over was performed by Harriet Creighton and Barbara McClintock in 1931. Their research and experiments on corn provided cytological evidence for the genetic theory that linked genes on paired chromosomes do in fact exchange places from one homolog to the other. The probability of chromosomal crossover occurring between two given points on the chromosome is related to the distance between the points. For an arbitrarily long distance, the probability of crossover is high enough that the inheritance of the genes is effectively uncorrelated. For genes that are closer together, however, the lower probability of crossover means that the genes demonstrate genetic linkage ; alleles for the two genes tend to be inherited together. The amounts of linkage between a series of genes can be combined to form a linear linkage map that roughly describes the arrangement of the genes along the chromosome. Gene expression [ edit ] Genetic code [ edit ] Main article: Genetic code The genetic code : Using a triplet code , DNA, through a messenger RNA intermediary, specifies a protein. Genes generally express their functional effect through the production of proteins , which are complex molecules responsible for most functions in the cell. Proteins are made up of one or more polypeptide chains, each of which is composed of a sequence of amino acids , and the DNA sequence of a gene (through an RNA intermediate) is used to produce a specific amino acid sequence . This process begins with the production of an RNA molecule with a sequence matching the gene's DNA sequence, a process called transcription . This messenger RNA molecule is then used to produce a corresponding amino acid sequence through a process called translation . Each group of three nucleotides in the sequence, called a codon , corresponds either to one of the twenty possible amino acids in a protein or an instruction to end the amino acid sequence ; this correspondence is called the genetic code . The flow of information is unidirectional: information is transferred from nucleotide sequences into the amino acid sequence of proteins, but it never transfers from protein back into the sequence of DNA—a phenomenon Francis Crick called the central dogma of molecular biology . The specific sequence of amino acids results in a unique three-dimensional structure for that protein, and the three-dimensional structures of proteins are related to their functions. Some are simple structural molecules, like the fibers formed by the protein collagen . Proteins can bind to other proteins and simple molecules, sometimes acting as enzymes by facilitating chemical reactions within the bound molecules (without changing the structure of the protein itself). Protein structure is dynamic; the protein hemoglobin bends into slightly different forms as it facilitates the capture, transport, and release of oxygen molecules within mammalian blood. A single nucleotide difference within DNA can cause a change in the amino acid sequence of a protein. Because protein structures are the result of their amino acid sequences, some changes can dramatically change the properties of a protein by destabilizing the structure or changing the surface of the protein in a way that changes its interaction with other proteins and molecules. For example, sickle-cell anemia is a human genetic disease that results from a single base difference within the coding region for the β-globin section of hemoglobin, causing a single amino acid change that changes hemoglobin's physical properties. Sickle-cell versions of hemoglobin stick to themselves, stacking to form fibers that distort the shape of red blood cells carrying the protein. These sickle-shaped cells no longer flow smoothly through blood vessels , having a tendency to clog or degrade, causing the medical problems associated with this disease. Some DNA sequences are transcribed into RNA but are not translated into protein products—such RNA molecules are called non-coding RNA . In some cases, these products fold into structures which are involved in critical cell functions (e.g. ribosomal RNA and transfer RNA ). RNA can also have regulatory effects through hybridization interactions with other RNA molecules (e.g. microRNA ). Nature and nurture [ edit ] Main article: Nature and nurture Siamese cats have a temperature-sensitive pigment-production mutation. Although genes contain all the information an organism uses to function, the environment plays an important role in determining the ultimate phenotypes an organism displays. The phrase " nature and nurture " refers to this complementary relationship. The phenotype of an organism depends on the interaction of genes and the environment. An interesting example is the coat coloration of the Siamese cat . In this case, the body temperature of the cat plays the role of the environment. The cat's genes code for dark hair, thus the hair-producing cells in the cat make cellular proteins resulting in dark hair. But these dark hair-producing proteins are sensitive to temperature (i.e. have a mutation causing temperature-sensitivity) and denature in higher-temperature environments, failing to produce dark-hair pigment in areas where the cat has a higher body temperature. In a low-temperature environment, however, the protein's structure is stable and produces dark-hair pigment normally. The protein remains functional in areas of skin that are colder—such as its legs, ears, tail and face—so the cat has dark-hair at its extremities. Environment plays a major role in effects of the human genetic disease phenylketonuria . The mutation that causes phenylketonuria disrupts the ability of the body to break down the amino acid phenylalanine , causing a toxic build-up of an intermediate molecule that, in turn, causes severe symptoms of progressive intellectual disability and seizures. However, if someone with the phenylketonuria mutation follows a strict diet that avoids this amino acid, they remain normal and healthy. A common method for determining how genes and environment ("nature and nurture") contribute to a phenotype involves studying identical and fraternal twins , or other siblings of multiple births . Because identical siblings come from the same zygote, they are genetically the same. Fraternal twins are as genetically different from one another as normal siblings. By comparing how often a certain disorder occurs in a pair of identical twins to how often it occurs in a pair of fraternal twins, scientists can determine whether that disorder is caused by genetic or postnatal environmental factors – whether it has "nature" or "nurture" causes. One famous example involved the study of the Genain quadruplets , who were identical quadruplets all diagnosed with schizophrenia . However such tests cannot separate genetic factors from environmental factors affecting fetal development. Gene regulation [ edit ] Main article: Regulation of gene expression The genome of a given organism contains thousands of genes, but not all these genes need to be active at any given moment. A gene is expressed when it is being transcribed into mRNA and there exist many cellular methods of controlling the expression of genes such that proteins are produced only when needed by the cell. Transcription factors are regulatory proteins that bind to DNA, either promoting or inhibiting the transcription of a gene. Within the genome of Escherichia coli bacteria, for example, there exists a series of genes necessary for the synthesis of the amino acid tryptophan . However, when tryptophan is already available to the cell, these genes for tryptophan synthesis are no longer needed. The presence of tryptophan directly affects the activity of the genes—tryptophan molecules bind to the tryptophan repressor (a transcription factor), changing the repressor's structure such that the repressor binds to the genes. The tryptophan repressor blocks the transcription and expression of the genes, thereby creating negative feedback regulation of the tryptophan synthesis process. Transcription factors bind to DNA, influencing the transcription of associated genes. Differences in gene expression are especially clear within multicellular organisms , where cells all contain the same genome but have very different structures and behaviors due to the expression of different sets of genes. All the cells in a multicellular organism derive from a single cell, differentiating into variant cell types in response to external and intercellular signals and gradually establishing different patterns of gene expression to create different behaviors. As no single gene is responsible for the development of structures within multicellular organisms, these patterns arise from the complex interactions between many cells. Within eukaryotes , there exist structural features of chromatin that influence the transcription of genes, often in the form of modifications to DNA and chromatin that are stably inherited by daughter cells. These features are called " epigenetic " because they exist "on top" of the DNA sequence and retain inheritance from one cell generation to the next. Because of epigenetic features, different cell types grown within the same medium can retain very different properties. Although epigenetic features are generally dynamic over the course of development, some, like the phenomenon of paramutation , have multigenerational inheritance and exist as rare exceptions to the general rule of DNA as the basis for inheritance. Genetic change [ edit ] Mutations [ edit ] Main article: Mutation Gene duplication allows diversification by providing redundancy: one gene can mutate and lose its original function without harming the organism. During the process of DNA replication , errors occasionally occur in the polymerization of the second strand. These errors, called mutations , can affect the phenotype of an organism, especially if they occur within the protein coding sequence of a gene. Error rates are usually very low—1 error in every 10–100 million bases—due to the "proofreading" ability of DNA polymerases . Processes that increase the rate of changes in DNA are called mutagenic : mutagenic chemicals promote errors in DNA replication, often by interfering with the structure of base-pairing, while UV radiation induces mutations by causing damage to the DNA structure. Chemical damage to DNA occurs naturally as well and cells use DNA repair mechanisms to repair mismatches and breaks. The repair does not, however, always restore the original sequence. In organisms that use chromosomal crossover to exchange DNA and recombine genes, errors in alignment during meiosis can also cause mutations. Errors in crossover are especially likely when similar sequences cause partner chromosomes to adopt a mistaken alignment; this makes some regions in genomes more prone to mutating in this way. These errors create large structural changes in DNA sequence – duplications , inversions , deletions of entire regions – or the accidental exchange of whole parts of sequences between different chromosomes ( chromosomal translocation ). This is a diagram showing mutations in an RNA sequence. Figure (1) is a normal RNA sequence, consisting of 4 codons. Figure (2) shows a missense, single point, non silent mutation. Figures (3 and 4) both show frameshift mutations , which is why they are grouped together. Figure 3 shows a deletion of the second base pair in the second codon. Figure 4 shows an insertion in the third base pair of the second codon. Figure (5) shows a repeat expansion, where an entire codon is duplicated. Natural selection and evolution [ edit ] Main article: Evolution Further information: Natural selection Mutations alter an organism's genotype and occasionally this causes different phenotypes to appear. Most mutations have little effect on an organism's phenotype, health, or reproductive fitness . Mutations that do have an effect are usually detrimental, but occasionally some can be beneficial. Studies in the fly Drosophila melanogaster suggest that if a mutation changes a protein produced by a gene, about 70 percent of these mutations will be harmful with the remainder being either neutral or weakly beneficial. An evolutionary tree of eukaryotic organisms, constructed by the comparison of several orthologous gene sequences. Population genetics studies the distribution of genetic differences within populations and how these distributions change over time. Changes in the frequency of an allele in a population are mainly influenced by natural selection , where a given allele provides a selective or reproductive advantage to the organism, as well as other factors such as mutation , genetic drift , genetic hitchhiking , artificial selection and migration . Over many generations, the genomes of organisms can change significantly, resulting in evolution . In the process called adaptation , selection for beneficial mutations can cause a species to evolve into forms better able to survive in their environment. New species are formed through the process of speciation , often caused by geographical separations that prevent populations from exchanging genes with each other. By comparing the homology between different species' genomes, it is possible to calculate the evolutionary distance between them and when they may have diverged . Genetic comparisons are generally considered a more accurate method of characterizing the relatedness between species than the comparison of phenotypic characteristics. The evolutionary distances between species can be used to form evolutionary trees ; these trees represent the common descent and divergence of species over time, although they do not show the transfer of genetic material between unrelated species (known as horizontal gene transfer and most common in bacteria). Model organisms [ edit ] The common fruit fly ( Drosophila melanogaster ) is a popular model organism in genetics research. Although geneticists originally studied inheritance in a wide range of organisms, researchers began to specialize in studying the genetics of a particular subset of organisms. The fact that significant research already existed for a given organism would encourage new researchers to choose it for further study, and so eventually a few model organisms became the basis for most genetics research. Common research topics in model organism genetics include the study of gene regulation and the involvement of genes in development and cancer . Organisms were chosen, in part, for convenience—short generation times and easy genetic manipulation made some organisms popular genetics research tools. Widely used model organisms include the gut bacterium Escherichia coli , the plant Arabidopsis thaliana , baker's yeast ( Saccharomyces cerevisiae ), the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans , the common fruit fly ( Drosophila melanogaster ), and the common house mouse ( Mus musculus ). Medicine [ edit ] Schematic relationship between biochemistry , genetics and molecular biology . Medical genetics seeks to understand how genetic variation relates to human health and disease. When searching for an unknown gene that may be involved in a disease, researchers commonly use genetic linkage and genetic pedigree charts to find the location on the genome associated with the disease. At the population level, researchers take advantage of Mendelian randomization to look for locations in the genome that are associated with diseases, a method especially useful for multigenic traits not clearly defined by a single gene. Once a candidate gene is found, further research is often done on the corresponding (or homologous ) genes of model organisms. In addition to studying genetic diseases, the increased availability of genotyping methods has led to the field of pharmacogenetics : the study of how genotype can affect drug responses. Individuals differ in their inherited tendency to develop cancer , and cancer is a genetic disease. The process of cancer development in the body is a combination of events. Mutations occasionally occur within cells in the body as they divide. Although these mutations will not be inherited by any offspring, they can affect the behavior of cells, sometimes causing them to grow and divide more frequently. There are biological mechanisms that attempt to stop this process; signals are given to inappropriately dividing cells that should trigger cell death , but sometimes additional mutations occur that cause cells to ignore these messages. An internal process of natural selection occurs within the body and eventually mutations accumulate within cells to promote their own growth, creating a cancerous tumor that grows and invades various tissues of the body. Normally, a cell divides only in response to signals called growth factors and stops growing once in contact with surrounding cells and in response to growth-inhibitory signals. It usually then divides a limited number of times and dies, staying within the epithelium where it is unable to migrate to other organs. To become a cancer cell, a cell has to accumulate mutations in a number of genes (three to seven) that allow it to bypass this regulation: it no longer needs growth factors to divide, continues growing when making contact to neighbor cells, ignores inhibitory signals, keeps growing indefinitely and is immortal, escapes from the epithelium and ultimately may be able to escape from the primary tumor , cross the endothelium of a blood vessel, be transported by the bloodstream and colonize a new organ, forming deadly metastasis . Although there are some genetic predispositions in a small fraction of cancers, the major fraction is due to a set of new genetic mutations that originally appear and accumulate in one or a small number of cells that will divide to form the tumor and are not transmitted to the progeny ( somatic mutations ). The most frequent mutations are a loss of function of p53 protein , a tumor suppressor , or in the p53 pathway, and gain of function mutations in the Ras proteins , or in other oncogenes . Research methods [ edit ] Colonies of E. coli produced by cellular cloning . A similar methodology is often used in molecular cloning . DNA can be manipulated in the laboratory. Restriction enzymes are commonly used enzymes that cut DNA at specific sequences, producing predictable fragments of DNA. DNA fragments can be visualized through use of gel electrophoresis , which separates fragments according to their length. The use of ligation enzymes allows DNA fragments to be connected. By binding ("ligating") fragments of DNA together from different sources, researchers can create recombinant DNA , the DNA often associated with genetically modified organisms . Recombinant DNA is commonly used in the context of plasmids : short circular DNA molecules with a few genes on them. In the process known as molecular cloning , researchers can amplify the DNA fragments by inserting plasmids into bacteria and then culturing them on plates of agar (to isolate clones of bacteria cells – "cloning" can also refer to the various means of creating cloned ("clonal") organisms). DNA can also be amplified using a procedure called the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). By using specific short sequences of DNA, PCR can isolate and exponentially amplify a targeted region of DNA. Because it can amplify from extremely small amounts of DNA, PCR is also often used to detect the presence of specific DNA sequences. DNA sequencing and genomics [ edit ] DNA sequencing , one of the most fundamental technologies developed to study genetics, allows researchers to determine the sequence of nucleotides in DNA fragments. The technique of chain-termination sequencing , developed in 1977 by a team led by Frederick Sanger , is still routinely used to sequence DNA fragments. Using this technology, researchers have been able to study the molecular sequences associated with many human diseases. As sequencing has become less expensive, researchers have sequenced the genomes of many organisms using a process called genome assembly , which utilizes computational tools to stitch together sequences from many different fragments. These technologies were used to sequence the human genome in the Human Genome Project completed in 2003. New high-throughput sequencing technologies are dramatically lowering the cost of DNA sequencing, with many researchers hoping to bring the cost of resequencing a human genome down to a thousand dollars. Next-generation sequencing (or high-throughput sequencing) came about due to the ever-increasing demand for low-cost sequencing. These sequencing technologies allow the production of potentially millions of sequences concurrently. The large amount of sequence data available has created the field of genomics , research that uses computational tools to search for and analyze patterns in the full genomes of organisms. Genomics can also be considered a subfield of bioinformatics , which uses computational approaches to analyze large sets of biological data . A common problem to these fields of research is how to manage and share data that deals with human subject and personally identifiable information . See also genomics data sharing . Society and culture [ edit ] See also: Genetics in fiction On 19 March 2015, a group of leading biologists urged a worldwide ban on clinical use of methods, particularly the use of CRISPR and zinc finger , to edit the human genome in a way that can be inherited. In April 2015, Chinese researchers reported results of basic research to edit the DNA of non-viable human embryos using CRISPR. See also [ edit ] Genetics portal Bacterial genome size Cryoconservation of animal genetic resources Eugenics Embryology Evolution Genetic disorder Genetic diversity Genetic engineering Genetic enhancement Index of genetics articles Medical genetics Molecular tools for gene study Mutation Neuroepigenetics Outline of genetics Timeline of the history of genetics Plant genetic resources References [ edit ] Further reading [ edit ] See also: Bibliography of biology § Genetics Bruce Alberts; Dennis Bray; Karen Hopkin; Alexander Johnson; Julian Lewis; Martin Raff; Keith Roberts; Peter Walter (2013). Essential Cell Biology, 4th Edition . Garland Science. ISBN 978-1-317-80627-1 . Griffiths, Anthony J. F.; Miller, Jeffrey H.; Suzuki, David T.; Lewontin, Richard C.; Gelbart, eds. (2000). An Introduction to Genetic Analysis (7th ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-3520-2 . Hartl D, Jones E (2005). Genetics: Analysis of Genes and Genomes (6th ed.). Jones & Bartlett. ISBN 0-7637-1511-5 . King, Robert C; Mulligan, Pamela K; Stansfield, William D (2013). A Dictionary of Genetics (8th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-1997-6644-4 . Lodish H, Berk A, Zipursky LS, Matsudaira P, Baltimore D, Darnell J (2000). Molecular Cell Biology (4th ed.). New York: Scientific American Books. ISBN 0-7167-3136-3 . External links [ edit ] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Genetics Wikimedia Commons has media related to Genetics . Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: Genetics Library resources about Genetics Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries At Wikiversity , you can learn more and teach others about Genetics at the Department of Genetics Genetics on In Our Time at the BBC Genetics at Curlie

train

what are the different types of twin pregnancies

Twins are two offspring produced by the same pregnancy. Twins can be either monozygotic (`` identical ''), meaning that they develop from one zygote, which splits and forms two embryos, or dizygotic (`` fraternal ''), meaning that they develop from two different eggs. In fraternal twins, each twin is fertilized by its own sperm cell.

['the social contract', 'nuclide']

irú oyún ìbejì wo ló wà

Yes

['Àwọn ìbejì le ti àti inú ẹyin kan jade tàbí láti inú ẹyin ọ̀tọ̀ọ̀tọ̀. Àwọn tí ó jáde láti inú ẹyin kan ma ń jo ara wọn, wọ́n sì ma ń jẹ́ ọkùnrin méjì tàbí obìnrin méjì.', 'Àwọn Ìbejì jẹ́ àwọn ọmọ méjì tí ìyá wọn lóyún papọ̀, wọ́n lè jẹ́ obìnrin meji, ọkùnrin méjì tàbi ọkùnrin kan àti obìnrin kan.']

['Àwọn ìbejì le ti àti inú ẹyin kan jade tàbí láti inú ẹyin ọ̀tọ̀ọ̀tọ̀. Àwọn tí ó jáde láti inú ẹyin kan ma ń jo ara wọn, wọ́n sì ma ń jẹ́ ọkùnrin méjì tàbí obìnrin méjì.', 'Àwọn Ìbejì jẹ́ àwọn ọmọ méjì tí ìyá wọn lóyún papọ̀, wọ́n lè jẹ́ obìnrin meji, ọkùnrin méjì tàbi ọkùnrin kan àti obìnrin kan.']

['P1']

Ìbejì Àw?n Ìbejì j?? àw?n ?m? méjì tí ìyá w?n lóyún pap??, w??n lè j?? obìnrin meji, ?kùnrin méjì tàbi ?kùnrin kan àti obìnrin kan. Àw?n ìbejì le ti àti inú ?yin kan jade tàbí láti inú ?yin ??t????t??.[1] Àw?n tí ó jáde láti inú ?yin kan ma ? jo ara w?n, w??n sì ma ? j?? ?kùnrin méjì tàbí obìnrin méjì. Ní igbamiran(ì???l?? yí kò w??p??), àw?n ìbejì kan le ní baba méjì ??t????t??. Statistiki Ní gbogbo àgbáyé, ??yà Yoruba ni àw?n ?m? w?n ? ya ìbejì jù, àw?n ìbejì 45 sí 50(àw?n ?m? 90 sí 100) ni ó ? ya ìbejì nínú gbogbo ?m? ?gb??rún tí w??n bá bí.[2][3][4]

For other uses, see Twin (disambiguation) and Twins (disambiguation) . Marian and Vivian Brown , identical twins, photographed by Christopher Michel Twins are two offspring produced by the same pregnancy . Twins can be either monozygotic ("identical"), meaning that they develop from one zygote , which splits and forms two embryos , or dizygotic ("fraternal"), meaning that they develop from two different eggs. In fraternal twins, each twin is fertilized by its own sperm cell. In contrast, a fetus that develops alone in the womb is called a singleton , and the general term for one offspring of a multiple birth is multiple . Non-related look-alikes whose resemblance parallels that of twins are referred to as doppelgangers . Contents [ hide ] 1 Statistics 2 Types of twins and zygosity 2.1 Dizygotic (fraternal) twins 2.2 Monozygotic (identical) twins 2.2.1 Mechanism 2.2.2 Incidence 2.2.3 Genetic and epigenetic similarity 2.3 Polar body and semi-identical twins 2.4 Unknown twin type 3 Degree of separation 4 Demographics 4.1 Ethnicity 4.2 Predisposing factors 5 Delivery interval 6 Complications during pregnancy 6.1 Vanishing twins 6.2 Conjoined twins 6.3 Chimerism 6.4 Parasitic twins 6.5 Partial molar twins 6.6 Miscarried twin 6.7 Low birth weight 6.8 Twin-to-twin transfusion syndrome 6.9 Stillbirths 7 Management of birth 8 Human twin studies 8.1 Unusual twinnings 8.2 Semi-identical twins 8.3 Mirror image twins 9 Language development 10 Animals 11 See also 12 References 13 Further reading 14 Foundations Statistics [ edit ] The human twin birth rate in the United States, rose 76% from 1980 through 2009, from 18.9 to 33.3 per 1,000 births (about 80%) The Yoruba peoples have the highest rate of twinning in the world, at 45–50 twin sets (or 90–100 twins) per 1,000 live births, possibly because of high consumption of a specific type of yam containing a natural phytoestrogen which may stimulate the ovaries to release an egg from each side. In Central Africa there are 18–30 twin sets (or 36–60 twins) per 1,000 live births. In Latin America , South Asia , and Southeast Asia , the lowest rates are found; only 6 to 9 twin sets per 1,000 live births. North America and Europe have intermediate rates of 9 to 16 twin sets per 1,000 live births. Multiple pregnancies are much less likely to carry to full term than single births, with twin pregnancies lasting on average 37 weeks, three weeks less than full term. Women who have a family history of fraternal twins have a higher chance of producing fraternal twins themselves, as there is a genetically linked tendency to hyper- ovulate . There is no known genetic link for identical twinning. Other factors that increase the odds of having fraternal twins include maternal age, fertility drugs and other fertility treatments, nutrition, and prior births. Types of twins and zygosity [ edit ] The vast majority of twins are either dizygotic (fraternal) or monozygotic (identical). Less common variants are discussed further down the article. Twins can be: Female-female—sometimes called sororal twins Male-male twins—no special name Male–female twins—most common pairing; half of all fraternal (dizygotic) twins are male-female Among non-twin births, male singletons are slightly (about five percent) more common than female singletons. The rates for singletons vary slightly by country. For example, the sex ratio of birth in the US is 1.05 males/female, while it is 1.07 males/female in Italy. However, males are also more susceptible than females to die in utero, and since the death rate in utero is higher for twins, it leads to female twins being more common than male twins. Zygosity is the degree of identity in the genome of twins. Common name Scientific name Zygosity Development Occurrence Identification Health Other identical monozygotic x x x x x x fraternal dizygotic x x x x x x half-identical x x x x x x x mirror image x x x x x x x mixed chromosome x x x x x x x superfecundation x x eggs are fertilized during different acts of intercourse x x x usage is practically equivalent with Heteropaternal Superfecundation , which occurs when two different males father fraternal twins, because though superfecundation by the same father is thought to be a common occurrence, it can only be proven to have occurred with multiple fathers. superfetation x x a woman gets pregnant again while already pregnant, resulting in multiple fetuses at differing developmental stages x x x x parasitic twin x x x x x by definition only healthy fully formed fetus x vanishing twin fetal resorption, twin embolisation syndrome x x up to 1 of every 8 multifetus pregnancies x by definition only healthy fully formed fetus chimerism , mosaicism polar body x x x x x x x conjoined twin x x x x x ranges from normal to compromised x Dizygotic (fraternal) twins [ edit ] Eight-month-old sororal twins napping Dizygotic ( DZ ) or fraternal twins (also referred to as "non-identical twins", "dissimilar twins", "biovular twins", and, informally in the case of females, "sororal twins") usually occur when two fertilized eggs are implanted in the uterus wall at the same time. When two eggs are independently fertilized by two different sperm cells, fraternal twins result. The two eggs, or ova , form two zygotes , hence the terms dizygotic and biovular . Fraternal twins are, essentially, two ordinary siblings who happen to be born at the same time, since they arise from two separate eggs fertilized by two separate sperm, just like ordinary siblings. This is the most common type of twin. Dizygotic twins, like any other siblings, have an extremely small chance of having the same chromosome profile. Even if they happen to have the same chromosome profile, they will always have different genetic material on each chromosome, due to chromosomal crossover during meiosis . Like any other siblings , dizygotic twins may look similar, particularly given that they are the same age. However, dizygotic twins may also look very different from each other. Studies show that there is a genetic proclivity for dizygotic twinning. However, it is only the mother who has any effect on the chances of having such twins; there is no known mechanism for a father to cause the release of more than one ovum . Dizygotic twinning ranges from six per thousand births in Japan (similar to the rate of monozygotic twins) to 14 and more per thousand in some African countries. Dizygotic twins are also more common for older mothers, with twinning rates doubling in mothers over the age of 35. With the advent of technologies and techniques to assist women in getting pregnant, the rate of fraternals has increased markedly. Monozygotic (identical) twins [ edit ] Comparison of zygote development in monozygotic and dizygotic twins. In the uterus, a majority of monozygotic twins (60–70%) share the same placenta but have separate amniotic sacs . In 18–30% of monozygotic twins each fetus has a separate placenta and a separate amniotic sac. A small number (1–2%) of monozygotic twins share the same placenta and amniotic sac. Fraternal twins each have their own placenta and own amniotic sac. Monozygotic ( MZ ) or identical twins occur when a single egg is fertilized to form one zygote (hence, "monozygotic") which then divides into two separate embryos . Mechanism [ edit ] Regarding spontaneous or natural monozygotic twinning, a recent theory proposes that monozygotic twins are formed after a blastocyst essentially collapses, splitting the progenitor cells (those that contain the body's fundamental genetic material) in half, leaving the same genetic material divided in two on opposite sides of the embryo. Eventually, two separate fetuses develop. Spontaneous division of the zygote into two embryos is not considered to be a hereditary trait, but rather a spontaneous and random event. Monozygotic twins may also be created artificially by embryo splitting. It can be used as an expansion of in vitro fertilization (IVF) to increase the number of available embryos for embryo transfer . Incidence [ edit ] Monozygotic twinning occurs in birthing at a rate of about 3 in every 1000 deliveries worldwide. (about 0.3% of the world population). The likelihood of a single fertilization resulting in monozygotic twins is uniformly distributed in all populations around the world. This is in marked contrast to dizygotic twinning, which ranges from about six per thousand births in Japan (almost similar to the rate of identical twins, which is around 4–5) to 15 and more per thousand in some parts of India and up to over 20 in some Central African countries. The exact cause for the splitting of a zygote or embryo is unknown. IVF techniques are more likely to create dizygotic twins. For IVF deliveries, there are nearly 21 pairs of twins for every 1,000. Genetic and epigenetic similarity [ edit ] Monozygotic twins are genetically nearly identical and they are always the same sex unless there has been a mutation during development. The children of monozygotic twins test genetically as half-siblings (or full siblings, if a pair of monozygotic twins reproduces with another pair or with the same person), rather than first cousins. Identical twins do not have the same fingerprints however, because even within the confines of the womb, the fetuses touch different parts of their environment, giving rise to small variations in their corresponding prints and thus making them unique. Monozygotic twins always have different phenotypes . Normally due to an environmental factor or the deactivation of different X chromosomes in female monozygotic twins, and in some extremely rare cases, due to aneuploidy , twins may express different sexual phenotypes , normally from an XXY Klinefelter syndrome zygote splitting unevenly. Monozygotic twins, although genetically very similar, are not genetically exactly the same. The DNA in white blood cells of 66 pairs of monozygotic twins was analyzed for 506,786 single nucleotide polymorphisms known to occur in human populations. Polymorphisms appeared in 2 of the 33 million comparisons, leading the researchers to extrapolate that the blood cells of monozygotic twins may have on the order of one DNA-sequence difference for every 1.2 x 10 7 nucleotides, which would imply hundreds of differences across the entire genome. The mutations producing the differences detected in this study would have occurred during embryonic cell-division (after the point of fertilization). If they occur early in fetal development, they will be present in a very large proportion of body cells. Another cause of difference between monozygotic twins is epigenetic modification , caused by differing environmental influences throughout their lives. Epigenetics refers to the level of activity of any particular gene. A gene may become switched on, switched off, or could become partially switched on or off in an individual. This epigenetic modification is triggered by environmental events. Monozygotic twins can have markedly different epigenetic profiles. A study of 80 pairs of monozygotic twins ranging in age from three to 74 showed that the youngest twins have relatively few epigenetic differences. The number of epigenetic differences increases with age. Fifty-year-old twins had over three times the epigenetic difference of three-year-old twins. Twins who had spent their lives apart (such as those adopted by two different sets of parents at birth) had the greatest difference. However, certain characteristics become more alike as twins age, such as IQ and personality. Polar body and semi-identical twins [ edit ] A 1981 study of a deceased triploid XXX twin fetus without a heart showed that although its fetal development suggested that it was an identical twin, as it shared a placenta with its healthy twin, tests revealed that it was probably a polar body twin. The authors were unable to predict whether a healthy fetus could result from a polar body twinning. In 2003, a study argued that many cases of triploidity arise from semi-identical twinning. Unknown twin type [ edit ] In 2007, a study reported a case of a pair of living twins, one intersex and one a phenotypical male. The twins were both found to be chimeras and to share all of their maternal DNA but only half of their father's DNA. The exact mechanism of fertilization could not be determined but the study stated that it was unlikely to be a case of polar body twinning. Degree of separation [ edit ] Various types of chorionicity and amniosity (how the baby's sac looks) in monozygotic (one egg/identical) twins as a result of when the fertilized egg divides The degree of separation of the twins in utero depends on if and when they split into two zygotes. Dizygotic twins were always two zygotes. Monozygotic twins split into two zygotes at some time very early in the pregnancy. The timing of this separation determines the chorionicity (the number of placentae) and amniocity (the number of sacs) of the pregnancy. Dichorionic twins either never divided (i.e.: were dizygotic) or they divided within the first 4 days. Monoamnionic twins divide after the first week. In very rare cases, twins become conjoined twins . Non-conjoined monozygotic twins form up to day 14 of embryonic development, but when twinning occurs after 14 days, the twins will likely be conjoined. Furthermore, there can be various degrees of shared environment of twins in the womb, potentially leading to pregnancy complications . It is a common misconception that two placentas means twins are dizygotic. But if monozygotic twins separate early enough, the arrangement of sacs and placentas in utero is indistinguishable from dizygotic twins. Type Description Day Dichorionic-Diamniotic Normally, twins have two separate (di- being a numerical prefix for two) chorions and amniotic sacs , termed Dichorionic-Diamniotic or "DiDi". It occurs in almost all cases of dizygotic twins (except in very rare cases of fusion between their blastocysts ) and in 18–36% (or around 25% ) of monozygotic (identical) twins. DiDi twins have the lowest mortality risk at about 9 percent, although that is still significantly higher than that of singletons. Dichorionic-Diamniotic twins form when splitting takes place by the third day after fertilization . Monochorionic-Diamniotic Monochorionic twins share the same placenta . Monochorionic twins generally have two amniotic sacs (called Monochorionic-Diamniotic "MoDi"), which occurs in 60–70% of the pregnancies with monozygotic twins, and in 0.3% of all pregnancies. Monochorionic-Diamniotic twins are almost always monozygotic, with a few exceptions where the blastocysts have fused. Monochorionic twins share the same placenta , and thus have a risk of twin-to-twin transfusion syndrome . Days 4-8 Monochorionic-Monoamniotic Monochorionic twins share the same amnion in 1–2% of monozygotic twin pregnancies. Monoamniotic twins are always monozygotic . The survival rate for monoamniotic twins is somewhere between 50% to 60%. Monoamniotic twins, as with diamniotic monochorionic twins, have a risk of twin-to-twin transfusion syndrome . Also, the two umbilical cords have an increased chance of being tangled around the babies. Because of this, there is an increased chance that the newborns may be miscarried or suffer from cerebral palsy due to lack of oxygen. Monoamniotic twins occur when the split takes place after the ninth day after fertilization. Conjoined twins When the division of the developing zygote into 2 embryos occurs, 99% of the time it is within 8 days of fertilization. Mortality is highest for conjoined twins due to the many complications resulting from shared organs. If the division of the zygote occurs later than the 12 days then conjoined twins are usually the result. Dichorionic-diamniotic twins at 8 weeks and 5 days since co-incubation as part of IVF. The twin at left in the image is shown in the sagittal plane with the head pointing towards upper left. The twin at right in the image is shown in the coronal plane with the head pointing rightwards. Abdominal ultrasonography of monoamniotic twins at a gestational age of 15 weeks. There is no sign of any membrane between the fetuses. A coronal plane is shown of the twin at left, and a sagittal plane of parts of the upper thorax and head is shown of the twin at right. Demographics [ edit ] A 2006 study has found that insulin-like growth factor present in dairy products may increase the chance of dizygotic twinning. Specifically, the study found that vegan mothers (who exclude dairy from their diets) are one-fifth as likely to have twins as vegetarian or omnivore mothers, and concluded that "Genotypes favoring elevated IGF and diets including dairy products, especially in areas where growth hormone is given to cattle, appear to enhance the chances of multiple pregnancies due to ovarian stimulation." From 1980 to 1997, the number of twin births in the United States rose 52%. This rise can at least partly be attributed to the increasing popularity of fertility drugs and procedures such as IVF, which result in multiple births more frequently than unassisted fertilizations do. It may also be linked to the increase of growth hormones in food. Ethnicity [ edit ] Main article: Populated places with highest incidence of multiple birth A pair of female ere ibeji twin figures (early 20th-century) in the permanent collection of The Children's Museum of Indianapolis . Yoruba people have the highest twinning rate in the world. About 1 in 90 human births (1.1%) results from a twin pregnancy. The rate of dizygotic twinning varies greatly among ethnic groups , ranging as high as about 45 per 1000 births (4.5%) for the Yoruba to 10% for Linha São Pedro, a tiny Brazilian settlement which belongs to the city of Cândido Godói . In Cândido Godói, one in five pregnancies has resulted in twins. The Argentine historian Jorge Camarasa has put forward a theory that experiments of the Nazi doctor Josef Mengele could be responsible for the high ratio of twins in the area. His theory was rejected by Brazilian scientists who had studied twins living in Linha São Pedro; they suggested genetic factors within that community as a more likely explanation. A high twinning rate has also been observed in other places of the world, including: Igbo-Ora in Nigeria Kodinji , located in Kerala , India Mohammadpur Umri , located in Uttar Pradesh , India The widespread use of fertility drugs causing hyperovulation (stimulated release of multiple eggs by the mother) has caused what some call an "epidemic of multiple births ". In 2001, for the first time ever in the US , the twinning rate exceeded 3% of all births. Nevertheless, the rate of monozygotic twins remains at about 1 in 333 across the globe. In a study on the maternity records of 5750 Hausa women living in the Savannah zone of Nigeria , there were 40 twins and 2 triplets per 1000 births. Twenty-six percent of twins were monozygotic. The incidence of multiple births, which was about five times higher than that observed in any western population, was significantly lower than that of other ethnic groups, who live in the hot and humid climate of the southern part of the country. The incidence of multiple births was related to maternal age but did not bear any association to the climate or prevalence of malaria . Predisposing factors [ edit ] The predisposing factors of monozygotic twinning are unknown. Dizygotic twin pregnancies are slightly more likely when the following factors are present in the woman: She is of West African descent (especially Yoruba ) She is between the age of 30 and 40 years She is greater than average height and weight She has had several previous pregnancies. Women undergoing certain fertility treatments may have a greater chance of dizygotic multiple births. In the United States it has been estimated that by 2011 36% of twin births resulted from conception by assisted reproductive technology . The risk of twin birth can vary depending on what types of fertility treatments are used. With in vitro fertilisation (IVF), this is primarily due to the insertion of multiple embryos into the uterus. Ovarian hyperstimulation without IVF has a very high risk of multiple birth. Reversal of anovulation with clomifene (trade names including Clomid ) has a relatively less but yet significant risk of multiple pregnancy. Delivery interval [ edit ] A 15-year German study of 8,220 vaginally delivered twins (that is, 4,110 pregnancies) in Hesse yielded a mean delivery time interval of 13.5 minutes. The delivery interval between the twins was measured as follows: Within 15 minutes: 75.8% 16–30 minutes: 16.4% 31–45 minutes: 4.3% 46–60 minutes: 1.7% Over 60 minutes: 1.8% (72 instances) The study stated that the occurrence of complications "was found to be more likely with increasing twin-to-twin delivery time interval" and suggested that the interval be kept short, though it noted that the study did not examine causes of complications and did not control for factors such as the level of experience of the obstetrician, the wish of the women giving birth, or the "management strategies" of the procedure of delivering the second twin. Complications during pregnancy [ edit ] Vanishing twins [ edit ] Main article: Vanishing twin Researchers suspect that as many as 1 in 8 pregnancies start out as multiples, but only a single fetus is brought to full term, because the other fetus has died very early in the pregnancy and has not been detected or recorded. Early obstetric ultrasonography exams sometimes reveal an "extra" fetus, which fails to develop and instead disintegrates and vanishes in the uterus. There are several reasons for the "vanishing" fetus, including it being embodied or absorbed by the other fetus, placenta or the mother. This is known as vanishing twin syndrome. Also, in an unknown proportion of cases, two zygotes may fuse soon after fertilization, resulting in a single chimeric embryo, and, later, fetus. Chang and Eng Bunker , born in Siam (now Thailand ) in 1811, were the origin of the term "Siamese twins". Conjoined twins [ edit ] Main article: Conjoined twins Conjoined twins (or the once-commonly used term "siamese") are monozygotic twins whose bodies are joined together during pregnancy. This occurs when the zygote starts to split after day 12 following fertilization and fails to separate completely. This condition occurs in about 1 in 50,000 human pregnancies. Most conjoined twins are now evaluated for surgery to attempt to separate them into separate functional bodies. The degree of difficulty rises if a vital organ or structure is shared between twins, such as the brain , heart or liver . Chimerism [ edit ] Main article: Chimera (genetics) A chimera is an ordinary person or animal except that some of their parts actually came from their twin or from the mother. A chimera may arise either from monozygotic twin fetuses (where it would be impossible to detect), or from dizygotic fetuses, which can be identified by chromosomal comparisons from various parts of the body. The number of cells derived from each fetus can vary from one part of the body to another, and often leads to characteristic mosaicism skin coloration in human chimeras. A chimera may be intersex , composed of cells from a male twin and a female twin. In one case DNA tests determined that a woman, mystifyingly, was not the mother of two of her three children; she was found to be a chimera, and the two children were conceived from eggs derived from cells of their mother's twin. Parasitic twins [ edit ] Main article: Parasitic twin Sometimes one twin fetus will fail to develop completely and continue to cause problems for its surviving twin. One fetus acts as a parasite towards the other. Sometimes the parasitic twin becomes an almost indistinguishable part of the other, and sometimes this needs to be treated medically. Partial molar twins [ edit ] A very rare type of parasitic twinning is one where a single viable twin is endangered when the other zygote becomes cancerous, or molar. This means that the molar zygote's cellular division continues unchecked, resulting in a cancerous growth that overtakes the viable fetus. Typically, this results when one twin has either triploidy or complete paternal uniparental disomy , resulting in little or no fetus and a cancerous, overgrown placenta, resembling a bunch of grapes. Miscarried twin [ edit ] Occasionally, a woman will suffer a miscarriage early in pregnancy, yet the pregnancy will continue; one twin was miscarried but the other was able to be carried to term. This occurrence is similar to the vanishing twin syndrome, but typically occurs later, as the twin is not reabsorbed. Low birth weight [ edit ] It is very common for twins to be born at a low birth weight . More than half of twins are born weighing less than 5.5 pounds (2.5 kg), while the average birth weight of a healthy baby should be around 6–8 pounds (3–4 kg). This is largely due to the fact that twins are typically born premature . Premature birth and low birth weights, especially when under 3.5 pounds (1.6 kg), can increase the risk of several health-related issues, such as vision and hearing loss, mental disabilities, and cerebral palsy . There is an increased possibility of potential complications as the birth weight of the baby decreases. Twin-to-twin transfusion syndrome [ edit ] Main article: Twin-to-twin transfusion syndrome Monozygotic twins who share a placenta can develop twin-to-twin transfusion syndrome. This condition means that blood from one twin is being diverted into the other twin. One twin, the 'donor' twin, is small and anemic , the other, the 'recipient' twin, is large and polycythemic . The lives of both twins are endangered by this condition. Stillbirths [ edit ] Stillbirths occurs when a fetus dies after 20 weeks of gestation. There are two types of stillbirth, including intrauterine death and intrapartum death. Intrauterine death occurs when a baby dies during late pregnancy. Intrapartum death, which is more common, occurs when a baby dies while the mother is giving birth. The cause of stillbirth is often unknown, but the rate of babies who are stillborn is higher in twins and multiple births. Caesareans or inductions are advised after 38 weeks of pregnancy for twins, because the risk of stillbirth increases after this time. Management of birth [ edit ] For otherwise healthy twin pregnancies where both twins are head down a trial of vaginal delivery is recommended at between 37 and 38 weeks. Vaginal delivery in this case does not worsen the outcome for the infant as compared with Caesarean section . There is controversy on the best method of delivery where the first twin is head first and the second is not. When the first twin is not head down a caesarean section is often recommended. It is estimated that 75% of twin pregnancies in the United States were delivered by caesarean section in 2008. In comparison, the rate of caesarean section for all pregnancies in the general population varies between 14% and 40%. In twins that share the same placenta delivery may be considered at 36 weeks. Human twin studies [ edit ] Main article: Twin study Twin studies are utilized in an attempt to determine how much of a particular trait is attributable to either genetics or environmental influence. These studies compare monozygotic and dizygotic twins for medical , genetic , or psychological characteristics to try to isolate genetic influence from epigenetic and environmental influence. Twins that have been separated early in life and raised in separate households are especially sought-after for these studies, which have been used widely in the exploration of human nature . Classical twin studies are now being supplemented with molecular genetic studies which identify individual genes. Unusual twinnings [ edit ] Among dizygotic twins, in rare cases, the eggs are fertilized at different times with two or more acts of sexual intercourse, either within one menstrual cycle ( superfecundation ) or, even more rarely, later on in the pregnancy ( superfetation ). This can lead to the possibility of a woman carrying fraternal twins with different fathers (that is, half-siblings ). This phenomenon is known as heteropaternal superfecundation. One 1992 study estimates that the frequency of heteropaternal superfecundation among dizygotic twins, whose parents were involved in paternity suits, was approximately 2.4%; see the references section, below, for more details. Dizygotic twins from biracial couples can sometimes be mixed twins , which exhibit differing ethnic and racial features. One such pairing was born in Germany in 2008 to a white father from Germany and a black mother from Ghana. Heterotopic pregnancy is an exceedingly rare type of dizygotic twinning in which one twin implants in the uterus as normal and the other remains in the fallopian tube as an ectopic pregnancy . Ectopic pregnancies must be resolved because they can be life-threatening to the mother. However, in most cases, the intrauterine pregnancy can be salvaged. [ citation needed ] Among monozygotic twins, in extremely rare cases, twins have been born with different sexes (one male, one female). When monozygotic twins are born with different sexes it is because of chromosomal defects. There can be monozygotic boy/girl twins if the sex gene of the embryo has an extra x chromosome (the fertilized egg would be an xxy) then when the egg splits, one can have xx (girl) genes and one can have xy (boy) genes. This is rare, but possible. Records show there are only 10 known cases of these type twins. [ citation needed ] The probability of this is so small that multiples having different sexes is universally accepted as a sound basis for in utero clinical determination that the multiples are not monozygotic. Another abnormality that can result in monozygotic twins of different genders is if the egg is fertilized by a male sperm but during cell division only the X chromosome is duplicated. This results in one normal male (XY) and one female with Turner syndrome (45,X). In these cases, although the twins did form from the same fertilized egg, it is incorrect to refer to them as genetically identical, since they have different karyotypes . Semi-identical twins [ edit ] Monozygotic twins can develop differently, due to different genes being activated. More unusual are "semi-identical twins". These "half-identical twins" are hypothesized to occur when an unfertilized egg cleaves into two identical attached ova and which are viable for fertilization. Both cloned ova are then fertilized by different sperm and the coalesced eggs undergo further cell duplications developing as a chimeric blastomere . If this blastomere then undergoes a twinning event, two embryos will be formed, each of which have different paternal genes and identical maternal genes. This results in a set of twins with identical genes from the mother's side, but different genes from the father's side. Cells in each fetus carry genes from either sperm, resulting in chimeras . This form had been speculated until only recently being recorded in western medicine. Twin calves of the Hereford breed in Miles City, Montana Mirror image twins [ edit ] Mirror image twins result when a fertilized egg splits later in the embryonic stage than normal timing, around day 9–12. This type of twinning could exhibit characteristics with reversed asymmetry, such as opposite dominant handedness, dental structure, or even organs ( situs inversus ). If the split occurs later than this time period, the twins risk being conjoined. There is no DNA-based zygosity test that can determine if twins are indeed mirror image. Language development [ edit ] There have been many studies highlighting the development of language in twins compared to single-born children. These studies have converged on the notion that there is a greater rate of delay in language development in twins compared to their single-born counterparts. The reasons for this phenomenon are still in question; however, cryptophasia was thought to be the major cause. Idioglossia is defined as a private language that is usually invented by young children, specifically twins. Another term to describe what some people call "twin talk" is cryptophasia where a language is developed by twins that only they can understand. The increased focused communication between two twins may isolate them from the social environment surrounding them. Idioglossia has been found to be a rare occurrence and the attention of scientists has shifted away from this idea. However, there are researchers and scientists that say cryptophasia or idioglossia is not a rare phenomenon. Current research is looking into the impacts of a richer social environment for these twins to stimulate their development of language. Animals [ edit ] Twins are common in many animal species, including cats , sheep , ferrets , giant pandas , dogs , deer , marmosets , and tamarins . The incidence of twinning among cattle is about 1–4%, and research is under way to improve the odds of twinning, which can be more profitable for the breeder if complications can be sidestepped or managed. A female calf that is the twin of a bull becomes partially masculinized and is known as a freemartin . See also [ edit ] Multiple birth Litter (animal) Superfecundation Mixed twins Twin study List of multiple births List of twins Incest between twins Twins in mythology Gemini (astrology) Look-alike Doppelgänger Evil twin Twin towns and sister cities Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Twin ( category ) Look up twin in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Twins References [ edit ] Further reading [ edit ] Bacon, Kate. Twins in Society: Parents, Bodies, Space, and Talk (Palgrave Macmillan; 2010) 221 pages; explores the experience of child twins, adult twins, and parents of twins, with a focus on Britain. Nieuwint, Aggie; Van Zalen-Sprock, Rieteke; Hummel, Pieter; Pals, Gerard; Van Vugt, John; et al. (1999). " ' Identical' twins with discordant karyotypes". Prenatal Diagnosis . 19 (1): 72–6. doi : 10.1002/(SICI)1097-0223(199901)19:1<72::AID-PD465>3.0.CO;2-V . PMID 10073913 . Wenk RE, Houtz T, Brooks M, Chiafari FA (1992). "How frequent is heteropaternal superfecundation?". Acta geneticae medicae et gemellologiae . 41 (1): 43–7. PMID 1488855 . Girela, Eloy; Lorente, Jose A.; Alvarez, J. Carlos; Rodrigo, Maria D.; Lorente, Miguel; et al. (1997). "Indisputable double paternity in dizygous twins". Fertility and Sterility . 67 (6): 1159–61. doi : 10.1016/S0015-0282(97)81456-2 . PMID 9176461 . Shinwell ES, Reichman B, Lerner-Geva L, Boyko V, Blickstein I (September 2007). " " Masculinizing" effect on respiratory morbidity in girls from unlike-sex preterm twins: a possible transchorionic paracrine effect" . Pediatrics . 120 (3): e447–53. doi : 10.1542/peds.2006-3574 . PMID 17766488 . Retrieved 2008-10-06 . Lummaa V, Pettay JE, Russell AF (June 2007). "Male twins reduce fitness of female co-twins in humans" . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America . 104 (26): 10915–20. doi : 10.1073/pnas.0605875104 . PMC 1904168 . PMID 17576931 . Retrieved 2008-10-06 . Schein, Elyse; Paula Bernstein (2007). Identical Strangers: A Memoir of Twins Separated and Reunited . New York: Random House. ISBN 1-4000-6496-1 . OCLC 123390922 . Helle, Samuli; Virpi Lummaa; Jukka Jokela (2004). "Selection for Increased Brood Size in Historical Human Populations" (PDF) . Evolution . 58 (2): 430–436. doi : 10.1111/j.0014-3820.2004.tb01658.x . PMID 15068359 . Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-10-02 . Retrieved 2008-10-02 . "TWINS Guide to the First Year" (PDF) . Fort Collins, Colorado : TWINS Magazine. 2008. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-10-30 . Retrieved 2008-10-06 . Samson, Jennifer. "Facts About Multiples: An Encyclopedia of Multiple Birth Records" . Archived from the original on 2009-10-15 . Retrieved 2008-10-18 . Am J Med Genet C Semin Med Genet. 2009 May 15;151C(2):136-41. Not really identical: epigenetic differences in monozygotic twins and implications for twin studies in psychiatry. Haque FN, Gottesman II, Wong AH. Foundations [ edit ] Tamba, Twins and Multiple Births Association

train

a change in which new products are formed is called a

The substance (or substances) initially involved in a chemical reaction are called reactants or reagents. Chemical reactions are usually characterized by a chemical change, and they yield one or more products, which usually have properties different from the reactants. Reactions often consist of a sequence of individual sub-steps, the so - called elementary reactions, and the information on the precise course of action is part of the reaction mechanism. Chemical reactions are described with chemical equations, which symbolically present the starting materials, end products, and sometimes intermediate products and reaction conditions.

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ìyípadà tí a fi ń ṣe àwọn ohun tuntun ni a ń pè ní

Yes

['Idarapomora kemika nfa iyipada kemika wa, eyi le mu eso kan tabi pupo wa, ti ohun ini won yato si ti awon oludarapomora.']

['Idarapomora kemika nfa iyipada kemika wa, eyi le mu eso kan tabi pupo wa, ti ohun ini won yato si ti awon oludarapomora.']

['P1']

Idarapomora kemika Idarapomora kemika je igbese to n fa iyipada akojopo ohun kemika si omiran.[1] Awon idarapomora kemika je ohun ti awon onimo kemistri nko ninu papa sayensi to n je kemistri. Awon idarapomora kemika le je lojiji, ti ko fe okun/agbara kankan, tabi alaije lojiji, to le sele leyin igbati a ba se afikun iru okun/agbara kan sibe, fun apere igbona, imole tabi itanna. Awon idarapomora kemika je awon iyipada to je mo irin awon elektroni lati da tabi tuka awon isorapo kemika, botilejepe itumo gbogbogbo idarapomora kemika, agaga bo se je ti isodogba kemika, wulo fun iyipada awon egunrín ìpil?????, ati fun awon idarapomora tinuatomu. Ohun/awon ohun to bere idarapomora kemika ni a npe ni awon oludarapomora. Idarapomora kemika nfa iyipada kemika wa, eyi le mu eso kan tabi pupo wa, ti ohun ini won yato si ti awon oludarapomora. Oru omi Haidrojini oniklorini ninu igo ati ammonia ninu igo idanwo pade lati da isu ohun tuntun, amoniomu oniklorini

A thermite reaction using iron(III) oxide. The sparks flying outwards are globules of molten iron trailing smoke in their wake. A chemical reaction is a process that leads to the transformation of one set of chemical substances to another. Classically, chemical reactions encompass changes that only involve the positions of electrons in the forming and breaking of chemical bonds between atoms , with no change to the nuclei (no change to the elements present), and can often be described by a chemical equation . Nuclear chemistry is a sub-discipline of chemistry that involves the chemical reactions of unstable and radioactive elements where both electronic and nuclear changes can occur. The substance (or substances) initially involved in a chemical reaction are called reactants or reagents . Chemical reactions are usually characterized by a chemical change , and they yield one or more products , which usually have properties different from the reactants. Reactions often consist of a sequence of individual sub-steps, the so-called elementary reactions , and the information on the precise course of action is part of the reaction mechanism . Chemical reactions are described with chemical equations , which symbolically present the starting materials, end products, and sometimes intermediate products and reaction conditions. Chemical reactions happen at a characteristic reaction rate at a given temperature and chemical concentration. Typically, reaction rates increase with increasing temperature because there is more thermal energy available to reach the activation energy necessary for breaking bonds between atoms. Reactions may proceed in the forward or reverse direction until they go to completion or reach equilibrium. Reactions that proceed in the forward direction to approach equilibrium are often described as spontaneous , requiring no input of free energy to go forward. Non-spontaneous reactions require input of free energy to go forward (examples include charging a battery by applying an external electrical power source, or photosynthesis driven by absorption of electromagnetic radiation in the form of sunlight). Different chemical reactions are used in combinations during chemical synthesis in order to obtain a desired product. In biochemistry , a consecutive series of chemical reactions (where the product of one reaction is the reactant of the next reaction) form metabolic pathways . These reactions are often catalyzed by protein enzymes . Enzymes increase the rates of biochemical reactions, so that metabolic syntheses and decompositions impossible under ordinary conditions can occur at the temperatures and concentrations present within a cell . The general concept of a chemical reaction has been extended to reactions between entities smaller than atoms, including nuclear reactions , radioactive decays , and reactions between elementary particles , as described by quantum field theory . Contents [ hide ] 1 History 2 Equations 3 Elementary reactions 4 Chemical equilibrium 5 Thermodynamics 6 Kinetics 7 Reaction types 7.1 Four basic types 7.1.1 Synthesis 7.1.2 Decomposition 7.1.3 Single replacement 7.1.4 Double replacement 7.2 Oxidation and reduction 7.3 Complexation 7.4 Acid-base reactions 7.5 Precipitation 7.6 Solid-state reactions 7.7 Reactions at the solid|gas interface 7.8 Photochemical reactions 8 Catalysis 9 Reactions in organic chemistry 9.1 Substitution 9.2 Addition and elimination 9.3 Other organic reaction mechanisms 10 Biochemical reactions 11 Applications 12 Monitoring 13 See also 14 References 15 Bibliography History [ edit ] Antoine Lavoisier developed the theory of combustion as a chemical reaction with oxygen. Chemical reactions such as combustion in fire, fermentation and the reduction of ores to metals were known since antiquity. Initial theories of transformation of materials were developed by Greek philosophers, such as the Four-Element Theory of Empedocles stating that any substance is composed of the four basic elements – fire, water, air and earth. In the Middle Ages, chemical transformations were studied by Alchemists . They attempted, in particular, to convert lead into gold , for which purpose they used reactions of lead and lead-copper alloys with sulfur . The production of chemical substances that do not normally occur in nature has long been tried, such as the synthesis of sulfuric and nitric acids attributed to the controversial alchemist Jābir ibn Hayyān . The process involved heating of sulfate and nitrate minerals such as copper sulfate , alum and saltpeter . In the 17th century, Johann Rudolph Glauber produced hydrochloric acid and sodium sulfate by reacting sulfuric acid and sodium chloride . With the development of the lead chamber process in 1746 and the Leblanc process , allowing large-scale production of sulfuric acid and sodium carbonate , respectively, chemical reactions became implemented into the industry. Further optimization of sulfuric acid technology resulted in the contact process in the 1880s, and the Haber process was developed in 1909–1910 for ammonia synthesis. From the 16th century, researchers including Jan Baptist van Helmont , Robert Boyle , and Isaac Newton tried to establish theories of the experimentally observed chemical transformations. The phlogiston theory was proposed in 1667 by Johann Joachim Becher . It postulated the existence of a fire-like element called "phlogiston", which was contained within combustible bodies and released during combustion . This proved to be false in 1785 by Antoine Lavoisier who found the correct explanation of the combustion as reaction with oxygen from the air. Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac recognized in 1808 that gases always react in a certain relationship with each other. Based on this idea and the atomic theory of John Dalton , Joseph Proust had developed the law of definite proportions , which later resulted in the concepts of stoichiometry and chemical equations . Regarding the organic chemistry , it was long believed that compounds obtained from living organisms were too complex to be obtained synthetically . According to the concept of vitalism , organic matter was endowed with a "vital force" and distinguished from inorganic materials. This separation was ended however by the synthesis of urea from inorganic precursors by Friedrich Wöhler in 1828. Other chemists who brought major contributions to organic chemistry include Alexander William Williamson with his synthesis of ethers and Christopher Kelk Ingold , who, among many discoveries, established the mechanisms of substitution reactions . Equations [ edit ] As seen from the equation CH 4 + 2 O 2 → CO 2 + 2 H 2 O , a coefficient of 2 must be placed before the oxygen gas on the reactants side and before the water on the products side in order for, as per the law of conservation of mass, the quantity of each element does not change during the reaction Main article: Chemical equation Chemical equations are used to graphically illustrate chemical reactions. They consist of chemical or structural formulas of the reactants on the left and those of the products on the right. They are separated by an arrow (→) which indicates the direction and type of the reaction; the arrow is read as the word "yields". The tip of the arrow points in the direction in which the reaction proceeds. A double arrow (⇌) pointing in opposite directions is used for equilibrium reactions . Equations should be balanced according to the stoichiometry , the number of atoms of each species should be the same on both sides of the equation. This is achieved by scaling the number of involved molecules ( A , B , C {\displaystyle {\ce {A, B, C}}} and D {\displaystyle {\ce {D}}} in a schematic example below) by the appropriate integers a, b, c and d . a A + b B ⟶ c C + d D {\displaystyle {\ce {{{\mathit {a}}A}+{\mathit {b}}B->{{\mathit {c}}C}+{\mathit {d}}D}}} More elaborate reactions are represented by reaction schemes, which in addition to starting materials and products show important intermediates or transition states . Also, some relatively minor additions to the reaction can be indicated above the reaction arrow; examples of such additions are water, heat, illumination, a catalyst, etc. Similarly, some minor products can be placed below the arrow, often with a minus sign. An example of organic reaction: oxidation of ketones to esters with a peroxycarboxylic acid Retrosynthetic analysis can be applied to design a complex synthesis reaction. Here the analysis starts from the products, for example by splitting selected chemical bonds, to arrive at plausible initial reagents. A special arrow (⇒) is used in retro reactions. Elementary reactions [ edit ] The elementary reaction is the smallest division into which a chemical reaction can be decomposed, it has no intermediate products. Most experimentally observed reactions are built up from many elementary reactions that occur in parallel or sequentially. The actual sequence of the individual elementary reactions is known as reaction mechanism . An elementary reaction involves a few molecules, usually one or two, because of the low probability for several molecules to meet at a certain time. Isomerization of azobenzene , induced by light (hν) or heat (Δ) The most important elementary reactions are unimolecular and bimolecular reactions. Only one molecule is involved in a unimolecular reaction; it is transformed by an isomerization or a dissociation into one or more other molecules. Such reactions require the addition of energy in the form of heat or light. A typical example of a unimolecular reaction is the cis–trans isomerization , in which the cis-form of a compound converts to the trans-form or vice versa. In a typical dissociation reaction, a bond in a molecule splits ( ruptures ) resulting in two molecular fragments. The splitting can be homolytic or heterolytic . In the first case, the bond is divided so that each product retains an electron and becomes a neutral radical . In the second case, both electrons of the chemical bond remain with one of the products, resulting in charged ions . Dissociation plays an important role in triggering chain reactions , such as hydrogen–oxygen or polymerization reactions. AB ⟶ A + B {\displaystyle {\ce {AB -> A + B}}} Dissociation of a molecule AB into fragments A and B For bimolecular reactions, two molecules collide and react with each other. Their merger is called chemical synthesis or an addition reaction . A + B ⟶ AB {\displaystyle {\ce {A + B -> AB}}} Another possibility is that only a portion of one molecule is transferred to the other molecule. This type of reaction occurs, for example, in redox and acid-base reactions. In redox reactions, the transferred particle is an electron, whereas in acid-base reactions it is a proton. This type of reaction is also called metathesis . HA + B ⟶ A + HB {\displaystyle {\ce {HA + B -> A + HB}}} for example NaCl + AgNO 3 ⟶ NaNO 3 + AgCl ↓ {\displaystyle {\ce {NaCl + AgNO3 -> NaNO3 + AgCl(v)}}} Chemical equilibrium [ edit ] Main article: Chemical equilibrium Most chemical reactions are reversible, that is they can and do run in both directions. The forward and reverse reactions are competing with each other and differ in reaction rates . These rates depend on the concentration and therefore change with time of the reaction: the reverse rate gradually increases and becomes equal to the rate of the forward reaction, establishing the so-called chemical equilibrium. The time to reach equilibrium depends on such parameters as temperature, pressure and the materials involved, and is determined by the minimum free energy . In equilibrium, the Gibbs free energy must be zero. The pressure dependence can be explained with the Le Chatelier's principle . For example, an increase in pressure due to decreasing volume causes the reaction to shift to the side with the fewer moles of gas. The reaction yield stabilizes at equilibrium, but can be increased by removing the product from the reaction mixture or changed by increasing the temperature or pressure. A change in the concentrations of the reactants does not affect the equilibrium constant, but does affect the equilibrium position. Thermodynamics [ edit ] Chemical reactions are determined by the laws of thermodynamics . Reactions can proceed by themselves if they are exergonic , that is if they release energy. The associated free energy of the reaction is composed of two different thermodynamic quantities, enthalpy and entropy : Δ G = Δ H − T ⋅ Δ S {\displaystyle \Delta G=\Delta H-T\cdot \Delta S} . G : free energy, H : enthalpy, T : temperature, S : entropy, Δ : difference(change between original and product) Reactions can be exothermic , where ΔH is negative and energy is released. Typical examples of exothermic reactions are precipitation and crystallization , in which ordered solids are formed from disordered gaseous or liquid phases. In contrast, in endothermic reactions, heat is consumed from the environment. This can occur by increasing the entropy of the system, often through the formation of gaseous reaction products, which have high entropy. Since the entropy increases with temperature, many endothermic reactions preferably take place at high temperatures. On the contrary, many exothermic reactions such as crystallization occur at low temperatures. Changes in temperature can sometimes reverse the sign of the enthalpy of a reaction, as for the carbon monoxide reduction of molybdenum dioxide : 2 CO ( g ) + MoO 2 ( s ) ⟶ 2 CO 2 ( g ) + Mo ( s ) {\displaystyle {\ce {2CO(g) + MoO2(s) -> 2CO2(g) + Mo(s)}}} ; Δ H o = + 21.86 kJ at 298 K {\displaystyle \Delta H^{o}=+21.86\ {\text{kJ at 298 K}}} This reaction to form carbon dioxide and molybdenum is endothermic at low temperatures, becoming less so with increasing temperature. ΔH° is zero at 7003185500000000000♠ 1855 K , and the reaction becomes exothermic above that temperature. Changes in temperature can also reverse the direction tendency of a reaction. For example, the water gas shift reaction CO ( g ) + H 2 O ( v ) ↽ − − ⇀ CO 2 ( g ) + H 2 ( g ) {\displaystyle {\ce {CO(g) + H2O({v}) <=> CO2(g) + H2(g)}}} is favored by low temperatures, but its reverse is favored by high temperature. The shift in reaction direction tendency occurs at 7003110000000000000♠ 1100 K . Reactions can also be characterized by the internal energy which takes into account changes in the entropy, volume and chemical potential . The latter depends, among other things, on the activities of the involved substances. d U = T ⋅ d S − p ⋅ d V + μ ⋅ d n {\displaystyle {d}U=T\cdot {d}S-p\cdot {d}V+\mu \cdot {d}n} U : internal energy, S : entropy, p : pressure, μ : chemical potential, n : number of molecules, d : small change sign Kinetics [ edit ] The speed at which reactions takes place is studied by reaction kinetics . The rate depends on various parameters, such as: Reactant concentrations, which usually make the reaction happen at a faster rate if raised through increased collisions per unit time. Some reactions, however, have rates that are independent of reactant concentrations. These are called zero order reactions . Surface area available for contact between the reactants, in particular solid ones in heterogeneous systems. Larger surface areas lead to higher reaction rates. Pressure – increasing the pressure decreases the volume between molecules and therefore increases the frequency of collisions between the molecules. Activation energy , which is defined as the amount of energy required to make the reaction start and carry on spontaneously. Higher activation energy implies that the reactants need more energy to start than a reaction with a lower activation energy. Temperature , which hastens reactions if raised, since higher temperature increases the energy of the molecules, creating more collisions per unit time, The presence or absence of a catalyst . Catalysts are substances which change the pathway (mechanism) of a reaction which in turn increases the speed of a reaction by lowering the activation energy needed for the reaction to take place. A catalyst is not destroyed or changed during a reaction, so it can be used again. For some reactions, the presence of electromagnetic radiation , most notably ultraviolet light , is needed to promote the breaking of bonds to start the reaction. This is particularly true for reactions involving radicals . Several theories allow calculating the reaction rates at the molecular level. This field is referred to as reaction dynamics. The rate v of a first-order reaction , which could be disintegration of a substance A, is given by: v = − d [ A ] d t = k ⋅ [ A ] . {\displaystyle v=-{\frac {d[{\ce {A}}]}{dt}}=k\cdot [{\ce {A}}].} Its integration yields: [ A ] ( t ) = [ A ] 0 ⋅ e − k ⋅ t . {\displaystyle {{\ce {[A]}}}(t)={{\ce {[A]}}}_{0}\cdot e^{-k\cdot t}.} Here k is first-order rate constant having dimension 1/time, [A](t) is concentration at a time t and [A] 0 is the initial concentration. The rate of a first-order reaction depends only on the concentration and the properties of the involved substance, and the reaction itself can be described with the characteristic half-life . More than one time constant is needed when describing reactions of higher order. The temperature dependence of the rate constant usually follows the Arrhenius equation : k = k 0 e − E a / k B T {\displaystyle k=k_{0}e^{{-E_{a}}/{k_{B}T}}} where E a is the activation energy and k B is the Boltzmann constant . One of the simplest models of reaction rate is the collision theory . More realistic models are tailored to a specific problem and include the transition state theory , the calculation of the potential energy surface , the Marcus theory and the Rice–Ramsperger–Kassel–Marcus (RRKM) theory . Reaction types [ edit ] Four basic types [ edit ] Representation of four basic chemical reactions types: synthesis, decomposition, single replacement and double replacement. Synthesis [ edit ] Main article: Synthesis reaction In a synthesis reaction, two or more simple substances combine to form a more complex substance. These reactions are in the general form: A + B ⟶ AB {\displaystyle {\ce {A + B -> AB}}} Two or more reactants yielding one product is another way to identify a synthesis reaction. One example of a synthesis reaction is the combination of iron and sulfur to form iron(II) sulfide : 8 Fe + S 8 ⟶ 8 FeS {\displaystyle {\ce {8Fe + S8 -> 8FeS}}} Another example is simple hydrogen gas combined with simple oxygen gas to produce a more complex substance, such as water. Decomposition [ edit ] Main article: Decomposition reaction A decomposition reaction is when a more complex substance breaks down into its more simple parts. It is thus the opposite of a synthesis reaction, and can be written as AB ⟶ A + B {\displaystyle {\ce {AB -> A + B}}} One example of a decomposition reaction is the electrolysis of water to make oxygen and hydrogen gas: 2 H 2 O ⟶ 2 H 2 + O 2 {\displaystyle {\ce {2H2O -> 2H2 + O2}}} Single replacement [ edit ] In a single replacement reaction , a single uncombined element replaces another in a compound; in other words, one element trades places with another element in a compound These reactions come in the general form of: A + BC ⟶ AC + B {\displaystyle {\ce {A + BC -> AC + B}}} One example of a single displacement reaction is when magnesium replaces hydrogen in water to make magnesium hydroxide and hydrogen gas: Mg + 2 H 2 O ⟶ Mg ( OH ) 2 + H 2 ↑ {\displaystyle {\ce {{Mg}+2H2O->{Mg(OH)2}+H2{\uparrow }}}} Double replacement [ edit ] In a double replacement reaction , the anions and cations of two compounds switch places and form two entirely different compounds. These reactions are in the general form: AB + CD ⟶ AD + CB {\displaystyle {\ce {AB + CD -> AD + CB}}} For example, when barium chloride (BaCl 2 ) and magnesium sulfate (MgSO 4 ) react, the SO 4 2− anion switches places with the 2Cl − anion, giving the compounds BaSO 4 and MgCl 2 . Another example of a double displacement reaction is the reaction of lead(II) nitrate with potassium iodide to form lead(II) iodide and potassium nitrate : Pb ( NO 3 ) 2 + 2 KI ⟶ PbI 2 ↓ + 2 KNO 3 {\displaystyle {\ce {Pb(NO3)2 + 2KI -> PbI2(v) + 2KNO3}}} Oxidation and reduction [ edit ] Illustration of a redox reaction Sodium chloride is formed through the redox reaction of sodium metal and chlorine gas Redox reactions can be understood in terms of transfer of electrons from one involved species ( reducing agent ) to another ( oxidizing agent ). In this process, the former species is oxidized and the latter is reduced . Though sufficient for many purposes, these descriptions are not precisely correct. Oxidation is better defined as an increase in oxidation state , and reduction as a decrease in oxidation state. In practice, the transfer of electrons will always change the oxidation state, but there are many reactions that are classed as "redox" even though no electron transfer occurs (such as those involving covalent bonds). In the following redox reaction, hazardous sodium metal reacts with toxic chlorine gas to form the ionic compound sodium chloride , or common table salt: 2 Na ( s ) + Cl 2 ( g ) ⟶ 2 NaCl ( s ) {\displaystyle {\ce {2Na(s) + Cl2(g) -> 2NaCl(s)}}} In the reaction, sodium metal goes from an oxidation state of 0 (as it is a pure element) to +1: in other words, the sodium lost one electron and is said to have been oxidized. On the other hand, the chlorine gas goes from an oxidation of 0 (it is also a pure element) to −1: the chlorine gains one electron and is said to have been reduced. Because the chlorine is the one reduced, it is considered the electron acceptor, or in other words, induces oxidation in the sodium – thus the chlorine gas is considered the oxidizing agent. Conversely, the sodium is oxidized or is the electron donor, and thus induces reduction in the other species and is considered the reducing agent . Which of the involved reactants would be reducing or oxidizing agent can be predicted from the electronegativity of their elements. Elements with low electronegativity, such as most metals, easily donate electrons and oxidize – they are reducing agents. On the contrary, many ions with high oxidation numbers, such as H 2 O 2 , MnO − 4 , CrO 3 , Cr 2 O 2− 7 , OsO 4 can gain one or two extra electrons and are strong oxidizing agents. The number of electrons donated or accepted in a redox reaction can be predicted from the electron configuration of the reactant element. Elements try to reach the low-energy noble gas configuration, and therefore alkali metals and halogens will donate and accept one electron respectively. Noble gases themselves are chemically inactive. An important class of redox reactions are the electrochemical reactions, where electrons from the power supply are used as the reducing agent. These reactions are particularly important for the production of chemical elements, such as chlorine or aluminium . The reverse process in which electrons are released in redox reactions and can be used as electrical energy is possible and used in batteries. Complexation [ edit ] Ferrocene – an iron atom sandwiched between two C 5 H 5 ligands In complexation reactions, several ligands react with a metal atom to form a coordination complex . This is achieved by providing lone pairs of the ligand into empty orbitals of the metal atom and forming dipolar bonds . The ligands are Lewis bases , they can be both ions and neutral molecules, such as carbon monoxide, ammonia or water. The number of ligands that react with a central metal atom can be found using the 18-electron rule , saying that the valence shells of a transition metal will collectively accommodate 18 electrons , whereas the symmetry of the resulting complex can be predicted with the crystal field theory and ligand field theory . Complexation reactions also include ligand exchange , in which one or more ligands are replaced by another, and redox processes which change the oxidation state of the central metal atom. Acid-base reactions [ edit ] In the Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory , an acid-base reaction involves a transfer of protons (H + ) from one species (the acid ) to another (the base ). When a proton is removed from an acid, the resulting species is termed that acid's conjugate base . When the proton is accepted by a base, the resulting species is termed that base's conjugate acid . In other words, acids act as proton donors and bases act as proton acceptors according to the following equation: HA acid + B base ↽ − − ⇀ A − conjugated base + HB + conjugated acid {\displaystyle {\ce {{\underset {acid}{HA}}+{\underset {base}{B}}<=>{\underset {conjugated\ base}{A^{-}}}+{\underset {conjugated\ acid}{HB+}}}}} The reverse reaction is possible, and thus the acid/base and conjugated base/acid are always in equilibrium. The equilibrium is determined by the acid and base dissociation constants ( K a and K b ) of the involved substances. A special case of the acid-base reaction is the neutralization where an acid and a base, taken at exactly same amounts, form a neutral salt . Acid-base reactions can have different definitions depending on the acid-base concept employed. Some of the most common are: Arrhenius definition: Acids dissociate in water releasing H 3 O + ions; bases dissociate in water releasing OH − ions. Brønsted-Lowry definition: Acids are proton (H + ) donors, bases are proton acceptors; this includes the Arrhenius definition. Lewis definition: Acids are electron-pair acceptors, bases are electron-pair donors; this includes the Brønsted-Lowry definition. Precipitation [ edit ] Precipitation Precipitation is the formation of a solid in a solution or inside another solid during a chemical reaction. It usually takes place when the concentration of dissolved ions exceeds the solubility limit and forms an insoluble salt. This process can be assisted by adding a precipitating agent or by removal of the solvent. Rapid precipitation results in an amorphous or microcrystalline residue and slow process can yield single crystals . The latter can also be obtained by recrystallization from microcrystalline salts. Solid-state reactions [ edit ] Reactions can take place between two solids. However, because of the relatively small diffusion rates in solids, the corresponding chemical reactions are very slow in comparison to liquid and gas phase reactions. They are accelerated by increasing the reaction temperature and finely dividing the reactant to increase the contacting surface area. Reactions at the solid|gas interface [ edit ] Reaction can take place at the solid|gas interface, surfaces at very low pressure such as ultra-high vacuum . Via scanning tunneling microscopy , it is possible to observe reactions at the solid|gas interface in real space, if the time scale of the reaction is in the correct range. Reactions at the solid|gas interface are in some cases related to catalysis. Photochemical reactions [ edit ] In this Paterno–Büchi reaction , a photoexcited carbonyl group is added to an unexcited olefin , yielding an oxetane . In photochemical reactions , atoms and molecules absorb energy ( photons ) of the illumination light and convert into an excited state . They can then release this energy by breaking chemical bonds, thereby producing radicals. Photochemical reactions include hydrogen–oxygen reactions, radical polymerization , chain reactions and rearrangement reactions . Many important processes involve photochemistry. The premier example is photosynthesis , in which most plants use solar energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose , disposing of oxygen as a side-product. Humans rely on photochemistry for the formation of vitamin D, and vision is initiated by a photochemical reaction of rhodopsin . In fireflies , an enzyme in the abdomen catalyzes a reaction that results in bioluminescence . Many significant photochemical reactions, such as ozone formation, occur in the Earth atmosphere and constitute atmospheric chemistry . Catalysis [ edit ] Main article: Catalysis Further information: Reaction Progress Kinetic Analysis Schematic potential energy diagram showing the effect of a catalyst in an endothermic chemical reaction. The presence of a catalyst opens a different reaction pathway (in red) with a lower activation energy. The final result and the overall thermodynamics are the same. Solid heterogeneous catalysts are plated on meshes in ceramic catalytic converters in order to maximize their surface area. This exhaust converter is from a Peugeot 106 S2 1100 In catalysis , the reaction does not proceed directly, but through reaction with a third substance known as catalyst . Although the catalyst takes part in the reaction, it is returned to its original state by the end of the reaction and so is not consumed. However, it can be inhibited, deactivated or destroyed by secondary processes. Catalysts can be used in a different phase ( heterogeneous ) or in the same phase ( homogeneous ) as the reactants. In heterogeneous catalysis, typical secondary processes include coking where the catalyst becomes covered by polymeric side products. Additionally, heterogeneous catalysts can dissolve into the solution in a solid–liquid system or evaporate in a solid–gas system. Catalysts can only speed up the reaction – chemicals that slow down the reaction are called inhibitors. Substances that increase the activity of catalysts are called promoters, and substances that deactivate catalysts are called catalytic poisons. With a catalyst, a reaction which is kinetically inhibited by a high activation energy can take place in circumvention of this activation energy. Heterogeneous catalysts are usually solids, powdered in order to maximize their surface area. Of particular importance in heterogeneous catalysis are the platinum group metals and other transition metals, which are used in hydrogenations , catalytic reforming and in the synthesis of commodity chemicals such as nitric acid and ammonia . Acids are an example of a homogeneous catalyst, they increase the nucleophilicity of carbonyls , allowing a reaction that would not otherwise proceed with electrophiles. The advantage of homogeneous catalysts is the ease of mixing them with the reactants, but they may also be difficult to separate from the products. Therefore, heterogeneous catalysts are preferred in many industrial processes. Reactions in organic chemistry [ edit ] Main article: Organic reaction In organic chemistry, in addition to oxidation, reduction or acid-base reactions, a number of other reactions can take place which involve covalent bonds between carbon atoms or carbon and heteroatoms (such as oxygen, nitrogen, halogens , etc.). Many specific reactions in organic chemistry are name reactions designated after their discoverers. Substitution [ edit ] In a substitution reaction , a functional group in a particular chemical compound is replaced by another group. These reactions can be distinguished by the type of substituting species into a nucleophilic , electrophilic or radical substitution . S N 1 mechanism S N 2 mechanism In the first type, a nucleophile , an atom or molecule with an excess of electrons and thus a negative charge or partial charge , replaces another atom or part of the "substrate" molecule. The electron pair from the nucleophile attacks the substrate forming a new bond, while the leaving group departs with an electron pair. The nucleophile may be electrically neutral or negatively charged, whereas the substrate is typically neutral or positively charged. Examples of nucleophiles are hydroxide ion, alkoxides , amines and halides . This type of reaction is found mainly in aliphatic hydrocarbons , and rarely in aromatic hydrocarbon . The latter have high electron density and enter nucleophilic aromatic substitution only with very strong electron withdrawing groups . Nucleophilic substitution can take place by two different mechanisms, S N 1 and S N 2 . In their names, S stands for substitution, N for nucleophilic, and the number represents the kinetic order of the reaction, unimolecular or bimolecular. The three steps of an S N 2 reaction . The nucleophile is green and the leaving group is red S N 2 reaction causes stereo inversion (Walden inversion) The S N 1 reaction proceeds in two steps. First, the leaving group is eliminated creating a carbocation . This is followed by a rapid reaction with the nucleophile. In the S N 2 mechanism, the nucleophile forms a transition state with the attacked molecule, and only then the leaving group is cleaved. These two mechanisms differ in the stereochemistry of the products. S N 1 leads to the non-stereospecific addition and does not result in a chiral center, but rather in a set of geometric isomers ( cis/trans ). In contrast, a reversal ( Walden inversion ) of the previously existing stereochemistry is observed in the S N 2 mechanism. Electrophilic substitution is the counterpart of the nucleophilic substitution in that the attacking atom or molecule, an electrophile , has low electron density and thus a positive charge. Typical electrophiles are the carbon atom of carbonyl groups , carbocations or sulfur or nitronium cations. This reaction takes place almost exclusively in aromatic hydrocarbons, where it is called electrophilic aromatic substitution . The electrophile attack results in the so-called σ-complex, a transition state in which the aromatic system is abolished. Then, the leaving group, usually a proton, is split off and the aromaticity is restored. An alternative to aromatic substitution is electrophilic aliphatic substitution. It is similar to the nucleophilic aliphatic substitution and also has two major types, S E 1 and S E 2 Mechanism of electrophilic aromatic substitution In the third type of substitution reaction, radical substitution, the attacking particle is a radical . This process usually takes the form of a chain reaction , for example in the reaction of alkanes with halogens. In the first step, light or heat disintegrates the halogen-containing molecules producing the radicals. Then the reaction proceeds as an avalanche until two radicals meet and recombine. X ⋅ + R − H ⟶ X − H + R ⋅ {\displaystyle {\ce {X. + R-H -> X-H + R.}}} R ⋅ + X 2 ⟶ R − X + X ⋅ {\displaystyle {\ce {R. + X2 -> R-X + X.}}} Reactions during the chain reaction of radical substitution Addition and elimination [ edit ] The addition and its counterpart, the elimination , are reactions which change the number of substitutents on the carbon atom, and form or cleave multiple bonds . Double and triple bonds can be produced by eliminating a suitable leaving group. Similar to the nucleophilic substitution, there are several possible reaction mechanisms which are named after the respective reaction order. In the E1 mechanism, the leaving group is ejected first, forming a carbocation. The next step, formation of the double bond, takes place with elimination of a proton ( deprotonation ). The leaving order is reversed in the E1cb mechanism, that is the proton is split off first. This mechanism requires participation of a base. Because of the similar conditions, both reactions in the E1 or E1cb elimination always compete with the S N 1 substitution. E1 elimination E1cb elimination E2 elimination The E2 mechanism also requires a base, but there the attack of the base and the elimination of the leaving group proceed simultaneously and produce no ionic intermediate. In contrast to the E1 eliminations, different stereochemical configurations are possible for the reaction product in the E2 mechanism, because the attack of the base preferentially occurs in the anti-position with respect to the leaving group. Because of the similar conditions and reagents, the E2 elimination is always in competition with the S N 2-substitution. Electrophilic addition of hydrogen bromide The counterpart of elimination is the addition where double or triple bonds are converted into single bonds. Similar to the substitution reactions, there are several types of additions distinguished by the type of the attacking particle. For example, in the electrophilic addition of hydrogen bromide, an electrophile (proton) attacks the double bond forming a carbocation , which then reacts with the nucleophile (bromine). The carbocation can be formed on either side of the double bond depending on the groups attached to its ends, and the preferred configuration can be predicted with the Markovnikov's rule . This rule states that "In the heterolytic addition of a polar molecule to an alkene or alkyne, the more electronegative (nucleophilic) atom (or part) of the polar molecule becomes attached to the carbon atom bearing the smaller number of hydrogen atoms." If the addition of a functional group takes place at the less substituted carbon atom of the double bond, then the electrophilic substitution with acids is not possible. In this case, one has to use the hydroboration–oxidation reaction , where in the first step, the boron atom acts as electrophile and adds to the less substituted carbon atom. At the second step, the nucleophilic hydroperoxide or halogen anion attacks the boron atom. While the addition to the electron-rich alkenes and alkynes is mainly electrophilic, the nucleophilic addition plays an important role for the carbon-heteroatom multiple bonds, and especially its most important representative, the carbonyl group. This process is often associated with an elimination, so that after the reaction the carbonyl group is present again. It is therefore called addition-elimination reaction and may occur in carboxylic acid derivatives such as chlorides, esters or anhydrides. This reaction is often catalyzed by acids or bases, where the acids increase by the electrophilicity of the carbonyl group by binding to the oxygen atom, whereas the bases enhance the nucleophilicity of the attacking nucleophile. Acid-catalyzed addition-elimination mechanism Nucleophilic addition of a carbanion or another nucleophile to the double bond of an alpha, beta unsaturated carbonyl compound can proceed via the Michael reaction , which belongs to the larger class of conjugate additions . This is one of the most useful methods for the mild formation of C–C bonds. Some additions which can not be executed with nucleophiles and electrophiles, can be succeeded with free radicals. As with the free-radical substitution, the radical addition proceeds as a chain reaction, and such reactions are the basis of the free-radical polymerization . Other organic reaction mechanisms [ edit ] The Cope rearrangement of 3-methyl-1,5-hexadiene Mechanism of a Diels-Alder reaction Orbital overlap in a Diels-Alder reaction In a rearrangement reaction , the carbon skeleton of a molecule is rearranged to give a structural isomer of the original molecule. These include hydride shift reactions such as the Wagner-Meerwein rearrangement , where a hydrogen , alkyl or aryl group migrates from one carbon to a neighboring carbon. Most rearrangements are associated with the breaking and formation of new carbon-carbon bonds. Other examples are sigmatropic reaction such as the Cope rearrangement . Cyclic rearrangements include cycloadditions and, more generally, pericyclic reactions , wherein two or more double bond-containing molecules form a cyclic molecule. An important example of cycloaddition reaction is the Diels–Alder reaction (the so-called [4+2] cycloaddition) between a conjugated diene and a substituted alkene to form a substituted cyclohexene system. Whether a certain cycloaddition would proceed depends on the electronic orbitals of the participating species, as only orbitals with the same sign of wave function will overlap and interact constructively to form new bonds. Cycloaddition is usually assisted by light or heat. These perturbations result in different arrangement of electrons in the excited state of the involved molecules and therefore in different effects. For example, the [4+2] Diels-Alder reactions can be assisted by heat whereas the [2+2] cycloaddition is selectively induced by light. Because of the orbital character, the potential for developing stereoisomeric products upon cycloaddition is limited, as described by the Woodward–Hoffmann rules . Biochemical reactions [ edit ] Illustration of the induced fit model of enzyme activity Biochemical reactions are mainly controlled by enzymes . These proteins can specifically catalyze a single reaction, so that reactions can be controlled very precisely. The reaction takes place in the active site , a small part of the enzyme which is usually found in a cleft or pocket lined by amino acid residues, and the rest of the enzyme is used mainly for stabilization. The catalytic action of enzymes relies on several mechanisms including the molecular shape ("induced fit"), bond strain, proximity and orientation of molecules relative to the enzyme, proton donation or withdrawal (acid/base catalysis), electrostatic interactions and many others. The biochemical reactions that occur in living organisms are collectively known as metabolism . Among the most important of its mechanisms is the anabolism , in which different DNA and enzyme-controlled processes result in the production of large molecules such as proteins and carbohydrates from smaller units. Bioenergetics studies the sources of energy for such reactions. An important energy source is glucose , which can be produced by plants via photosynthesis or assimilated from food. All organisms use this energy to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which can then be used to energize other reactions. Applications [ edit ] Thermite reaction proceeding in railway welding. Shortly after this, the liquid iron flows into the mould around the rail gap Chemical reactions are central to chemical engineering where they are used for the synthesis of new compounds from natural raw materials such as petroleum and mineral ores . It is essential to make the reaction as efficient as possible, maximizing the yield and minimizing the amount of reagents, energy inputs and waste. Catalysts are especially helpful for reducing the energy required for the reaction and increasing its reaction rate . Some specific reactions have their niche applications. For example, the thermite reaction is used to generate light and heat in pyrotechnics and welding . Although it is less controllable than the more conventional oxy-fuel welding , arc welding and flash welding , it requires much less equipment and is still used to mend rails, especially in remote areas. Monitoring [ edit ] Mechanisms of monitoring chemical reactions depend strongly on the reaction rate. Relatively slow processes can be analyzed in situ for the concentrations and identities of the individual ingredients. Important tools of real time analysis are the measurement of pH and analysis of optical absorption (color) and emission spectra. A less accessible but rather efficient method is introduction of a radioactive isotope into the reaction and monitoring how it changes over time and where it moves to; this method is often used to analyze redistribution of substances in the human body. Faster reactions are usually studied with ultrafast laser spectroscopy where utilization of femtosecond lasers allows short-lived transition states to be monitored at time scaled down to a few femtoseconds. See also [ edit ] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Chemical reaction Chemical reaction Substrate Reagent Catalyst Product Chemical reaction model Chemist Chemistry Limiting reagent List of organic reactions Organic reaction Reaction progress kinetic analysis Combustion Mass balance References [ edit ] Bibliography [ edit ] Atkins, Peter W.; Julio de Paula (2006). Physical Chemistry (4th ed.). Weinheim: Wiley-VCH . ISBN 978-3-527-31546-8 . Brock, William H. (1997). Viewegs Geschichte der Chemie (in German). Braunschweig: Vieweg . ISBN 3-540-67033-5 . Brückner, Reinhard (2004). Reaktionsmechanismen (in German) (3rd ed.). München: Spektrum Akademischer Verlag. ISBN 3-8274-1579-9 . Wiberg, Egon, Wiberg, Nils and Holleman, Arnold Frederick (2001). Inorganic chemistry . Academic Press . ISBN 0-12-352651-5 . CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list ( link ) " Chemical Action ". Encyclopædia Britannica . 6 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 26–33.

train

what happened to chemical bonds during chemical reactions

A chemical reaction is a process that leads to the transformation of one set of chemical substances to another. Classically, chemical reactions encompass changes that only involve the positions of electrons in the forming and breaking of chemical bonds between atoms, with no change to the nuclei (no change to the elements present), and can often be described by a chemical equation. Nuclear chemistry is a sub-discipline of chemistry that involves the chemical reactions of unstable and radioactive elements where both electronic and nuclear changes can occur.

["australia', 'tropical indomalaya", 'fruit']

ohun tó máa ń ṣẹlẹ̀ sáwọn èròjà kẹ́míkà nígbà tí nǹkan bá dà pọ̀

Yes

['Awon idarapomora kemika je awon iyipada to je mo irin awon elektroni lati da tabi tuka awon isorapo kemika, botilejepe itumo gbogbogbo idarapomora kemika, agaga bo se je ti isodogba kemika, wulo fun iyipada awon elementary particles, ati fun awon idarapomora tinuatomu.', 'Idarapomora kemika nfa iyipada kemika wa, eyi le mu eso kan tabi pupo wa, ti ohun ini won yato si ti awon oludarapomora.', 'Idarapomora kemika je igbese to n fa iyipada akojopo ohun kemika si omiran. Awon idarapomora kemika je ohun ti awon onimo kemistri nko ninu papa sayensi to n je kemistri.']

['Awon idarapomora kemika je awon iyipada to je mo irin awon elektroni lati da tabi tuka awon isorapo kemika, botilejepe itumo gbogbogbo idarapomora kemika, agaga bo se je ti isodogba kemika, wulo fun iyipada awon elementary particles, ati fun awon idarapomora tinuatomu.', 'Idarapomora kemika nfa iyipada kemika wa, eyi le mu eso kan tabi pupo wa, ti ohun ini won yato si ti awon oludarapomora.', 'Idarapomora kemika je igbese to n fa iyipada akojopo ohun kemika si omiran. Awon idarapomora kemika je ohun ti awon onimo kemistri nko ninu papa sayensi to n je kemistri.']

['P1', 'P2']

Idarapomora kemika Idarapomora kemika je igbese to n fa iyipada akojopo ohun kemika si omiran.[1] Awon idarapomora kemika je ohun ti awon onimo kemistri nko ninu papa sayensi to n je kemistri. Awon idarapomora kemika le je lojiji, ti ko fe okun/agbara kankan, tabi alaije lojiji, to le sele leyin igbati a ba se afikun iru okun/agbara kan sibe, fun apere igbona, imole tabi itanna. Awon idarapomora kemika je awon iyipada to je mo irin awon elektroni lati da tabi tuka awon isorapo kemika, botilejepe itumo gbogbogbo idarapomora kemika, agaga bo se je ti isodogba kemika, wulo fun iyipada awon egunrín ìpil?????, ati fun awon idarapomora tinuatomu. Ohun/awon ohun to bere idarapomora kemika ni a npe ni awon oludarapomora. Idarapomora kemika nfa iyipada kemika wa, eyi le mu eso kan tabi pupo wa, ti ohun ini won yato si ti awon oludarapomora. Oru omi Haidrojini oniklorini ninu igo ati ammonia ninu igo idanwo pade lati da isu ohun tuntun, amoniomu oniklorini

A thermite reaction using iron(III) oxide. The sparks flying outwards are globules of molten iron trailing smoke in their wake. A chemical reaction is a process that leads to the transformation of one set of chemical substances to another. Classically, chemical reactions encompass changes that only involve the positions of electrons in the forming and breaking of chemical bonds between atoms , with no change to the nuclei (no change to the elements present), and can often be described by a chemical equation . Nuclear chemistry is a sub-discipline of chemistry that involves the chemical reactions of unstable and radioactive elements where both electronic and nuclear changes can occur. The substance (or substances) initially involved in a chemical reaction are called reactants or reagents . Chemical reactions are usually characterized by a chemical change , and they yield one or more products , which usually have properties different from the reactants. Reactions often consist of a sequence of individual sub-steps, the so-called elementary reactions , and the information on the precise course of action is part of the reaction mechanism . Chemical reactions are described with chemical equations , which symbolically present the starting materials, end products, and sometimes intermediate products and reaction conditions. Chemical reactions happen at a characteristic reaction rate at a given temperature and chemical concentration. Typically, reaction rates increase with increasing temperature because there is more thermal energy available to reach the activation energy necessary for breaking bonds between atoms. Reactions may proceed in the forward or reverse direction until they go to completion or reach equilibrium. Reactions that proceed in the forward direction to approach equilibrium are often described as spontaneous , requiring no input of free energy to go forward. Non-spontaneous reactions require input of free energy to go forward (examples include charging a battery by applying an external electrical power source, or photosynthesis driven by absorption of electromagnetic radiation in the form of sunlight). Different chemical reactions are used in combinations during chemical synthesis in order to obtain a desired product. In biochemistry , a consecutive series of chemical reactions (where the product of one reaction is the reactant of the next reaction) form metabolic pathways . These reactions are often catalyzed by protein enzymes . Enzymes increase the rates of biochemical reactions, so that metabolic syntheses and decompositions impossible under ordinary conditions can occur at the temperatures and concentrations present within a cell . The general concept of a chemical reaction has been extended to reactions between entities smaller than atoms, including nuclear reactions , radioactive decays , and reactions between elementary particles as described by quantum field theory . Contents [ hide ] 1 History 2 Equations 3 Elementary reactions 4 Chemical equilibrium 5 Thermodynamics 6 Kinetics 7 Reaction types 7.1 Four basic types 7.1.1 Synthesis 7.1.2 Decomposition 7.1.3 Single replacement 7.1.4 Double replacement 7.2 Oxidation and reduction 7.3 Complexation 7.4 Acid-base reactions 7.5 Precipitation 7.6 Solid-state reactions 7.7 Reactions at the solid|gas interface 7.8 Photochemical reactions 8 Catalysis 9 Reactions in organic chemistry 9.1 Substitution 9.2 Addition and elimination 9.3 Other organic reaction mechanisms 10 Biochemical reactions 11 Applications 12 Monitoring 13 See also 14 References 15 Bibliography History Antoine Lavoisier developed the theory of combustion as a chemical reaction with oxygen Chemical reactions such as combustion in fire, fermentation and the reduction of ores to metals were known since antiquity. Initial theories of transformation of materials were developed by Greek philosophers, such as the Four-Element Theory of Empedocles stating that any substance is composed of the four basic elements – fire, water, air and earth. In the Middle Ages, chemical transformations were studied by Alchemists . They attempted, in particular, to convert lead into gold , for which purpose they used reactions of lead and lead-copper alloys with sulfur . The production of chemical substances that do not normally occur in nature has long been tried, such as the synthesis of sulfuric and nitric acids attributed to the controversial alchemist Jābir ibn Hayyān . The process involved heating of sulfate and nitrate minerals such as copper sulfate , alum and saltpeter . In the 17th century, Johann Rudolph Glauber produced hydrochloric acid and sodium sulfate by reacting sulfuric acid and sodium chloride . With the development of the lead chamber process in 1746 and the Leblanc process , allowing large-scale production of sulfuric acid and sodium carbonate , respectively, chemical reactions became implemented into the industry. Further optimization of sulfuric acid technology resulted in the contact process in the 1880s, and the Haber process was developed in 1909–1910 for ammonia synthesis. From the 16th century, researchers including Jan Baptist van Helmont , Robert Boyle and Isaac Newton tried to establish theories of the experimentally observed chemical transformations. The phlogiston theory was proposed in 1667 by Johann Joachim Becher . It postulated the existence of a fire-like element called "phlogiston", which was contained within combustible bodies and released during combustion . This proved to be false in 1785 by Antoine Lavoisier who found the correct explanation of the combustion as reaction with oxygen from the air. Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac recognized in 1808 that gases always react in a certain relationship with each other. Based on this idea and the atomic theory of John Dalton , Joseph Proust had developed the law of definite proportions , which later resulted in the concepts of stoichiometry and chemical equations . Regarding the organic chemistry , it was long believed that compounds obtained from living organisms were too complex to be obtained synthetically . According to the concept of vitalism , organic matter was endowed with a "vital force" and distinguished from inorganic materials. This separation was ended however by the synthesis of urea from inorganic precursors by Friedrich Wöhler in 1828. Other chemists who brought major contributions to organic chemistry include Alexander William Williamson with his synthesis of ethers and Christopher Kelk Ingold , who, among many discoveries, established the mechanisms of substitution reactions . Equations As seen from the equation CH 4 + 2 O 2 → CO 2 + 2 H 2 O , a coefficient of 2 must be placed before the oxygen gas on the reactants side and before the water on the products side in order for, as per the law of conservation of mass, the quantity of each element does not change during the reaction Main article: Chemical equation Chemical equations are used to graphically illustrate chemical reactions. They consist of chemical or structural formulas of the reactants on the left and those of the products on the right. They are separated by an arrow (→) which indicates the direction and type of the reaction; the arrow is read as the word "yields". The tip of the arrow points in the direction in which the reaction proceeds. A double arrow (⇌) pointing in opposite directions is used for equilibrium reactions . Equations should be balanced according to the stoichiometry , the number of atoms of each species should be the same on both sides of the equation. This is achieved by scaling the number of involved molecules ( A , B , C {\displaystyle {\ce {A,B,C}}} and D {\displaystyle {\ce {D}}} in a schematic example below) by the appropriate integers a, b, c and d . a A + b B ⟶ c C + d D {\displaystyle {\ce {{{\mathit {a}}A}+{\mathit {b}}B->{{\mathit {c}}C}+{\mathit {d}}D}}} More elaborate reactions are represented by reaction schemes, which in addition to starting materials and products show important intermediates or transition states . Also, some relatively minor additions to the reaction can be indicated above the reaction arrow; examples of such additions are water, heat, illumination, a catalyst, etc. Similarly, some minor products can be placed below the arrow, often with a minus sign. An example of organic reaction: oxidation of ketones to esters with a peroxycarboxylic acid Retrosynthetic analysis can be applied to design a complex synthesis reaction. Here the analysis starts from the products, for example by splitting selected chemical bonds, to arrive at plausible initial reagents. A special arrow (⇒) is used in retro reactions. Elementary reactions The elementary reaction is the smallest division into which a chemical reaction can be decomposed, it has no intermediate products. Most experimentally observed reactions are built up from many elementary reactions that occur in parallel or sequentially. The actual sequence of the individual elementary reactions is known as reaction mechanism . An elementary reaction involves a few molecules, usually one or two, because of the low probability for several molecules to meet at a certain time. Isomerization of azobenzene , induced by light (hν) or heat (Δ) The most important elementary reactions are unimolecular and bimolecular reactions. Only one molecule is involved in a unimolecular reaction; it is transformed by an isomerization or a dissociation into one or more other molecules. Such reactions require the addition of energy in the form of heat or light. A typical example of a unimolecular reaction is the cis–trans isomerization , in which the cis-form of a compound converts to the trans-form or vice versa. In a typical dissociation reaction, a bond in a molecule splits ( ruptures ) resulting in two molecular fragments. The splitting can be homolytic or heterolytic . In the first case, the bond is divided so that each product retains an electron and becomes a neutral radical . In the second case, both electrons of the chemical bond remain with one of the products, resulting in charged ions . Dissociation plays an important role in triggering chain reactions , such as hydrogen–oxygen or polymerization reactions. AB ⟶ A + B {\displaystyle {\ce {AB->{A}+{B}}}} Dissociation of a molecule AB into fragments A and B For bimolecular reactions, two molecules collide and react with each other. Their merger is called chemical synthesis or an addition reaction . A + B ⟶ AB {\displaystyle {\ce {{A}+{B}->AB}}} Another possibility is that only a portion of one molecule is transferred to the other molecule. This type of reaction occurs, for example, in redox and acid-base reactions. In redox reactions, the transferred particle is an electron, whereas in acid-base reactions it is a proton. This type of reaction is also called metathesis . HA + B ⟶ A + HB {\displaystyle {\ce {{HA}+{B}->{A}+{HB}}}} for example NaCl + AgNO 3 ⟶ NaNO 3 + AgCl ↓ {\displaystyle {\ce {{NaCl}+{AgNO3}->{NaNO3}+{AgCl(v)}}}} Chemical equilibrium Main article: Chemical equilibrium Most chemical reactions are reversible, that is they can and do run in both directions. The forward and reverse reactions are competing with each other and differ in reaction rates . These rates depend on the concentration and therefore change with time of the reaction: the reverse rate gradually increases and becomes equal to the rate of the forward reaction, establishing the so-called chemical equilibrium. The time to reach equilibrium depends on such parameters as temperature, pressure and the materials involved, and is determined by the minimum free energy . In equilibrium, the Gibbs free energy must be zero. The pressure dependence can be explained with the Le Chatelier's principle . For example, an increase in pressure due to decreasing volume causes the reaction to shift to the side with the fewer moles of gas. The reaction yield stabilizes at equilibrium, but can be increased by removing the product from the reaction mixture or changed by increasing the temperature or pressure. A change in the concentrations of the reactants does not affect the equilibrium constant, but does affect the equilibrium position. Thermodynamics Chemical reactions are determined by the laws of thermodynamics . Reactions can proceed by themselves if they are exergonic , that is if they release energy. The associated free energy of the reaction is composed of two different thermodynamic quantities, enthalpy and entropy : Δ G = Δ H − T ⋅ Δ S {\displaystyle \Delta G=\Delta H-T\cdot \Delta S} . G : free energy, H : enthalpy, T : temperature, S : entropy, Δ : difference(change between original and product) Reactions can be exothermic , where ΔH is negative and energy is released. Typical examples of exothermic reactions are precipitation and crystallization , in which ordered solids are formed from disordered gaseous or liquid phases. In contrast, in endothermic reactions, heat is consumed from the environment. This can occur by increasing the entropy of the system, often through the formation of gaseous reaction products, which have high entropy. Since the entropy increases with temperature, many endothermic reactions preferably take place at high temperatures. On the contrary, many exothermic reactions such as crystallization occur at low temperatures. Changes in temperature can sometimes reverse the sign of the enthalpy of a reaction, as for the carbon monoxide reduction of molybdenum dioxide : 2 CO ( g ) + MoO 2 ( s ) ⟶ 2 CO 2 ( g ) + Mo ( s ) {\displaystyle {\ce {{2CO(g)}+{MoO2(s)}->{2CO2(g)}+{Mo(s)}}}} ; Δ H o = + 21.86 kJ at 298 K {\displaystyle \Delta H^{o}=+21.86\ {\text{kJ at 298 K}}} This reaction to form carbon dioxide and molybdenum is endothermic at low temperatures, becoming less so with increasing temperature. ΔH° is zero at 7003185500000000000♠ 1855 K , and the reaction becomes exothermic above that temperature. Changes in temperature can also reverse the direction tendency of a reaction. For example, the water gas shift reaction CO ( g ) + H 2 O ( v ) ↽ − − ⇀ CO 2 ( g ) + H 2 ( g ) {\displaystyle {\ce {{CO(g)}+{H2O({v})}<=>{CO2(g)}+{H2(g)}}}} is favored by low temperatures, but its reverse is favored by high temperature. The shift in reaction direction tendency occurs at 7003110000000000000♠ 1100 K . Reactions can also be characterized by the internal energy which takes into account changes in the entropy, volume and chemical potential . The latter depends, among other things, on the activities of the involved substances. d U = T ⋅ d S − p ⋅ d V + μ ⋅ d n {\displaystyle {d}U=T\cdot {d}S-p\cdot {d}V+\mu \cdot {d}n} U : internal energy, S : entropy, p : pressure, μ : chemical potential, n : number of molecules, d : small change sign Kinetics The speed at which reactions takes place is studied by reaction kinetics . The rate depends on various parameters, such as: Reactant concentrations, which usually make the reaction happen at a faster rate if raised through increased collisions per unit time. Some reactions, however, have rates that are independent of reactant concentrations. These are called zero order reactions . Surface area available for contact between the reactants, in particular solid ones in heterogeneous systems. Larger surface areas lead to higher reaction rates. Pressure – increasing the pressure decreases the volume between molecules and therefore increases the frequency of collisions between the molecules. Activation energy , which is defined as the amount of energy required to make the reaction start and carry on spontaneously. Higher activation energy implies that the reactants need more energy to start than a reaction with a lower activation energy. Temperature , which hastens reactions if raised, since higher temperature increases the energy of the molecules, creating more collisions per unit time, The presence or absence of a catalyst . Catalysts are substances which change the pathway (mechanism) of a reaction which in turn increases the speed of a reaction by lowering the activation energy needed for the reaction to take place. A catalyst is not destroyed or changed during a reaction, so it can be used again. For some reactions, the presence of electromagnetic radiation , most notably ultraviolet light , is needed to promote the breaking of bonds to start the reaction. This is particularly true for reactions involving radicals . Several theories allow calculating the reaction rates at the molecular level. This field is referred to as reaction dynamics. The rate v of a first-order reaction , which could be disintegration of a substance A, is given by: v = − d [ A ] d t = k ⋅ [ A ] . {\displaystyle v=-{\frac {d[{\ce {A}}]}{dt}}=k\cdot [{\ce {A}}].} Its integration yields: [ A ] ( t ) = [ A ] 0 ⋅ e − k ⋅ t . {\displaystyle {\ce {[A]}}(t)={\ce {[A]}}_{0}\cdot e^{-k\cdot t}.} Here k is first-order rate constant having dimension 1/time, [A](t) is concentration at a time t and [A] 0 is the initial concentration. The rate of a first-order reaction depends only on the concentration and the properties of the involved substance, and the reaction itself can be described with the characteristic half-life . More than one time constant is needed when describing reactions of higher order. The temperature dependence of the rate constant usually follows the Arrhenius equation : k = k 0 e − E a / k B T {\displaystyle k=k_{0}e^{{-E_{a}}/{k_{B}T}}} where E a is the activation energy and k B is the Boltzmann constant . One of the simplest models of reaction rate is the collision theory . More realistic models are tailored to a specific problem and include the transition state theory , the calculation of the potential energy surface , the Marcus theory and the Rice–Ramsperger–Kassel–Marcus (RRKM) theory . Reaction types Four basic types Representation of four basic chemical reactions types: synthesis, decomposition, single replacement and double replacement. Synthesis Main article: Synthesis reaction In a synthesis reaction, two or more simple substances combine to form a more complex substance. These reactions are in the general form: A + B ⟶ AB {\displaystyle {\ce {{A}+{B}->AB}}} Two or more reactants yielding one product is another way to identify a synthesis reaction. One example of a synthesis reaction is the combination of iron and sulfur to form iron(II) sulfide : 8 Fe + S 8 ⟶ 8 FeS {\displaystyle {\ce {{8Fe}+S8->8FeS}}} Another example is simple hydrogen gas combined with simple oxygen gas to produce a more complex substance, such as water. Decomposition Main article: Decomposition reaction A decomposition reaction is when a more complex substance breaks down into its more simple parts. It is thus the opposite of a synthesis reaction, and can be written as AB ⟶ A + B {\displaystyle {\ce {AB->{A}+{B}}}} One example of a decomposition reaction is the electrolysis of water to make oxygen and hydrogen gas: 2 H 2 O ⟶ 2 H 2 + O 2 {\displaystyle {\ce {2H2O->{2H2}+{O2}}}} Single replacement In a single replacement reaction , a single uncombined element replaces another in a compound; in other words, one element trades places with another element in a compound These reactions come in the general form of: A + BC ⟶ AC + B {\displaystyle {\ce {{A}+{BC}->{AC}+{B}}}} One example of a single displacement reaction is when magnesium replaces hydrogen in water to make magnesium hydroxide and hydrogen gas: Mg + 2 H 2 O ⟶ Mg ( OH ) 2 + H 2 ↑ {\displaystyle {\ce {{Mg}+{2H2O}->{Mg(OH)2}+{H2\uparrow }}}} Double replacement In a double replacement reaction , the anions and cations of two compounds switch places and form two entirely different compounds. These reactions are in the general form: AB + CD ⟶ AD + CB {\displaystyle {\ce {{AB}+{CD}->{AD}+{CB}}}} For example, when barium chloride (BaCl 2 ) and magnesium sulfate (MgSO 4 ) react, the SO 4 2− anion switches places with the 2Cl − anion, giving the compounds BaSO 4 and MgCl 2 . Another example of a double displacement reaction is the reaction of lead(II) nitrate with potassium iodide to form lead(II) iodide and potassium nitrate : Pb ( NO 3 ) 2 + 2 KI ⟶ PbI 2 ↓ + 2 KNO 3 {\displaystyle {\ce {{Pb(NO3)2}+2KI->PbI2(v)+2KNO3}}} Oxidation and reduction Illustration of a redox reaction Sodium chloride is formed through the redox reaction of sodium metal and chlorine gas Redox reactions can be understood in terms of transfer of electrons from one involved species ( reducing agent ) to another ( oxidizing agent ). In this process, the former species is oxidized and the latter is reduced . Though sufficient for many purposes, these descriptions are not precisely correct. Oxidation is better defined as an increase in oxidation state , and reduction as a decrease in oxidation state. In practice, the transfer of electrons will always change the oxidation state, but there are many reactions that are classed as "redox" even though no electron transfer occurs (such as those involving covalent bonds). In the following redox reaction, hazardous sodium metal reacts with toxic chlorine gas to form the ionic compound sodium chloride , or common table salt: 2 Na ( s ) + Cl 2 ( g ) ⟶ 2 NaCl ( s ) {\displaystyle {\ce {{2Na(s)}+{Cl2(g)}->2NaCl(s)}}} In the reaction, sodium metal goes from an oxidation state of 0 (as it is a pure element) to +1: in other words, the sodium lost one electron and is said to have been oxidized. On the other hand, the chlorine gas goes from an oxidation of 0 (it is also a pure element) to −1: the chlorine gains one electron and is said to have been reduced. Because the chlorine is the one reduced, it is considered the electron acceptor, or in other words, induces oxidation in the sodium – thus the chlorine gas is considered the oxidizing agent. Conversely, the sodium is oxidized or is the electron donor, and thus induces reduction in the other species and is considered the reducing agent . Which of the involved reactants would be reducing or oxidizing agent can be predicted from the electronegativity of their elements. Elements with low electronegativity, such as most metals, easily donate electrons and oxidize – they are reducing agents. On the contrary, many ions with high oxidation numbers, such as H 2 O 2 , MnO − 4 , CrO 3 , Cr 2 O 2− 7 , OsO 4 can gain one or two extra electrons and are strong oxidizing agents. The number of electrons donated or accepted in a redox reaction can be predicted from the electron configuration of the reactant element. Elements try to reach the low-energy noble gas configuration, and therefore alkali metals and halogens will donate and accept one electron respectively. Noble gases themselves are chemically inactive. An important class of redox reactions are the electrochemical reactions, where electrons from the power supply are used as the reducing agent. These reactions are particularly important for the production of chemical elements, such as chlorine or aluminium . The reverse process in which electrons are released in redox reactions and can be used as electrical energy is possible and used in batteries. Complexation Ferrocene – an iron atom sandwiched between two C 5 H 5 ligands In complexation reactions, several ligands react with a metal atom to form a coordination complex . This is achieved by providing lone pairs of the ligand into empty orbitals of the metal atom and forming dipolar bonds . The ligands are Lewis bases , they can be both ions and neutral molecules, such as carbon monoxide, ammonia or water. The number of ligands that react with a central metal atom can be found using the 18-electron rule , saying that the valence shells of a transition metal will collectively accommodate 18 electrons , whereas the symmetry of the resulting complex can be predicted with the crystal field theory and ligand field theory . Complexation reactions also include ligand exchange , in which one or more ligands are replaced by another, and redox processes which change the oxidation state of the central metal atom. Acid-base reactions In the Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory , an acid-base reaction involves a transfer of protons (H + ) from one species (the acid ) to another (the base ). When a proton is removed from an acid, the resulting species is termed that acid's conjugate base . When the proton is accepted by a base, the resulting species is termed that base's conjugate acid . In other words, acids act as proton donors and bases act as proton acceptors according to the following equation: HA ⏟ acid + B ⏟ base ↽ − − ⇀ A − ⏟ conjugated base + HB + ⏟ conjugated acid {\displaystyle {\ce {\underbrace {HA} _{acid}+\underbrace {B} _{base}<=>\underbrace {A^{-}} _{conjugated\ base}+\underbrace {HB+} _{conjugated\ acid}}}} The reverse reaction is possible, and thus the acid/base and conjugated base/acid are always in equilibrium. The equilibrium is determined by the acid and base dissociation constants ( K a and K b ) of the involved substances. A special case of the acid-base reaction is the neutralization where an acid and a base, taken at exactly same amounts, form a neutral salt . Acid-base reactions can have different definitions depending on the acid-base concept employed. Some of the most common are: Arrhenius definition: Acids dissociate in water releasing H 3 O + ions; bases dissociate in water releasing OH − ions. Brønsted-Lowry definition: Acids are proton (H + ) donors, bases are proton acceptors; this includes the Arrhenius definition. Lewis definition: Acids are electron-pair acceptors, bases are electron-pair donors; this includes the Brønsted-Lowry definition. Precipitation Precipitation Precipitation is the formation of a solid in a solution or inside another solid during a chemical reaction. It usually takes place when the concentration of dissolved ions exceeds the solubility limit and forms an insoluble salt. This process can be assisted by adding a precipitating agent or by removal of the solvent. Rapid precipitation results in an amorphous or microcrystalline residue and slow process can yield single crystals . The latter can also be obtained by recrystallization from microcrystalline salts. Solid-state reactions Reactions can take place between two solids. However, because of the relatively small diffusion rates in solids, the corresponding chemical reactions are very slow in comparison to liquid and gas phase reactions. They are accelerated by increasing the reaction temperature and finely dividing the reactant to increase the contacting surface area. Reactions at the solid|gas interface Reaction can take place at the solid|gas interface, surfaces at very low pressure such as ultra-high vacuum . Via scanning tunneling microscopy , it is possible to observe reactions at the solid|gas interface in real space, if the time scale of the reaction is in the correct range. Reactions at the solid|gas interface are in some cases related to catalysis. Photochemical reactions In this Paterno–Büchi reaction , a photoexcited carbonyl group is added to an unexcited olefin , yielding an oxetane . In photochemical reactions , atoms and molecules absorb energy ( photons ) of the illumination light and convert into an excited state . They can then release this energy by breaking chemical bonds, thereby producing radicals. Photochemical reactions include hydrogen–oxygen reactions, radical polymerization , chain reactions and rearrangement reactions . Many important processes involve photochemistry. The premier example is photosynthesis , in which most plants use solar energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose , disposing of oxygen as a side-product. Humans rely on photochemistry for the formation of vitamin D, and vision is initiated by a photochemical reaction of rhodopsin . In fireflies , an enzyme in the abdomen catalyzes a reaction that results in bioluminescence . Many significant photochemical reactions, such as ozone formation, occur in the Earth atmosphere and constitute atmospheric chemistry . Catalysis Main article: Catalysis Further information: Reaction Progress Kinetic Analysis Schematic potential energy diagram showing the effect of a catalyst in an endothermic chemical reaction. The presence of a catalyst opens a different reaction pathway (in red) with a lower activation energy. The final result and the overall thermodynamics are the same. Solid heterogeneous catalysts are plated on meshes in ceramic catalytic converters in order to maximize their surface area. This exhaust converter is from a Peugeot 106 S2 1100 In catalysis , the reaction does not proceed directly, but through reaction with a third substance known as catalyst . Although the catalyst takes part in the reaction, it is returned to its original state by the end of the reaction and so is not consumed. However, it can be inhibited, deactivated or destroyed by secondary processes. Catalysts can be used in a different phase ( heterogeneous ) or in the same phase ( homogeneous ) as the reactants. In heterogeneous catalysis, typical secondary processes include coking where the catalyst becomes covered by polymeric side products. Additionally, heterogeneous catalysts can dissolve into the solution in a solid–liquid system or evaporate in a solid–gas system. Catalysts can only speed up the reaction – chemicals that slow down the reaction are called inhibitors. Substances that increase the activity of catalysts are called promoters, and substances that deactivate catalysts are called catalytic poisons. With a catalyst, a reaction which is kinetically inhibited by a high activation energy can take place in circumvention of this activation energy. Heterogeneous catalysts are usually solids, powdered in order to maximize their surface area. Of particular importance in heterogeneous catalysis are the platinum group metals and other transition metals, which are used in hydrogenations , catalytic reforming and in the synthesis of commodity chemicals such as nitric acid and ammonia . Acids are an example of a homogeneous catalyst, they increase the nucleophilicity of carbonyls , allowing a reaction that would not otherwise proceed with electrophiles. The advantage of homogeneous catalysts is the ease of mixing them with the reactants, but they may also be difficult to separate from the products. Therefore, heterogeneous catalysts are preferred in many industrial processes. Reactions in organic chemistry Main article: Organic reaction In organic chemistry, in addition to oxidation, reduction or acid-base reactions, a number of other reactions can take place which involve covalent bonds between carbon atoms or carbon and heteroatoms (such as oxygen, nitrogen, halogens , etc.). Many specific reactions in organic chemistry are name reactions designated after their discoverers. Substitution In a substitution reaction , a functional group in a particular chemical compound is replaced by another group. These reactions can be distinguished by the type of substituting species into a nucleophilic , electrophilic or radical substitution . S N 1 mechanism S N 2 mechanism In the first type, a nucleophile , an atom or molecule with an excess of electrons and thus a negative charge or partial charge , replaces another atom or part of the "substrate" molecule. The electron pair from the nucleophile attacks the substrate forming a new bond, while the leaving group departs with an electron pair. The nucleophile may be electrically neutral or negatively charged, whereas the substrate is typically neutral or positively charged. Examples of nucleophiles are hydroxide ion, alkoxides , amines and halides . This type of reaction is found mainly in aliphatic hydrocarbons , and rarely in aromatic hydrocarbon . The latter have high electron density and enter nucleophilic aromatic substitution only with very strong electron withdrawing groups . Nucleophilic substitution can take place by two different mechanisms, S N 1 and S N 2 . In their names, S stands for substitution, N for nucleophilic, and the number represents the kinetic order of the reaction, unimolecular or bimolecular. The three steps of an S N 2 reaction . The nucleophile is green and the leaving group is red S N 2 reaction causes stereo inversion (Walden inversion) The S N 1 reaction proceeds in two steps. First, the leaving group is eliminated creating a carbocation . This is followed by a rapid reaction with the nucleophile. In the S N 2 mechanism, the nucleophile forms a transition state with the attacked molecule, and only then the leaving group is cleaved. These two mechanisms differ in the stereochemistry of the products. S N 1 leads to the non-stereospecific addition and does not result in a chiral center, but rather in a set of geometric isomers ( cis/trans ). In contrast, a reversal ( Walden inversion ) of the previously existing stereochemistry is observed in the S N 2 mechanism. Electrophilic substitution is the counterpart of the nucleophilic substitution in that the attacking atom or molecule, an electrophile , has low electron density and thus a positive charge. Typical electrophiles are the carbon atom of carbonyl groups , carbocations or sulfur or nitronium cations. This reaction takes place almost exclusively in aromatic hydrocarbons, where it is called electrophilic aromatic substitution . The electrophile attack results in the so-called σ-complex, a transition state in which the aromatic system is abolished. Then, the leaving group, usually a proton, is split off and the aromaticity is restored. An alternative to aromatic substitution is electrophilic aliphatic substitution. It is similar to the nucleophilic aliphatic substitution and also has two major types, S E 1 and S E 2 Mechanism of electrophilic aromatic substitution In the third type of substitution reaction, radical substitution, the attacking particle is a radical . This process usually takes the form of a chain reaction , for example in the reaction of alkanes with halogens. In the first step, light or heat disintegrates the halogen-containing molecules producing the radicals. Then the reaction proceeds as an avalanche until two radicals meet and recombine. X ⋅ + R − H ⟶ X − H + R ⋅ {\displaystyle {\ce {{X.}+{R-H}->{X-H}+{R.}}}} R ⋅ + X 2 ⟶ R − X + X ⋅ {\displaystyle {\ce {{R.}+{X2}->{R{-}X}+{X.}}}} Reactions during the chain reaction of radical substitution Addition and elimination The addition and its counterpart, the elimination , are reactions which change the number of substitutents on the carbon atom, and form or cleave multiple bonds . Double and triple bonds can be produced by eliminating a suitable leaving group. Similar to the nucleophilic substitution, there are several possible reaction mechanisms which are named after the respective reaction order. In the E1 mechanism, the leaving group is ejected first, forming a carbocation. The next step, formation of the double bond, takes place with elimination of a proton ( deprotonation ). The leaving order is reversed in the E1cb mechanism, that is the proton is split off first. This mechanism requires participation of a base. Because of the similar conditions, both reactions in the E1 or E1cb elimination always compete with the S N 1 substitution. E1 elimination E1cb elimination E2 elimination The E2 mechanism also requires a base, but there the attack of the base and the elimination of the leaving group proceed simultaneously and produce no ionic intermediate. In contrast to the E1 eliminations, different stereochemical configurations are possible for the reaction product in the E2 mechanism, because the attack of the base preferentially occurs in the anti-position with respect to the leaving group. Because of the similar conditions and reagents, the E2 elimination is always in competition with the S N 2-substitution. Electrophilic addition of hydrogen bromide The counterpart of elimination is the addition where double or triple bonds are converted into single bonds. Similar to the substitution reactions, there are several types of additions distinguished by the type of the attacking particle. For example, in the electrophilic addition of hydrogen bromide, an electrophile (proton) attacks the double bond forming a carbocation , which then reacts with the nucleophile (bromine). The carbocation can be formed on either side of the double bond depending on the groups attached to its ends, and the preferred configuration can be predicted with the Markovnikov's rule . This rule states that "In the heterolytic addition of a polar molecule to an alkene or alkyne, the more electronegative (nucleophilic) atom (or part) of the polar molecule becomes attached to the carbon atom bearing the smaller number of hydrogen atoms." If the addition of a functional group takes place at the less substituted carbon atom of the double bond, then the electrophilic substitution with acids is not possible. In this case, one has to use the hydroboration–oxidation reaction , where in the first step, the boron atom acts as electrophile and adds to the less substituted carbon atom. At the second step, the nucleophilic hydroperoxide or halogen anion attacks the boron atom. While the addition to the electron-rich alkenes and alkynes is mainly electrophilic, the nucleophilic addition plays an important role for the carbon-heteroatom multiple bonds, and especially its most important representative, the carbonyl group. This process is often associated with an elimination, so that after the reaction the carbonyl group is present again. It is therefore called addition-elimination reaction and may occur in carboxylic acid derivatives such as chlorides, esters or anhydrides. This reaction is often catalyzed by acids or bases, where the acids increase by the electrophilicity of the carbonyl group by binding to the oxygen atom, whereas the bases enhance the nucleophilicity of the attacking nucleophile. Acid-catalyzed addition-elimination mechanism Nucleophilic addition of a carbanion or another nucleophile to the double bond of an alpha, beta unsaturated carbonyl compound can proceed via the Michael reaction , which belongs to the larger class of conjugate additions . This is one of the most useful methods for the mild formation of C–C bonds. Some additions which can not be executed with nucleophiles and electrophiles, can be succeeded with free radicals. As with the free-radical substitution, the radical addition proceeds as a chain reaction, and such reactions are the basis of the free-radical polymerization . Other organic reaction mechanisms The Cope rearrangement of 3-methyl-1,5-hexadiene Mechanism of a Diels-Alder reaction Orbital overlap in a Diels-Alder reaction In a rearrangement reaction , the carbon skeleton of a molecule is rearranged to give a structural isomer of the original molecule. These include hydride shift reactions such as the Wagner-Meerwein rearrangement , where a hydrogen , alkyl or aryl group migrates from one carbon to a neighboring carbon. Most rearrangements are associated with the breaking and formation of new carbon-carbon bonds. Other examples are sigmatropic reaction such as the Cope rearrangement . Cyclic rearrangements include cycloadditions and, more generally, pericyclic reactions , wherein two or more double bond-containing molecules form a cyclic molecule. An important example of cycloaddition reaction is the Diels–Alder reaction (the so-called [4+2] cycloaddition) between a conjugated diene and a substituted alkene to form a substituted cyclohexene system. Whether a certain cycloaddition would proceed depends on the electronic orbitals of the participating species, as only orbitals with the same sign of wave function will overlap and interact constructively to form new bonds. Cycloaddition is usually assisted by light or heat. These perturbations result in different arrangement of electrons in the excited state of the involved molecules and therefore in different effects. For example, the [4+2] Diels-Alder reactions can be assisted by heat whereas the [2+2] cycloaddition is selectively induced by light. Because of the orbital character, the potential for developing stereoisomeric products upon cycloaddition is limited, as described by the Woodward–Hoffmann rules . Biochemical reactions Illustration of the induced fit model of enzyme activity Biochemical reactions are mainly controlled by enzymes . These proteins can specifically catalyze a single reaction, so that reactions can be controlled very precisely. The reaction takes place in the active site , a small part of the enzyme which is usually found in a cleft or pocket lined by amino acid residues, and the rest of the enzyme is used mainly for stabilization. The catalytic action of enzymes relies on several mechanisms including the molecular shape ("induced fit"), bond strain, proximity and orientation of molecules relative to the enzyme, proton donation or withdrawal (acid/base catalysis), electrostatic interactions and many others. The biochemical reactions that occur in living organisms are collectively known as metabolism . Among the most important of its mechanisms is the anabolism , in which different DNA and enzyme-controlled processes result in the production of large molecules such as proteins and carbohydrates from smaller units. Bioenergetics studies the sources of energy for such reactions. An important energy source is glucose , which can be produced by plants via photosynthesis or assimilated from food. All organisms use this energy to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which can then be used to energize other reactions. Applications Thermite reaction proceeding in railway welding. Shortly after this, the liquid iron flows into the mould around the rail gap Chemical reactions are central to chemical engineering where they are used for the synthesis of new compounds from natural raw materials such as petroleum and mineral ores . It is essential to make the reaction as efficient as possible, maximizing the yield and minimizing the amount of reagents, energy inputs and waste. Catalysts are especially helpful for reducing the energy required for the reaction and increasing its reaction rate . Some specific reactions have their niche applications. For example, the thermite reaction is used to generate light and heat in pyrotechnics and welding . Although it is less controllable than the more conventional oxy-fuel welding , arc welding and flash welding , it requires much less equipment and is still used to mend rails, especially in remote areas. Monitoring Mechanisms of monitoring chemical reactions depend strongly on the reaction rate. Relatively slow processes can be analyzed in situ for the concentrations and identities of the individual ingredients. Important tools of real time analysis are the measurement of pH and analysis of optical absorption (color) and emission spectra. A less accessible but rather efficient method is introduction of a radioactive isotope into the reaction and monitoring how it changes over time and where it moves to; this method is often used to analyze redistribution of substances in the human body. Faster reactions are usually studied with ultrafast laser spectroscopy where utilization of femtosecond lasers allows short-lived transition states to be monitored at time scaled down to a few femtoseconds. See also Wikiquote has quotations related to: Chemical reaction Chemical reaction Substrate Reagent Catalyst Product Chemical reaction model Chemist Chemistry Limiting reagent List of organic reactions Organic reaction Reaction progress kinetic analysis Combustion Mass balance References Bibliography Atkins, Peter W.; Julio de Paula (2006). Physical Chemistry (4th ed.). Weinheim: Wiley-VCH . ISBN 978-3-527-31546-8 . Brock, William H. (1997). Viewegs Geschichte der Chemie (in German). Braunschweig: Vieweg . ISBN 3-540-67033-5 . Brückner, Reinhard (2004). Reaktionsmechanismen (in German) (3rd ed.). München: Spektrum Akademischer Verlag. ISBN 3-8274-1579-9 . Wiberg, Egon, Wiberg, Nils and Holleman, Arnold Frederick (2001). Inorganic chemistry . Academic Press . ISBN 0-12-352651-5 . CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list ( link ) " Chemical Action ". Encyclopædia Britannica . 6 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 26–33.

train

who is the chairman of isolo local government

Oshodi - Isolo is a Local Government Area (LGA) within Lagos State. It was formed by the second republic Governor of Lagos State, Alhaji Lateef Kayode Jakande, also known as ' Baba Kekere ' and the first Executive Chairman of the Local Government was late Sir Isaac Ademolu Banjoko. The LGA is part of the Ikeja Division of Lagos State, Nigeria. At the 2006 Census it had a population of 621,509 people, and an area of 45 square kilometers. Hon. Idris Bolaji Muse Ariyoh, has been re-elected for a second term into office July 25th 2017, as the Executive Chairman.

['curling']

ta ni alága ìjọba ìbílẹ̀ isolo

Yes

['Ẹni tí ó jẹ́ Alága àti Olùdarí ìjọba ìbílẹ̀ náà lásìkò àpilẹ̀kọ yí ni Hon. Idris Bolaji Muse Ariyoh.']

['Ẹni tí ó jẹ́ Alága àti Olùdarí ìjọba ìbílẹ̀ náà lásìkò àpilẹ̀kọ yí ni Hon. Idris Bolaji Muse Ariyoh.']

['P1']

Ìj?ba Ìbíl?? O?òdì-Ìs?l?? O?òdì-Ìs??l?? j?? Agbègbè Ìj?ba Ìbíl?? (LGA) kan láàrín Ìpínl?? Èkó. Ìj?ba ìbíl?? yí j?? dídá síl?? láb?? ì???j?ba Gómìnà t??l?? rí ní Ìpínl?? Èkó Alhaji Lateef Káy??dé Jákàndè, tí gbogbo ènìyàn tún m?? sí Bàbá Kékeré. ?ni tí ó k??k?? j?? Alága àti Olùdarí ìj?ba Ìbíl?? náà ni Olóògbé Sir Isaac Adémólú Bánjókó. Agbègbè ìj?ba ìbíl?? O?òdì-Ìs?l?? yí j?? ??ka Ìj?ba Ìbíl?? Ìk?jà. Iye ènìyàn tí ó tó 621,509, ni ó ? gbé ab?? ìj?ba ìbíl?? náà g??g?? bí ètò ìkànìyàn ?dún 2006 ?e fi yé ni. ?ni tí ó j?? Alága àti Olùdarí ìj?ba ìbíl?? náà lásìkò àpil??k? yí ni Hon. Idris Bolaji Muse Ariyoh.[1] Àw?n ?kùn Ìj?ba ìbíl?? ib?? Ìj?ba ìbíl?? yí ní ?kùn ìj?ba ìbíl?? M??kànlá, àw?n ni: O?òdì/B??ládé Orílé O?òdì Máfolúkù ?ógúnl?? ?ógúnl??/Alásìá Ìs?l?? Àjàó Estate Ìlasa-màjà ?k??ta Ì?àgát??dó Òkè-Afá/Èjìgbò.[2]

photo news Oshodi-Isolo is a Local Government Area (LGA) within Lagos State . It was formed by the second republic Governor of Lagos State, Alhaji Lateef Kayode Jakande, also known as 'Baba Kekere' and the first Executive Chairman of the Local Government was late Sir Isaac Ademolu Banjoko. The LGA is part of the Ikeja Division of Lagos State , Nigeria . At the 2006 Census it had a population of 621,509 people, and an area of 45 square kilometers. Hon. Idris Bolaji Muse Ariyoh, has been re-elected for a second term into office July 25th 2017, as the Executive Chairman. Two State House of Assembly, Hon. Shokunle Hakeem Oshodi/Isolo I APC And Hon. Emeka Odimogu Oshodi/Isolo II APC Hon. Moruf Akinderu Fatai also known as 'MAF' by his constituents and supporters, of the Action Congress (AC) represented Oshodi-Isolo I, and Hon. Joseph Ajatta (AC) represented Oshodi-Isolo II. From 1999-2007, Mudasiru Oyetunde Hussein of the Alliance for Democracy party represented Oshodi-Isolo. References [ edit ] External links [ edit ] Oshodi-Isolo Local Government

train

what does the un charter say about human rights

During World War II, the Allies adopted the Four Freedoms -- freedom of speech, freedom of religion, freedom from fear, and freedom from want -- as their basic war aims. The United Nations Charter `` reaffirmed faith in fundamental human rights, and dignity and worth of the human person '' and committed all member states to promote `` universal respect for, and observance of, human rights and fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion ''.

['two halves of 45 minutes each']

kí ni ìwé òfin àjọ ìparapọ̀ àwọn orílẹ̀-èdè sọ nípa ẹ̀tọ́ ọmọnìyàn

Yes

['E̟nì kò̟ò̟kan ló ní è̟̟tó̟ sí òmìnira èrò, òmìnira è̟rí-o̟kàn àti òmìnira e̟ sìn.']

['E̟nì kò̟ò̟kan ló ní è̟̟tó̟ sí òmìnira èrò, òmìnira è̟rí-o̟kàn àti òmìnira e̟ sìn.']

['P26']

ÌKÉDE KÁRÍAYÉ FÚN È?TÓ? O?MO?NÌYÀN Ò?RÒ? ÀKÓ?SO? Bí ó ti jé? pé s?ís?e àkíyèsí iyì tó jé? àbímó? fún è?dá àti ìdó?gba è?tó? t????í kò s?eé mú kúrò tí è?dá kò?ò?kan ní, ni òkúta ìpìlè? fún òmìnira, ìdájó? òdodo àti àlàáfíà lágbàáyé. Bí ó ti jé? pé àìka àwo?n è?tó? o?mo?nìyàn sí àti ìké?gàn àwo?n è?tó? wò?nyí ti s?e okùnfà fún àwo?n ìwà búburú kan, tó mú è?rí-o?kàn è?dá gbo?gbé?, tó sì jé? pé ìbè?rè? ìgbé ayé titun, nínú èyí tí àwo?n ènìyàn yóò ti ní òmìnira òrò? síso? àti òmìnira láti gba ohun tó bá wù wó?n gbó?, òmìnira ló?wó? è?rù àti òmìnira ló?wó? àìní, ni a ti kà sí àníyàn tó ga jù lo? ló?kàn àwo?n o?mo?-èniyàn, Bí ó ti jé?? pé ó s?e pàtàkì kí a dáàbò bo àwo?n è?tó o?mo?nìyàn lábé? òfin, bí a kò bá fé? ti àwo?n ènìyàn láti ko?jú ìjà sí ìjo?ba ipá àti ti amúnisìn, nígbà tí kò bá sí ò?nà àbáyo? mìíràn fún wo?n láti bèèrè è?tó? wo?n, Bí ó ti jé? pé ó s?e pàtàkì kí ìdàgbàsókè ìbás?epò? ti ò?ré?-sí-ò?ré? wà láàrin àwo?n orílè?-èdè, Bí ó ti jé? pé gbogbo o?mo? Àjo?-ìsò?kan orílè?-èdè àgbáyé tún ti te?nu mó? ìpinnu tí wó?n ti s?e té?lè? nínú ìwé àdéhùn wo?n, pé àwo?n ní ìgbàgbó? nínú è?tó? o?mo?nìyàn tó jé? kò-s?eé-má-nìí, ìgbàgbó? nínú iyì àti è?ye? è?dá ènìyàn, àti ìgbàgbó? nínú ìdó?gba è?tó? láàrin o?kùnrin àti obìnrin, tó sì jé? pé wó?n tún ti pinnu láti s?e ìgbéláruge? ìtè?síwájú àwùjo? nínú èyí tí òmìnira ètò ìgbé-ayé rere è?dá ti lè gbòòrò sí i, Bí ó ti jé? pé àwo?n o?mo? e?gbé? Àjo?-ìsò?kan orílè?-èdè àgbáyé ti jé?jè?é? láti fo?wó?s?owó? pò? pè?lú Àjo? náà, kí won lè jo? s?e às?eyege nípa àmús?e? àwo?n è?tó? o?mo?nìyàn àti òmìnira è?dá tó jé? kò-s?eé-má-nìí àti láti rí i pé à ? bò?wò? fún àwo?n è?tó? náà káríayé, Bí ó ti jé? pé àfi tí àwo?n è?tó? àti òmìnira wò?nyí bá yé ènìyàn nìkan ni a fi lè ní àmús?e? è?jé? yìí ní kíkún, Ní báyìí, Àpapò?? ìgbìmò? Àjo?-ìsò?kan orílè?-èdè àgbáyé s?e ìkéde káríayé ti è?tó? o?mo?nìyàn, gé?gé? bí ohun àfojúsùn tí gbogbo è?dá àti orílè?-èdè jo? ? lépa ló?nà tó jé? pé e?nì kò?ò?kan àti è?ka kò?ò?kan láwùjo? yóò fi ìkéde yìí só?kàn, tí wo?n yóò sì rí i pé àwo?n lo ètò-ìkó?ni àti ètò-è?kó? láti s?e ìgbéláruge? ìbò?wò? fún è?tó? àti òmìnira wò?nyí. Bákan náà, a gbo?dò? rí àwo?n ìgbésè? tí ó lè mú ìlo?síwájú bá orílè?-èdè kan s?os?o tàbí àwo?n orílè?-èdè sí ara wo?n, kí a sì rí i pé a fi ò?wò? tó jo?jú wo? àwo?n òfin wò?nyí, kí àmúlò wo?n sì jé? káríayé láàrin àwo?n ènìyàn orílè?-èdè tó jé? o?mo? Àjo?-ìsò?kan àgbáyé fúnra wo?n àti láàrin àwo?n ènìyàn orílè?-èdè mìíràn tó wà lábé? às?e? wo?n. Abala kìíní Gbogbo ènìyàn ni a bí ní òmìnira; iyì àti è?tó? kò?ò?kan sì dó?gba. Wó?n ní è?bùn ti làákàyè àti ti è?rí-o?kàn, ó sì ye? kí wo?n ó máa hùwà sí ara wo?n gé?gé? bí o?mo? ìyá. Abala kejì E?nì kò?ò?kan ló ní à?fàní sí gbogbo è?tó? àti òmìnira tí a ti gbé kalè? nínú ìkéde yìí láìfi ti ò?rò? ìyàtò? è?yà kankan s?e; ìyàtò? bí i ti è?yà ènìyàn, àwò???, ako?-n?-bábo, èdè, è?sìn, ètò ìs?èlú tàbí ìyàtò? nípa èrò e?ni, orílè?-èdè e?ni, orírun e?ni, ohun ìní e?ni, ìbí e?ni tàbí ìyàtò?? mìíràn yòówù kó jé?. Síwájú sí i, a kò gbo?dò? ya e?nìké?ni só?tò? nítorí irú ìjo?ba orílè?-èdè rè? ní àwùjo? àwo?n orílè?-èdè tàbí nítorí ètò-ìs?èlú tàbí ètò-ìdájó? orílè?-èdè rè?; orílè?-èdè náà ìbáà wà ní òmìnira tàbí kí ó wà lábé? ìs?àkóso ilè? mìíràn, wo?n ìbáà má dàá ìjo?ba ara wo?n s?e tàbí kí wó?n wà lábé? ìkáni-lápá-kò yòówù tí ìbáà fé? dí òmìnira wo?n ló?wó? gé?gé? bí orílè?-èdè. Abala ke?ta E?nì kò?ò?kan ló ní è?tó? láti wà láàyè, è?tó? sí òmìnira àti è?tó? sí ààbò ara rè?. Abala ke?rin A kò gbo?dò? mú e?niké?ni ní e?rú tàbí kí a mú un sìn; e?rú níní àti ò wò e?rú ni a gbo?dò? fi òfin dè ní gbogbo ò?nà. Abala karùn-ún A kò gbo?dò? dá e?nì ké?ni lóró tàbí kí a lò ó ní ìlò ìkà tí kò ye? o?mo? ènìyàn tàbí ìlò tó lè tàbùkù è?dá ènìyàn. Abala ke?fà E?nì kò?ò?kan ló ní è?tó? pé kí a kà á sí gé?gé? bí ènìyàn lábé? òfin ní ibi gbogbo. Abala keje Gbogbo ènìyàn ló dó?gba lábé? òfin. Wó?n sì ní è?tó? sí àà bò lábé? òfin láìsí ìyàsó?tò? kankan. Gbogbo ènìyàn ló ní è?tó? sí ààbò tó dó?gba kúrò ló?wó? ìyàsó?tò? yòówù tí ìbáà lòdì sí ìkéde yìí àti è?tó? kúrò ló?wó? gbogbo ohun tó bá lè ti ènìyàn láti s?e irú ìyàsó?tò? bé?è?. Abala ke?jo? E?nì kò?ò?kan lórílè?-èdè, ló ní è?tó? sí àtúns?e tó jo?jú ní ilé-e?jó? fún ìwà tó lòdì sí è?tó? o?mo?nìyàn, tó jé? kò-s?eé-má-nìí gé?gé? bó s?e wà lábé? òfin àti bí òfin-ìpìlè? s?e là á sílè?. Abala ke?sàn-án A kò gbo?dò? s?àdédé fi òfin mú ènìyàn tàbí kí a kàn gbé ènìyàn tì mó?lé, tàbí kí a lé ènìyàn jáde ní ìlú láìnídìí. Abala ke?wàá E?nì kò?ò?kan tí a bá fi è?sùn kàn ló ní è?tó? tó dó?gba, tó sì kún, láti s?àlàyé ara rè? ní gban?gba, níwájú ilé-e?jó? tí kò s?ègbè, kí wo?n lè s?e ìpinnu lórí è?tó? àti ojús?e rè? nípa irú è?sùn ò?ràn dídá tí a fi kàn án. Abala ko?kànlá E?nìké?ni tí a fi è?sùn kàn ni a gbo?dò? gbà wí pé ó jàrè títí è?bi rè? yóò fi hàn lábé? òfin nípasè? ìdájó? tí a s?e ní gban|gba nínú èyí tí e?ni tí a fi è?sùn kàn yóò ti ní gbogbo ohun tí ó nílò láti fi s?e àwíjàre ara rè?. A kò gbo?dò? dá è?bi è?s?è? fún e?nìké?ni fún pé ó hu ìwà kan tàbí pé ó s?e àwo?n àfojúfò kàn nígbà tó jé? pé lásìkò tí èyí s?e?lè?, irú ìwà bé?è? tàbí irú àfojúfò bé?è? kò lòdì sí òfin orílè?-èdè e?ni náà tàbí òfin àwo?n orílè?-èdè àgbáyé mìíràn. Bákan náà, ìje?níyà tí a lè fún e?ni tó dé?s?è? kò gbo?dò? ju èyí tó wà ní ìmúlò ní àsìkò tí e?ni náà dá è?s?è? rè?. Abala kejìlá E?nì kò?ò?kan ló ní è?tó? pé kí a má s?àdédé s?e àyo?júràn sí ò?rò? ìgbésí ayé rè?, tàbí sí ò?rò?e?bí rè? tàbí sí ò?rò? ìdílé rè? tàbí ìwé tí a ko? sí i; a kò sì gbo?dò? ba iyì àti orúko? rè? jé?. E?nì kò?ò?kan ló ní è?tó? sí ààbò lábé? òfin kúrò ló?wó? irú àyo?júràn tàbí ìbanijé? bé?è?. Abala ke?tàlá E?nì kò?ò?kan ló ní è?tó? láti rìn káàkiri ní òmìnira kí ó sì fi ibi tó bá wù ú s?e ìbùgbé láàrin orílè?-èdè rè?. E?nì kò?ò?kan ló ní è?tó? láti kúrò lórílè?-èdè yòówù kó jé?, tó fi mó? orílè?-èdè tirè?, kí ó sì tún padà sí orílè?-èdè tirè? nígbà tó bá wù ú. Abala ke?rìnlá E?nì kò?ò?kan ló ní è?tó? láti wá ààbò àti láti je? àn fàní ààbò yìí ní orílè?-èdè mìíràn nígbà tí a bá ? s?e inúnibíni sí i. A kò lè lo è?tó? yìí fún e?ni tí a bá pè lé?jó? tó dájú nítorí e? s??è? tí kò je? mó? ò?rò? ìs?èlú tàbí ohun mìíràn tí ó s?e tí kò bá ète àti ìgbékalè? Ajo?-ìsò?kan orílè?-èdè àgbáyé mu. Abala ke?è?é?dógún E?nì kò?ò?kan ló ní è?tó? láti jé? o?mo? orílè?-èdè kan. A kò lè s?àdédé gba è?tó? jíjé? o?mo? orílè?-èdè e?ni ló?wó? e?nìké?ni láìnídìí tàbí kí a kò? fún e?nìké?ni láti yàn láti jé? o?mo? orílè?-èdè mìíràn. Abala ke?rìndínlógún To?kùnrin tobìnrin tó bá ti bàlágà ló ní è?tó? láti fé? ara wo?n, kí wó?n sì dá e?bí ti wo?n sílè? láìsí ìkanilápá-kò kankan nípa è?yà wo?n, tàbí orílè?-èdè wo?n tàbí è?sìn wo?n. E?tó? wo?n dó?gba nínú ìgbeyàwó ìbáà jé? nígbà tí wo?n wà papò? tàbí lé?yìn tí wó?n bá ko? ara wo?n. A kò gbo?dò? s?e ìgbeyàwó kan láìjé? pé àwo?n tí ó fé? fé? ara wo?n ní òmìnira àto?kànwá tó péye láti yàn fúnra wo?n. E?bí jé? ìpìlè? pàtàkì àdánidá ní àwùjo?, ó sì ní è?tó? pé kí àwùjo? àti orílè?-èdè ó dáàbò bò ó. Abala ke?tàdínlógún E?nì kò?ò?kan ló ní è?tó? láti dá ohun ìní ara rè? ní tàbí láti ní in papò? pè?lú àwo?n mìíràn. A kò lè s?àdédé gba ohun ìní e?nì kan ló?wó? rè? láìnídìí. Abala kejìdínlógún E?nì kò?ò?kan ló ní è??tó? sí òmìnira èrò, òmìnira è?rí-o?kàn àti òmìnira e? sìn. E?tó? yìí sì gbani láàyè láti pààrò? e? sìn tàbí ìgbàgbó? e?ni. Ó sì fún e?yo? e?nì kan tàbí àkójo?pò? ènìyàn láàyè láti s?e è?sìn wo?n àti ìgbàgbó? wo?n bó s?e je? mó? ti ìkó?ni, ìs?esí, ìjó?sìn àti ìmús?e ohun tí wó?n gbàgbó? yálà ní ìkò?kò? tàbí ní gban?gba. Abala ko?kàndínlógún E?nì kò?ò?kan ló ní è?tó? sí òmì nira láti ní ìmò?ràn tí ó wù ú, kí ó sì so? irú ìmò?ràn bé?è? jáde; è?tó?yìí gbani láàyè láti ní ìmò?ràn yòówù láìsí àtakò láti ò?dò? e?nìké?ni láti wádìí ò?rò?, láti gba ìmò?ràn ló?dò? e?lòmíràn tàbí láti gbani níyànjú ló?nàkó?nà láìka ààlà orílè?-èdè kankan kún. Abala ogún E?nì kò?ò?kan ló ní è?tó? sí òmìnira láti pé jo? pò? àti láti dara pò? mó? àwo?n mìíràn ní àlàáfíà. A kò lè fi ipá mú e?nìké?ni dara pò? mó? e?gbé? kankan. Abala ko?kànlélógún E?nì kò?ò?kan ló ní è??tó? láti kópa nínú ìs?àkóso orílè?-èdè rè?, yálà fúnra rè? tàbí nípasè? àwo?n as?ojú tí a kò fi ipá yàn. E?nì kò?ò?kan ló ní è?tó? tó dó?gba láti s?e is?é? ìjo?ba ní orílè?-èdè rè?. Ìf?? àwo?n ènìyàn ìlú ni yóò jé? òkúta ìpìlè? fún à s?e? ìjo?ba; a ó máa fi ìfé? yìí hàn nípasè? ìbò tòótó? tí a ó máa dì láti ìgbà dé ìgbà, nínú èyí tí e?nì kò?ò?kan yóò ní è?tó? sí ìbò kan s?os?o tí a dì ní ìkò?kò? tàbí nípasè? irú o? nà ìdìbò mìíràn tí ó bá irú ìdìbò bé?è? mu. Abala kejìlélógún E?nì kò?ò?kan gé?gé?? bí è?yà nínú àwùjo? ló ní è?tó? sí ìdáàbò bò láti o?wó? ìjo?ba àti láti jé? àn fà ní àwo?n è?tó? tí ó bá o?rò?-ajé, ìwà láwùjo? àti às?à àbínibí mu; àwo?n è?tó? tí ó jé? kò-s?eé-má-nìí fún iyì àti ìdàgbàsókè è?dá ènìyàn, nípa akitiyan nínú orílè?-èdè àti ìfo?wó?s?owó? pò? láàrin àwo?n orílè?-èdè ní ìbámu pè?lú ètò àti ohun àlùmó?nì orílè?-èdè kò?ò?kan. Abala ke?tàlélógún E?nì kò?ò?kan ló ní è?tó? láti s?is?é?, láti yan irú is?é? tí ó wù ú, lábé? àdéhùn tí ó tó? tí ó sì tún ro?rùn, kí ó sì ní ààbò kúrò ló?wó? àìrís?é? s?e. E?nì kò?ò?kan ló ní è?tó? láti gba iye owó tí ó dó?gba fún irú is?é? kan náà, láìsí ìyàsó?tò? kankan. E?nì kò?ò?kan tí ó bá ? s?isé? ní è?tó? láti gba owó os?ù tí ó tó? tí yóò sì tó fún òun àti e?bí rè? láti gbé ayé tí ó bu iyì kún ènìyàn; a sì lè fi kún owó yìí nípasè? orís?ìí àwo?n ètò ìrànló?wó? mìíràn nígbà tí ó bá ye. E?nì kò?ò?kan ló ní è?tó? láti dá e?gbé? òs?ìs?é? sílè? àti láti dara pò? mó? irú e?gbe?; bé?è? láti dáàbò bo àwo?n ohun tí ó je? é? lógún. Abala ke?rìnlélógún E?nì kò?ò?kan ló ní è?tó? sí ìsinmi àti fàájì pè?lú àkókò tí kò pò? jù lé?nu is?é? àti àsìkò ìsinmi lé?nu is?é? láti ìgbà dé ìgbà tí a ó sanwó fún. Abala ke?è?é?dó?gbò?n E?nì kò?ò?kan ló ní è?tó? láti gbé ìgbé ayé tó bójú mu nínú èyí tí òun àti e?bí rè? yóò wà ní ìlera àti àlàáfíà, tí wo?n yóò sì ní oúnje?, as?o?, ilégbèé, àti àn fàní fún ìwòsàn àti gbogbo ohun tó lè mú è?dá gbé ìgbé ayé rere. Bákan náà, e?nì kò?ò?kan ló tún ní ààbò nígbà àìnís?é?ló?wó?, nígbà àìsà n, nígbà tó bá di aláàbò?-ara, ní ipò opó, nígbà ogbó rè? tàbí ìgbà mìíràn tí ènìyàn kò ní ò?nà láti rí oúnje? òò jó?, tí eléyìí kì í sì í s?e è?bi olúwa rè?. A ní láti pèsè ìtó?jú àti ìrànló?wó? pàtàkì fún àwo?n abiyamo? àti àwo?n o?mo?dé. Gbogbo àwo?n o?mo?dé yóò máa je? àwo?n àn fàní ààbò kan náà nínú àwùjo? yálà àwo?n òbí wo?n fé? ara wo?n ni tàbí wo?n kò fé? ara wo?n. Abala ke?rìndínló?gbò?n. E?nì kò?ò?kan ló ní è?tó? láti kó? è?kó?. Ó kéré tán, è?kó? gbo?dò? jé? ò?fé? ní àwo?n ilé-è?kó? alákò?ó?bè?rè?. E?kó? ní ilé-è?kó? alákò?ó?bè?rè? yìí sì gbo?dò? jé? dandan. A gbo?dò? pèsè è?kó? is?é?-o?wó?, àti ti ìmò?-è?ro? fún àwo?n ènìyàn lápapò?. Àn fàní tó dó?gba ní ilé-è?kó? gíga gbo?dò? wà ní àró?wó?tó gbogbo e?ni tó bá tó? sí. Ohun tí yóò jé? ète è?kó? ni láti mú ìlo?síwájú tó péye bá è?dá ènìyàn, kí ó sì túbò? rí i pé àwo?n ènìyàn bò?wò? fún è?tó? o?mo?nìyàn àti àwo?n òmìnira wo?n, tó jé? kò-s?eé-má-nìí. E tò è?kó? gbo?dò? lè rí i pé è?mí; ìgbó?ra-e?ni-yé, ìbágbépò? àlàáfíà, àti ìfé? ò?ré?-sí-ò?ré? wà láàrin orílè?-èdè, láàrin è?yà kan sí òmíràn àti láàrin e?lé?sìn kan sí òmíràn. E tò-è?kó? sì gbo?dò? kún àwo?n akitiyan Àjo?-ìsò?kan orílè?-èdè àgbáyé ló?wó? láti rí i pé àlàáfíà fìdí múlè?. Àwo?n òbí ló ní è?tó? tó ga jù lo? láti yan è?kó? tí wó?n bá fé? fún àwo?n o?mo? wo?n. Abala ke?tàdínló?gbò?n. E?nì kò?ò?kan ló ní è?tó? láìjé? pé a fi ipá mú un láti kópa nínú àpapò? ìgbé ayé àwùjo? rè?, kí ó je? ìgbádùn gbogbo ohun àmús?e? wà ibè?, kí ó sì kópa nínú ìdàgbàsókè ìmò? sáyé?n sì àti àwo?n àn fàní tó ? ti ibè? jáde. E?nì kò?ò?kan ló ní è?tó? sí ààbò àn fàní ìmo?yì àti ohun ìní tí ó je? yo? láti inú is?é? yòówù tí ó bá s?e ìbáà s?e ìmò? sáyé?n sì, ìwé kíko? tàbí is?é? o?nà. Abala kejìdínló?gbò?n E?nì kò?ò?kan ló ní è?tó? sí ètò nínú àwùjo? rè? àti ní gbogbo àwùjo? àgbáyé níbi tí àwo?n è?tó? òmìnira tí a ti gbé kalè? nínú ìkéde yìí yóò ti jé? mímús?e?. Abala ko?kàndínló?gbò?n E?nì kò?ò?kan ló ní àwo?n ojús?e kan sí àwùjo?, nípasè? èyí tí ó fi lè s?eé s?e fún e?ni náà láti ní ìdàgbàsókè kíkún gé?gé? bí è?dá ènìyàn. Òfin yóò de e?nì kò?ò?kan láti fi ò?wò? àti ìmo?yì tí ó tó? fún è?tó? àti òmìnira àwo?n e?lòmíràn nígbà tí e?ni náà bá ? lo àwo?n è?tó? àti òmìnira ara rè?. E yí wà ní ìbámu pè?lú ò?nà tó ye?, tó sì tó? láti fi báni lò nínú àwùjo? fún ire àti àlàáfíà àwùjo? náà nínú èyí tí ìjo?ba yóò wà ló?wó? gbogbo ènìyàn. A kò gbo?dò? lo àwo?n è?tó? àti òmìnira wò?nyí rárá, ní ò?nà yòówù kó jé?, tó bá lòdì sí àwo?n ète àti ìgbékalè? Ajo?-àpapò? orílè?-èdè agbáyé. Abala o?gbò?n A kò gb?d?? túmò? ohunkóhun nínú ìkéde yìí gé?gé? bí ohun tí ó fún orílè?-èdè kan tàbí àkójo?pò? àwo?n ènìyàn kan tàbí e?nìké?ni ní è?tó? láti s?e ohunkóhun tí yóò mú ìparun bá èyíkéyìí nínú àwo?n è?tó? àti òmìnira tí a kéde yìí. [1] Àw?n Ìt??kasí

Universal Declaration of Human Rights Eleanor Roosevelt with the Spanish language version of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Created 1948 Ratified 10 December 1948 Location Palais de Chaillot, Paris Author(s) Draft Committee Purpose Human rights Poster The human rights adopted by the United Nations General Assembly of its 183rd meeting, held in Paris on 10 December 1948 Rights Theoretical distinctions Claim rights and liberty rights Individual and group rights Natural and legal rights Negative and positive rights Human rights Civil and political Economic, social and cultural Three generations Rights by beneficiary Animals Authors Children Consumers Creditors Elders Fathers Fetuses Gun owners Humans Natives Intersex Kings LGBT Men Minorities Mothers Patients Plants Prisoners Self defense Students Victims Women Workers Youth Disabled persons Other groups of rights Civil liberties Digital Linguistic Property Reproductive Self-determination of people Water and sanitation v t e The Universal Declaration of Human Rights ( UDHR ) is a historic document that was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly at its third session on 10 December 1948 as Resolution 217 at the Palais de Chaillot in Paris , France . Of the then 58 members of the United Nations, 48 voted in favor, none against, eight abstained , and two did not vote. The Declaration consists of 30 articles affirming an individual's rights which, although not legally binding in themselves, have been elaborated in subsequent international treaties, economic transfers, regional human rights instruments, national constitutions, and other laws. The Declaration was the first step in the process of formulating the International Bill of Human Rights , which was completed in 1966, and came into force in 1976, after a sufficient number of countries had ratified them. Some legal scholars have argued that because countries have constantly invoked the Declaration for more than 50 years, it has become binding as a part of customary international law . However, in the United States, the Supreme Court in Sosa v. Alvarez-Machain (2004), concluded that the Declaration "does not of its own force impose obligations as a matter of international law." Courts of other countries have also concluded that the Declaration is not in and of itself part of domestic law. Contents 1 Structure and content 2 History 2.1 Background 2.2 Creation and drafting 2.3 Adoption 3 International Human Rights Day 4 Significance and legal effect 4.1 Significance 4.2 Legal effect 5 Reaction 5.1 Praise 5.2 Criticism 5.2.1 Islamic countries 5.2.2 "The Right to Refuse to Kill" 5.2.3 American Anthropological Association 5.2.4 Bangkok Declaration 6 Organizations promoting the UDHR 6.1 International Federation for Human Rights 6.2 Amnesty International 6.3 Unitarian Universalist Service Committee 6.4 Quaker United Nations Office and American Friends Service Committee 6.5 American Library Association 6.6 Youth for Human Rights International 7 See also 8 References 8.1 Citations 8.2 Sources 9 Further reading 10 External links 10.1 Audiovisual materials Structure and content [ edit ] The underlying structure of the Universal Declaration was introduced in its second draft, which was prepared by René Cassin . Cassin worked from a first draft, which was prepared by John Peters Humphrey . The structure was influenced by the Code Napoléon , including a preamble and introductory general principles. Cassin compared the Declaration to the portico of a Greek temple, with a foundation, steps, four columns, and a pediment . Wikisource has original text related to this article: Universal Declaration of Human Rights The Declaration consists of a preamble and thirty articles: The preamble sets out the historical and social causes that led to the necessity of drafting the Declaration. Articles 1–2 established the basic concepts of dignity, liberty, equality, and brotherhood. Articles 3–11 established other individual rights, such as the right to life and the prohibition of slavery . Articles 6–11 refer to the fundamental legality of human rights with specific remedies cited for their defence when violated. Articles 12–17 established the rights of the individual towards the community (including such things as freedom of movement ). Articles 18–21 sanctioned the so-called "constitutional liberties", and with spiritual, public, and political freedoms, such as freedom of thought , opinion, religion and conscience , word, and peaceful association of the individual. Articles 22–27 sanctioned an individual's economic, social and cultural rights, including healthcare . Article 25 states: "Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social services." It also makes additional accommodations for security in case of physical debilitation or disability, and makes special mention of care given to those in motherhood or childhood. Articles 28–30 established the general ways of using these rights, the areas in which these rights of the individual can not be applied, and that they can not be overcome against the individual. These articles are concerned with the duty of the individual to society and the prohibition of use of rights in contravention of the purposes of the United Nations Organisation. History [ edit ] Background [ edit ] State of the Union (Four Freedoms) (6 January 1941) Franklin Delano Roosevelt 's 6 January 1941 State of the Union address introducing the theme of the Four Freedoms (starting at 32:02) Problems playing this file? See media help . Main article: History of human rights During World War II , the Allies adopted the Four Freedoms — freedom of speech , freedom of religion , freedom from fear , and freedom from want —as their basic war aims. The United Nations Charter "reaffirmed faith in fundamental human rights , and dignity and worth of the human person" and committed all member states to promote "universal respect for, and observance of, human rights and fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion". When the atrocities committed by Nazi Germany became fully apparent after World War II , the consensus within the world community was that the United Nations Charter did not sufficiently define the rights to which it referred. A universal declaration that specified the rights of individuals was necessary to give effect to the Charter's provisions on human rights. Creation and drafting [ edit ] Main article: Drafting of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights In June 1946, the UN Economic and Social Council established the Commission on Human Rights , comprising 18 members from various nationalities and political backgrounds. The Commission, a standing body of the United Nations , was constituted to undertake the work of preparing what was initially conceived as an International Bill of Rights . The Commission established a special Universal Declaration of Human Rights Drafting Committee, chaired by Eleanor Roosevelt , to write the articles of the Declaration. The Committee met in two sessions over the course of two years. Canadian John Peters Humphrey , Director of the Division of Human Rights within the United Nations Secretariat, was called upon by the United Nations Secretary-General to work on the project and became the Declaration's principal drafter. At the time, Humphrey was newly appointed as Director of the Division of Human Rights within the United Nations Secretariat . Other well-known members of the drafting committee included René Cassin of France, Charles Malik of Lebanon , and P. C. Chang of the Republic of China (Taiwan). Humphrey provided the initial draft which became the working text of the Commission. According to Allan Carlson , the Declaration's pro-family phrases were the result of the Christian Democratic movement's influence on Cassin and Malik. Once the Committee finished its work in May 1948, the draft was further discussed by the Commission on Human Rights, the Economic and Social Council , the Third Committee of the General Assembly before being put to vote in December 1948. During these discussions many amendments and propositions were made by UN Member States. British representatives were extremely frustrated that the proposal had moral but no legal obligation. (It was not until 1976 that the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights came into force, giving a legal status to most of the Declaration.) Adoption [ edit ] The Universal Declaration was adopted by the General Assembly as Resolution 217 on 10 December 1948. Of the then 58 members of the United Nations, 48 voted in favor, none against, eight abstained and Honduras and Yemen failed to vote or abstain. In miniature book The meeting record provides firsthand insight into the debate. South Africa's position can be seen as an attempt to protect its system of apartheid , which clearly violated several articles in the Declaration. The Saudi Arabian delegation's abstention was prompted primarily by two of the Declaration's articles: Article 18, which states that everyone has the right "to change his religion or belief"; and Article 16, on equal marriage rights. The six communist countries abstentions centred around the view that the Declaration did not go far enough in condemning fascism and Nazism. Eleanor Roosevelt attributed the abstention of Soviet bloc countries to Article 13, which provided the right of citizens to leave their countries . The 48 countries which voted in favour of the Declaration are: Voters and abstainers in the Plenary session: In green countries that voted in favour, in orange those who abstained, In black countries which failed to abstain or vote, In grey countries which were not part of the UN at the time of voting. Afghanistan Argentina Australia Belgium Bolivia Brazil Burma Canada Chile China Colombia Costa Rica Cuba Denmark Dominican Republic Ecuador Egypt El Salvador Ethiopia France Greece Guatemala Haiti Iceland India Iran Iraq Lebanon Liberia Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands New Zealand Nicaragua Norway Pakistan Panama Paraguay Peru Philippines Siam Sweden Syria Turkey United Kingdom United States Uruguay Venezuela a. ^ Despite the central role played by the Canadian John Peters Humphrey, the Canadian Government at first abstained from voting on the Declaration's draft, but later voted in favor of the final draft in the General Assembly. 8 countries abstained: Czechoslovakia Poland Saudi Arabia Soviet Union Byelorussian SSR Ukrainian SSR South Africa Yugoslavia 2 countries didn't vote: Honduras Yemen Other countries only gained sovereignty and joined the United Nations later, which explains the relatively small number of states entitled to the historical vote, and in no way reflects opposition to the universal principles. International Human Rights Day [ edit ] Main article: Human Rights Day The Declaration of Human Rights Day is commemorated every year on December 10, the anniversary of the adoption of the Universal Declaration, and is known as Human Rights Day or International Human Rights Day. The commemoration is observed by individuals, community and religious groups, human rights organizations, parliaments, governments, and the United Nations. Decadal commemorations are often accompanied by campaigns to promote awareness of the Declaration and human rights. 2008 marked the 60th anniversary of the Declaration, and was accompanied by year-long activities around the theme "Dignity and justice for all of us". Significance and legal effect [ edit ] Significance [ edit ] In 1948, the UN Resolution A/RES/217(III)[A] adopted the Declaration on a bilingual document in English and French , and official translations in Chinese , Russian and Spanish . In 2009, the Guinness Book of Records described the Declaration as the world's "Most Translated Document" (370 different languages and dialects). The Unicode Consortium stores 431 of the 503 official translations available at the OHCHR (as of June 2017 [update] ). In its preamble, governments commit themselves and their people to progressive measures which secure the universal and effective recognition and observance of the human rights set out in the Declaration. Eleanor Roosevelt supported the adoption of the Declaration as a declaration rather than as a treaty because she believed that it would have the same kind of influence on global society as the United States Declaration of Independence had within the United States. In this, she proved to be correct. Even though it is not legally binding, the Declaration has been adopted in or has influenced most national constitutions since 1948. It has also served as the foundation for a growing number of national laws, international laws, and treaties, as well as for a growing number of regional, sub national, and national institutions protecting and promoting human rights. For the first time in international law, the term “the rule of law” was used in the preamble of the Declaration. The third paragraph of the preamble of the Declaration reads as follows: "Whereas it is essential, if man is not to be compelled to have recourse, as a last resort, to rebellion against tyranny and oppression, that human rights should be protected by the rule of law." Legal effect [ edit ] While not a treaty itself, the Declaration was explicitly adopted for the purpose of defining the meaning of the words " fundamental freedoms " and "human rights" appearing in the United Nations Charter, which is binding on all member states. For this reason, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights is a fundamental constitutive document of the United Nations. In addition, many international lawyers believe that the Declaration forms part of customary international law and is a powerful tool in applying diplomatic and moral pressure to governments that violate any of its articles. The 1968 United Nations International Conference on Human Rights advised that the Declaration "constitutes an obligation for the members of the international community" to all persons. The Declaration has served as the foundation for two binding UN human rights covenants: the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights . The principles of the Declaration are elaborated in international treaties such as the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination , the International Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women , the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child , the United Nations Convention Against Torture , and many more. The Declaration continues to be widely cited by governments, academics, advocates, and constitutional courts, and by individuals who appeal to its principles for the protection of their recognised human rights. Reaction [ edit ] Praise [ edit ] The Universal Declaration has received praise from a number of notable people. The Lebanese philosopher and diplomat Charles Malik called it "an international document of the first order of importance", while Eleanor Roosevelt —first chairwoman of the Commission on Human Rights (CHR) that drafted the Declaration—stated that it "may well become the international Magna Carta of all men everywhere." In a speech on 5 October 1995, Pope John Paul II called the Declaration "one of the highest expressions of the human conscience of our time" but the Vatican never adopted the Declaration. In a statement on 10 December 2003 on behalf of the European Union , Marcello Spatafora said that the Declaration "placed human rights at the centre of the framework of principles and obligations shaping relations within the international community." Criticism [ edit ] Islamic countries [ edit ] Turkey — which was a secular state with an overwhelmingly Muslim population—signed the Declaration in 1948. However, the same year, Saudi Arabia abstained from the ratification vote on the Declaration, claiming that it violated Sharia law . Pakistan —which had signed the declaration—disagreed and critiqued the Saudi position. Pakistani minister Muhammad Zafarullah Khan strongly argued in favor of including freedom of religion. In 1982, the Iranian representative to the United Nations, Said Rajaie-Khorassani, said that the Declaration was "a secular understanding of the Judeo-Christian tradition" which could not be implemented by Muslims without conflict with Sharia. On 30 June 2000, members of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference (now the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation ) officially resolved to support the Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam , an alternative document that says people have "freedom and right to a dignified life in accordance with the Islamic Shari'ah", without any discrimination on grounds of "race, colour, language, sex, religious belief, political affiliation, social status or other considerations". Some Muslim diplomats would go on later to help draft other UN human rights treaties. For example, Iraqi diplomat Bedia Afnan 's insistence on wording that recognized gender equality resulted in Article 3 within the ICCPR and ICESCR . Pakistani diplomat Shaista Suhrawardy Ikramullah also spoke in favor of recognizing women's rights. A number of scholars in different fields have expressed concerns with the Declaration's alleged Western bias. These include Irene Oh, Abdulaziz Sachedina , Riffat Hassan , and Faisal Kutty . Hassan has argued: What needs to be pointed out to those who uphold the Universal Declaration of Human Rights to be the highest, or sole, model, of a charter of equality and liberty for all human beings, is that given the Western origin and orientation of this Declaration, the "universality" of the assumptions on which it is based is – at the very least – problematic and subject to questioning. Furthermore, the alleged incompatibility between the concept of human rights and religion in general, or particular religions such as Islam, needs to be examined in an unbiased way. Irene Oh argues that one solution is to approach the issue from the perspective of comparative (descriptive) ethics . Kutty writes: "A strong argument can be made that the current formulation of international human rights constitutes a cultural structure in which western society finds itself easily at home ... It is important to acknowledge and appreciate that other societies may have equally valid alternative conceptions of human rights." Ironically, a number of Islamic countries that as of 2014 [update] are among the most resistant to UN intervention in domestic affairs, played an invaluable role in the creation of the Declaration, with countries such as Syria and Egypt having been strong proponents of the universality of human rights and the right of countries to self-determination. "The Right to Refuse to Kill" [ edit ] Groups such as Amnesty International and War Resisters International have advocated for "The Right to Refuse to Kill" to be added to the Universal Declaration. War Resisters International has stated that the right to conscientious objection to military service is primarily derived from—but not yet explicit in—Article 18 of the UDHR: the right to freedom of thought, conscience, and religion. Steps have been taken within the United Nations to make this right more explicit , but—to date (2017)— [update] those steps have been limited to less significant United Nations documents. Sean MacBride —Assistant Secretary-General of the United Nations and Nobel Peace Prize laureate—has said: "To the rights enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights one more might, with relevance, be added. It is 'The Right to Refuse to Kill'." American Anthropological Association [ edit ] The American Anthropological Association criticized the UDHR while it was in its drafting process. The AAA warned that the document would be defining universal rights from a Western paradigm which would be unfair to countries outside of that scope. They further argued that the West's history of colonialism and evangelism made them a problematic moral representative for the rest of the world. They proposed three notes for consideration with underlying themes of cultural relativism : "1. The individual realizes his personality through his culture, hence respect for individual differences entails a respect for cultural differences", "2. Respect for differences between cultures is validated by the scientific fact that no technique of qualitatively evaluating cultures has been discovered", and "3. Standards and values are relative to the culture from which they derive so that any attempt to formulate postulates that grow out of the beliefs or moral codes of one culture must to that extent detract from the applicability of any Declaration of Human Rights to mankind as a whole." Bangkok Declaration [ edit ] During the lead up to the World Conference on Human Rights held in 1993, ministers from Asian states adopted the Bangkok Declaration, reaffirming their governments' commitment to the principles of the United Nations Charter and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. They stated their view of the interdependence and indivisibility of human rights and stressed the need for universality, objectivity , and non-selectivity of human rights. However, at the same time, they emphasized the principles of sovereignty and non-interference, calling for greater emphasis on economic, social, and cultural rights—in particular, the right to economic development over civil and political rights. The Bangkok Declaration is considered to be a landmark expression of the Asian values perspective, which offers an extended critique of human rights universalism . Organizations promoting the UDHR [ edit ] International Federation for Human Rights [ edit ] The International Federation for Human Rights (FIDH) is nonpartisan , nonsectarian , and independent of any government, and its core mandate is to promote respect for all the rights set out in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights , and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights . Amnesty International [ edit ] In 1988, director Stephen R. Johnson and 41 international animators , musicians, and producers created a 20-minute video for Amnesty International to celebrate the 40th Anniversary of the Universal Declaration. The video was to bring to life the Declaration's 30 articles. Amnesty International celebrated Human Rights Day and the 60th anniversary of the Universal Declaration all over the world by organizing the "Fire Up!" event. Unitarian Universalist Service Committee [ edit ] The Unitarian Universalist Service Committee (UUSC) is a non-profit, nonsectarian organization whose work around the world is guided by the values of Unitarian Universalism and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. It works to provide disaster relief and promote human rights and social justice around the world. Quaker United Nations Office and American Friends Service Committee [ edit ] The Quaker United Nations Office and the American Friends Service Committee work on many human rights issues, including improving education on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. They have developed a Curriculum to help introduce High School students to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. American Library Association [ edit ] In 1997, the council of the American Library Association (ALA) endorsed Article 19 from the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Along with Article 19, Article 18 and 20 are also fundamentally tied to the ALA Universal Right to Free Expression and the Library Bill of Rights . Censorship , the invasion of privacy , and interference of opinions are human rights violations according to the ALA. In response to violations of human rights, the ALA asserts the following principles: “ The American Library Association opposes any use of governmental prerogative that leads to intimidation of individuals that prevents them from exercising their rights to hold opinions without interference, and to seek, receive, and impart information and ideas. We urge libraries and librarians everywhere to resist such abuse of governmental power, and to support those against whom such governmental power has been employed. The American Library Association condemns any governmental effort to involve libraries and librarians in restrictions on the right of any individual to hold opinions without interference, and to seek, receive, and impart information and ideas. Such restrictions, whether enforced by statutes or regulations, contractual stipulations, or voluntary agreements, pervert the function of the library and violate the professional responsibilities of librarians. The American Library Association rejects censorship in any form. Any action that denies the inalienable human rights of individuals only damages the will to resist oppression, strengthens the hand of the oppressor, and undermines the cause of justice. The American Library Association will not abrogate these principles. We believe that censorship corrupts the cause of justice, and contributes to the demise of freedom. ” Youth for Human Rights International [ edit ] Youth for Human Rights International (YHRI) is a non-profit organization founded in 2001 by Mary Shuttleworth, an educator born and raised in apartheid South Africa, where she witnessed firsthand the devastating effects of discrimination and the lack of basic human rights. The purpose of YHRI is to teach youth about human rights, specifically the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and inspire them to become advocates for tolerance and peace. YHRI has now grown into a global movement, including hundreds of groups, clubs and chapters around the world. See also [ edit ] Human rights portal United Nations portal Freedom of speech portal Human rights History of human rights Timeline of young people's rights in the United Kingdom in the United States in France Non-binding agreements Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam (1990) Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action (1993) United Nations Millennium Declaration (2000) International human rights law Fourth Geneva Convention (1949) European Convention on Human Rights (1952) Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees (1954) Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1969) International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1976) International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1976) Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (1981) Convention on the Rights of the Child (1990) Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union (2000) Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2007) Thinkers influencing the Declaration Jacques Maritain Tommy Douglas John Sankey, 1st Viscount Sankey Other Slavery in the United States in Russia Slavery in international law Slave Trade Acts Human rights in China (PRC) Command responsibility Moral universalism Declaration on Great Apes , an as-yet unsuccessful effort to extend some human rights to other great apes . " Consent of the governed " Racial equality proposal (1919) The Farewell Sermon (632 CE ) Youth for Human Rights International List of literary works by number of translations References [ edit ] Citations [ edit ] Sources [ edit ] Brown, Gordon (2016). The Universal Declaration of Human Rights in the 21st Century: A Living Document in a Changing World . Open Book Publishers. ISBN 978-1-783-74218-9 . Glendon, Mary Ann (2002). A world made new: Eleanor Roosevelt and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights . Random House. ISBN 978-0-375-76046-4 . Hashmi, Sohail H. (2002). Islamic political ethics: civil society, pluralism, and conflict . Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-11310-4 . Morsink, Johannes (1999). The Universal Declaration of Human Rights: origins, drafting, and intent . University of Pennsylvania Press . ISBN 978-0-8122-1747-6 . Price, Daniel E. (1999). Islamic political culture, democracy, and human rights: a comparative study . Greenwood Publishing Group . ISBN 978-0-275-96187-9 . Williams, Paul (1981). The International bill of human rights . United Nations General Assembly. Entwhistle Books. ISBN 978-0-934558-07-5 . Further reading [ edit ] Feldman, Jean-Philippe. "Hayek's Critique Of The Universal Declaration Of Human Rights". Journal des Economistes et des Etudes Humaines , Volume 9, Issue 4 (December 1999): 1145-6396. Nurser, John. "For All Peoples and All Nations. Christian Churches and Human Rights.". (Geneva: WCC Publications, 2005). Universal Declaration of Human Rights pages at Columbia University (Centre for the Study of Human Rights), including article by article commentary, video interviews, discussion of meaning, drafting and history. Introductory note by Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade and procedural history on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in the Historic Archives of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law External links [ edit ] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Universal Declaration of Human Rights Wikimedia Commons has media related to Universal Declaration of Human Rights . Wikiversity has learning resources about Assessing Human Rights UN Member States Text of the UDHR Official translations of the UDHR Resource Guide on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights at the UN Library, Geneva. Drafting of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights - documents and meetings records — United Nations Dag Hammarskjöld Library Questions and answers about the Universal Declaration Text, Audio, and Video excerpt of Eleanor Roosevelt's Address to the United Nations on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights UDHR – Education UDHR in Unicode Revista Envío – A Declaration of Human Rights For the 21st Century Introductory note by Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade and procedural history note on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in the Historic Archives of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law DHpedia: Universal Declaration of Human Rights The Laws of Burgos: 500 Years of Human Rights from the Law Library of Congress blog. Audiovisual materials [ edit ] UDHR Audio/Video Project (recordings in 500+ languages by native speakers) Librivox: Human-read audio recordings in several Languages Text, Audio, and Video excerpt of Eleanor Roosevelt's Address to the United Nations on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights Animated presentation of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights by Amnesty International on YouTube (in English duration 20 minutes and 23 seconds). Audio: Statement by Charles Malik as Representative of Lebanon to the Third Committee of the UN General Assembly on the Universal Declaration, 6 November 1948 UN Department of Public Information introduction to the drafters of the Declaration Audiovisual material on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in the Historic Archives of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law

train

when does a newborn turn into an infant

A newborn is, in colloquial use, an infant who is only hours, days, or up to one month old. In medical contexts, newborn or neonate (from Latin, neonatus, newborn) refers to an infant in the first 28 days after birth ; the term applies to premature, full term, and postmature infants ; before birth, the term `` fetus '' is used. The term `` infant '' is typically applied to young children between one month and one year of age ; however, definitions may vary and may include children up to two years of age. When a human child learns to walk, the term `` toddler '' may be used instead.

[]

ìgbà wo ni ọmọ tí wọ́n ṣẹ̀ṣẹ̀ bí máa ń di ọmọ jòjòló

Yes

['Ọmọ tuntun jẹ́ lílò ọ̀pọ̀, ìkókó tí ó jẹ́ wákàtí nìkan, ọjọ́, tàbí tí ó tó oṣù kan.']

['Ọmọ tuntun jẹ́ lílò ọ̀pọ̀, ìkókó tí ó jẹ́ wákàtí nìkan, ọjọ́, tàbí tí ó tó oṣù kan.']

['P1']

Ìkókó Ìkókó tàbí ?m?-?w?? j?? ?m? tí ó kéré gan-an ti ??dá ènìyàn . ?m? ìkókó (tí ó túm?? sí '?m? ?w??' tàbí '?m?' [1] ) j?? ar??pò-??r?? fún ??r?? tí ó w??p?? ?m? . Àw?n ??r?? náà lè tún ?eé lò láti t??ka sí ??d??. ?m? tuntun j?? lílò ??p??, ìkókó tí ó j?? wákàtí nìkan, ?j??, tàbí tí ó tó o?ù kan. Tí a bá fojú ì?ègùn wò ó , ?m? tuntun tabi ?m? tuntun j?? ìkókó ní àw?n ?j?? méjìdínlógún àk??k?? l??hìn ìbím?; [2] ??r?? náà kàn sí àìt??j??, ogbó , àti àw?n ?m? tó p?? nínú . ?áájú ìbím?, ?m? ni à ? pè ní ?m? inú oyún . ??r?? tí à ? pè ní ìkókó ni a fi s?rí àw?n ?m? láti ?dún kan sí ìsàl??; síb??síb??, àw?n ìtum?? lè yàt?? àti pé ó lè p??lú àw?n ?m?dé tí ó tó ?dún méjì . Nigbati ?m? eniyan ba k? ?k? lati rin, w?n ni a npe ni ?m?de ni dipo.

This article is about the very young child. For other uses, see Infant (disambiguation) . "Baby", "Newborn", and "Babyhood" redirect here. For other uses, see Baby (disambiguation) , Newborn (disambiguation) , and Babyhood (disambiguation) . Part of a series on Human growth and development Stages Human embryogenesis Fetus Infant Toddler Early childhood Child Preadolescence Adolescence Adult Middle age Old age Biological milestones Fertilization Childbirth Walking Language acquisition Puberty Menopause Ageing Death Development and psychology Pre- and perinatal Infant and child Adolescent Youth Young adult Adult Maturity Developmental stage theories Attachment Ecological Psychosocial Psychosexual development Moral Cognitive Cultural-historical Evolutionary Human body portal v t e An infant (from the Latin word infans , meaning "unable to speak" or "speechless") is the more formal or specialised synonym for " baby ", the very young offspring of a human. The term may also be used to refer to juveniles of other organisms. A newborn is, in colloquial use, an infant who is only hours, days, or up to one month old. In medical contexts, newborn or neonate (from Latin, neonatus , newborn) refers to an infant in the first 28 days after birth; the term applies to premature , full term , and postmature infants; before birth, the term " fetus " is used. The term "infant" is typically applied to young children between one month and one year of age; however, definitions may vary and may include children up to two years of age. When a human child learns to walk, the term " toddler " may be used instead. In British English , an infant school is for children aged between four and seven. As a legal term, "infancy" continues from birth until age 18. Contents [ hide ] 1 Physical characteristics of newborn 1.1 Weight 1.2 Head 1.3 Hair 1.4 Skin 1.5 Genitals 1.6 Umbilical cord 2 Care and feeding 3 Response to sounds 4 Benefits of touch 5 Diseases 6 Mortality 7 Emotional development 8 Babyhood 9 Plane travel 10 Gallery 11 Common care issues 12 References 13 Further reading 14 External links Physical characteristics of newborn Eight-month-old twin sisters Play media (video) A very young baby moves around in a crib, 2009 Eight month-old infant; as a common feature eyes are usually larger compared to the face. A crying newborn, a few days after birth A newborn's shoulders and hips are wide, the abdomen protrudes slightly, and the arms and legs are relatively long with respect to the rest of their body. In first world nations, the average total body length of newborns are 35.6–50.8 cm (14.0–20.0 in), although premature newborns may be much smaller. The Apgar score is a measure of a newborn's transition from the uterus during the first minutes after birth. Weight In developed countries, the average birth weight of a full-term newborn is approximately 3.4 kg ( 7 1 ⁄ 2 lb), and is typically in the range of 2.7–4.6 kg (6.0–10.1 lb). Over the first 5–7 days following birth, the body weight of a term neonate decreases by 3–7%, and is largely a result of the resorption and urination of the fluid that initially fills the lungs, in addition to a delay of often a few days before breastfeeding becomes effective. After the first week, healthy term neonates should gain 10–20 grams/day. Head A newborn's head is very large in proportion to the body, and the cranium is enormous relative to his or her face. While the adult human skull is about one seventh of the total body length, the newborn's is about ¼. Normal head circumference for a full-term infant is 33–36 cm at birth. At birth, many regions of the newborn's skull have not yet been converted to bone, leaving "soft spots" known as fontanels . The two largest are the diamond-shaped anterior fontanel, located at the top front portion of the head, and the smaller triangular-shaped posterior fontanel, which lies at the back of the head. Later in the child's life, these bones will fuse together in a natural process. A protein called noggin is responsible for the delay in an infant's skull fusion. A newborn baby in Indonesia, with umbilical cord ready to be clamped During labour and birth, the infant's skull changes shape to fit through the birth canal , sometimes causing the child to be born with a misshapen or elongated head. It will usually return to normal on its own within a few days or weeks. Special exercises sometimes advised by physicians may assist the process. Hair Some newborns have a fine, downy body hair called lanugo . It may be particularly noticeable on the back, shoulders, forehead, ears and face of premature infants. Lanugo disappears within a few weeks. Infants may be born with full heads of hair; others, particularly caucasian infants, may have very fine hair or may even be bald. Amongst fair-skinned parents, this fine hair may be blonde, even if the parents are not. The scalp may also be temporarily bruised or swollen, especially in hairless newborns, and the area around the eyes may be puffy. Skin Immediately after birth, a newborn's skin is often grayish to dusky blue in color. As soon as the newborn begins to breathe, usually within a minute or two, the skin's color reaches its normal tone. Newborns are wet, covered in streaks of blood, and coated with a white substance known as vernix caseosa , which is hypothesised to act as an antibacterial barrier. The newborn may also have Mongolian spots , various other birthmarks , or peeling skin, particularly on the wrists, hands, ankles, and feet. Genitals A newborn's genitals are enlarged and reddened, with male infants having an unusually large scrotum. The breasts may also be enlarged, even in male infants. This is caused by naturally occurring maternal hormones and is a temporary condition. Females (and even males) may actually discharge milk from their nipples (sometimes called witch's milk ), or a bloody or milky-like substance from the vagina. In either case, this is considered normal and will disappear with time. Umbilical cord The umbilical cord of a newborn is bluish-white in color. After birth, the umbilical cord is normally cut, leaving a 1–2 inch stub. The umbilical stub will dry out, shrivel, darken, and spontaneously fall off within about 3 weeks. This will later become a belly-button after it heals. Occasionally, hospitals may apply triple dye to the umbilical stub to prevent infection , which may temporarily color the stub and surrounding skin purple. A newborn infant, seconds after delivery. Amniotic fluid glistens on the child's skin. Main article: Adaptation to extrauterine life Care and feeding Further information: Newborn care and safety Further information: Infant bathing A baby breastfeeding Infants cry as a form of basic instinctive communication. A crying infant may be trying to express a variety of feelings including hunger, discomfort, overstimulation, boredom, wanting something, or loneliness. Breastfeeding is the recommended method of feeding by all major infant health organizations. If breastfeeding is not possible or desired, bottle feeding is done with expressed breast-milk or with infant formula . Infants are born with a sucking reflex allowing them to extract the milk from the nipples of the breasts or the nipple of the baby bottle , as well as an instinctive behavior known as rooting with which they seek out the nipple. Sometimes a wet nurse is hired to feed the infant, although this is rare, especially in developed countries. Adequate food consumption at an early age is vital for an infant’s development. From birth to four months, infants should consume breast milk or an unmodified milk substitute. As an infant’s diet matures, finger foods may be introduced as well as fruit, vegetables and small amounts of meat. As infants grow, food supplements are added. Many parents choose commercial, ready-made baby foods to supplement breast milk or formula for the child, while others adapt their usual meals for the dietary needs of their child. Whole cow's milk can be used at one year, but lower-fat milk is not recommended until the child is 2 to 3 years old. Weaning is the process through which breast milk is eliminated from the infant's diet through the introduction of solid foods in exchange for milk. Until they are toilet-trained, infants in industrialized countries wear diapers . Children need more sleep than adults—up to 18 hours for newborn babies, with a declining rate as the child ages. Until babies learn to walk, they are carried in the arms, held in slings or baby carriers, or transported in baby carriages or strollers. Most industrialized countries have laws requiring child safety seats for babies in motor vehicles. Response to sounds Infants respond to the sound of snake hissing, angry voices of adults, the crackling sound of a fire, thunder, and the cries of other infants. They have a drop in heart rate, their eyes blinking, increased turning toward the speakers or parent, all of these indicating that they were paying more attention. This is believed by some to be evolutionary response to danger. Benefits of touch Studies have shown that infants who have been the recipients of positive touch experience more benefits as they develop emotionally and socially. Experiments have been done with infants up to four months of age using both positive touch (stroking or cuddling) and negative touch (poking, pinching or tickling). The infants who received the positive touch cried less often and also vocalized and smiled more than the infants who were touched negatively. Infants who were the recipients of negative touching have been linked with emotional and behavioral problems later in life. A lower amount of physical violence in adults has been discovered in cultures with greater levels of positive physical touching. Diseases Further information: Neonatology The infant is undergoing many adaptations to extrauterine life , and its physiological systems, such as the immune system , are far from fully developed. Potential diseases of concern during the neonatal period include: Neonatal jaundice Infant respiratory distress syndrome Neonatal lupus erythematosus Neonatal conjunctivitis Neonatal tetanus Neonatal sepsis Neonatal bowel obstruction Benign neonatal seizures Neonatal diabetes mellitus Neonatal alloimmune thrombocytopenia Neonatal herpes simplex Neonatal hemochromatosis Neonatal meningitis Neonatal hepatitis Neonatal hypoglycemia Mortality Main article: Infant mortality An infant being immunized in Bangladesh Infant mortality is the death of an infant in the first year of life, often expressed as the number of deaths per 1000 live births (infant mortality rate). Major causes of infant mortality include dehydration , infection , congenital malformation and SIDS . This epidemiological indicator is recognized as a very important measure of the level of health care in a country because it is directly linked with the health status of infants, children, and pregnant women as well as access to medical care, socioeconomic conditions, and public health practices. There is a positive relationship between national wealth and good health. The rich and industrialized countries of the world, prominently Canada, the United Kingdom, the United States, and Japan, spend a large proportion of their wealthy budget on the health care system. As, a result, their health care systems are very sophisticated, with many physicians, nurses, and other health care experts servicing the population. Thus, infant mortality is low. On the other hand, a country such as Mexico, which spends disproportionately less of its budget on healthcare, suffers from high mortality rates. This is because the general population is likely to be less healthy. In the U.S., infant mortality rates are especially high in minority groups. For instance, non-Hispanic black women have an infant mortality rate of 13.63 per 1000 live births whereas in non-Hispanic white women it was much lower at a rate of 5.76 per 1000 live births. The average infant mortality rate in the U.S. is 6.8 per 1000 live births. Emotional development A mother wishes joy towards her child in William Blake 's poem " Infant Joy ". This copy, Copy AA, was printed and painted in 1826, is currently held by the Fitzwilliam Museum . Attachment theory is primarily an evolutionary and ethological theory whereby the infant or child seeks proximity to a specified attachment figure in situations of alarm or distress for the purpose of survival. The forming of attachments is considered to be the foundation of the infant/child's capacity to form and conduct relationships throughout life. Attachment is not the same as love or affection although they often go together. Attachment and attachment behaviors tend to develop between the age of 6 months and 3 years. Infants become attached to adults who are sensitive and responsive in social interactions with the infant, and who remain as consistent caregivers for some time. Parental responses lead to the development of patterns of attachment, which in turn lead to 'internal working models' which will guide the individual's feelings, thoughts, and expectations in later relationships. There are a number of attachment 'styles' namely 'secure', 'anxious-ambivalent', 'anxious-avoidant', (all 'organized') and 'disorganized', some of which are more problematic than others. A lack of attachment or a seriously disrupted capacity for attachment could potentially amount to serious disorders. [ citation needed ] Infants develop distinct relationships to their mothers, fathers, siblings, and non- familial caregivers. Beside the dyadic attachment relationships also a good quality of the triadic relationships (mother- father – infant) is important for infant mental health development. Babyhood Babyhood is a critical period in personality development when the foundations of adult personality are laid. In contrast toddler is used to denote a baby that has achieved relative independence, in moving about, and feeding. Plane travel Many airlines refuse boarding for all babies aged under 7 days (for domestic flights) or 14 days for international flights. Asiana Airlines allows babies to board international flights at 7 days of age. Garuda Indonesia disallows all babies under the age of 14 days to board any flights. Delta Air Lines and Pinnacle Airlines allow infants to travel when they are less than 7 days old when they present a physician travel approval letter. Comair requires a letter if the infant is 12 days or younger. Skywest will not allow an infant less than 8 days old on board. Gallery an Asian baby an African baby An African baby born to two African parents, with an unusually light skin. An Indian baby Common care issues Baby colic Bassinet / crib Bathing Cradle cap Day care Diaper rash Infant formula Infant massage Immunization Pacifier Paternal bond Swaddling Teething Umbilical cord References Further reading Simkin, Penny; Whalley, Janet; Keppler, Ann (1991). Pregnancy, Childbirth and the Newborn: The Complete Guide (Revised ed.). Meadowbook Press. ISBN 0-88166-177-5 . External links Wikiquote has quotations related to: Babies Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: Baby care and evolution Wikimedia Commons has media related to Babies . Look up infant in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. American Academy of Pediatrics The impact of buggy orientation on parent-infant interaction and infant stress The World Health Report 2005 – Make Every Mother and Child Infant eyesight – University of Illinois Preceded by Fetus Stages of human development Infancy Succeeded by Toddlerhood

train

where is guatemala city located on the map

Guatemala City (Spanish : Ciudad de Guatemala), locally known as Guatemala or Guate, is the capital and largest city of the Republic of Guatemala, and the most populous in Central America. The city is located in the south - central part of the country, nestled in a mountain valley called Valle de la Ermita (English : Hermitage Valley). In 2012, it had a population of 2,110,100. Guatemala City is also the capital of the local Municipality of Guatemala and of the Guatemala Department.

['memoir']

ibo ni ìlú guatemala wà lórí àwòrán ilẹ̀

Yes

['Ìlú Guatẹmálà je oluilu ni Ariwa Amerika.']

['Ìlú Guatẹmálà je oluilu ni Ariwa Amerika.']

['P1']

Ìlú Guat?málà Ìlú Guat?málà je oluilu ni Ariwa Amerika.

Guatemala City ( Spanish : Ciudad de Guatemala ), locally known as Guatemala or Guate , is the capital and largest city of the Republic of Guatemala , and the most populous in Central America . The city is located in the south-central part of the country, nestled in a mountain valley called Valle de la Ermita (English: Hermitage Valley). In 2012, it had a population of 2,110,100. Guatemala City is also the capital of the local Municipality of Guatemala and of the Guatemala Department . Contents [ hide ] 1 History 2 Contemporary times 3 Structure and growth 4 Population 5 Communications 6 Economy and Finance 7 Places of interest by zones 8 Transportation 9 Universities and schools 10 Sports 11 Panoramic views of Guatemala City 11.1 1875 11.2 2008 12 International relations 12.1 International organizations with headquarters in Guatemala City 12.2 Twin towns — sister cities 13 Notable residents 14 Climate 14.1 Volcanic activity 14.2 Earthquakes 14.3 Mudslides 14.4 Piping pseudokarst 15 Geographic location 16 See also 17 Notes and references 17.1 References 18 Bibliography 19 External links History [ edit ] "Cerrito del Carmen" church. First construction ever built by the Spaniards in the valley that eventually became Guatemala City. Main articles: History of Guatemala City and Timeline of Guatemala City Human settlement on the present site of Guatemala City began with the Maya who built a city at Kaminaljuyu . The Spanish colonists established a small town, which was made a capital city in 1775. At this period the Central Square with the Cathedral and Royal Palace were constructed. After Central American independence from Spain the city became the capital of the United Provinces of Central America in 1821. The 19th century saw the construction of the monumental Carrera Theater in the 1850s, and the Presidential Palace in the 1890s. At this time the city was expanding around the 30 de junio Boulevard and elsewhere, displacing native settlements from the ancient site. Earthquakes in 1917–1918 destroyed many historic structures. Under Jorge Ubico in the 1930s a hippodrome and many new public buildings were constructed, although peripheral poor neighborhoods that formed after the 1917–1918 earthquakes continued to lack basic amenities. During the Guatemalan Civil War , terror attacks beginning with the burning of the Spanish Embassy in 1980 led to severe destruction and loss of life in the city. In May 2010 two disasters struck: the eruption of the Pacaya volcano, and two days later Tropical Storm Agatha . Contemporary times [ edit ] Guatemala City from Carretera a El Salvador Santiago Garcia-Salas City serves as the economic, governmental, and cultural epicenter of the nation of Guatemala. The city also functions as Guatemala's main transportation hub, hosting an international airport, La Aurora International Airport , and serving as the origination or end points for most of Guatemala's major highways. The city, with its robust economy, attracts hundreds of thousands of rural migrants from Guatemala's interior hinterlands and serves as the main entry point for most foreign immigrants seeking to settle in Guatemala. In addition to a wide variety of restaurants, hotels, shops, and a modern BRT transport system ( Transmetro ), the city is home to many art galleries, theaters, sports venues and museums (including some fine collections of Pre-Columbian art) and provides a growing number of cultural offerings. Guatemala City not only possesses a history and culture unique to the Central American region, it also furnishes all the modern amenities of a world class city, ranging from an IMAX Theater to the Ícaro film festival ( Festival Ícaro ), where independent films produced in Guatemala and Central America are debuted. Structure and growth [ edit ] Plaza España at Night Evening view from a plane C.C. Miraflores Paseo Cayalá Guatemala City is subdivided into 22 zones designed by the urban engineering of Raúl Aguilar Batres , each one with its own streets and avenues, making it pretty easy to find addresses in the city. Zones are numbered 1-25 with Zones 20, 22 and 23 not existing as they would have fallen in two other municipalities territory. Addresses are assigned according to the street or avenue number, followed by a dash and the number of metres it is away from the intersection further simplifying address location. The zones are assigned in a spiral form starting in downtown Guatemala city. The city's metro area has recently grown very rapidly and has absorbed most of the neighboring municipalities of Villa Nueva, San Miguel Petapa, Mixco , San Juan Sacatepequez, San José Pinula, Santa Catarina Pinula, Fraijanes, San Pedro Ayampuc, Amatitlán, Villa Canales, Palencia and Chinautla forming what is now known as the Guatemala City Metropolitan Area . Zone One is the Historic Center, (Centro Histórico), lying in the very heart of the city, the location of many important historic buildings including the Palacio Nacional de la Cultura (National Palace of Culture), the Metropolitan Cathedral, the National Congress, the Casa Presidencial (Presidential House), the National Library and Plaza de la Constitución (Constitution Plaza, old Central Park). Efforts to revitalize this important part of the city have been undertaken by the municipal government and have been very successful thus far. In an attempt to control rapid growth of the city, the municipal government (Municipalidad de Guatemala) headed by longtime Mayor Álvaro Arzú , has implemented a plan to control its growth based on transects along its important arterial roads and exhibitting Transit-oriented development (TOD) characteristics. This plan denominated POT (Plan de Ordenamiento Territorial) aims to allow taller building structures of mixed uses to be built next to large arterial roads and gradually decline in height and density as you move away from such. It is also worth mentioning, that due to the Airport being in the city, to the south, many Aeronautic Height Limits have been applied to the construction code. This limits the maximum height for a building, at 60 metres (200 feet) in Zone 10, up to 95 metres (312 feet) in Zone 1. The city is located in the South-Central area of the country and has a lot of green areas. Besides the parks, the city offers a portfolio of entertainment in the region, focused on the so-called Zona Viva and the Calzada Roosevelt as well as four degrees North. The activity of Casinos is considerable and possesses several located in different parts of the Zona Viva, although East market is still in the stage of initiation, although the date has been restructuring this area and is becoming more modern. One of the most outstanding mayors was the engineer Martin Prado Vélez, who took over in 1949, and ruled the city during the reformist Presidents Juan José Arévalo and Jacobo Arbenz Guzman , although he was not a member of the ruling party at the time and was elected due his well-known capabilities. Of cobanero origin, married with Marta Cobos, he studied at the University of San Carlos ; under his tenure, among other modernist works of the city, it was planned the El Incienso bridge, the construction of the Roosevelt Avenue, the main road axis from East to West of the city, the town hall building, and numerous road works which meant the widening of the colonial city, its order in the cardinal points and the generation of a ring road with the first Shamrock in the main city of Central America. In the financial district are the tallest buildings in the country including: Club Premier , Tinttorento, Atlantis building, Atrium, Tikal Futura , Building of Finances, Towers Building Batteries, Torres Botticelli, Tadeus, building of the INTECAP, Royal Towers, Towers Geminis, Industrial Bank towers, Holiday Inn Hotel, Premier of the Americas, among many others to be used for offices, apartments etc. Also include projects such as Zona Pradera and Interamerica´s World Financial Center http://www.interamericaswfc.com . The location of the La Aurora international airport within the city limits the construction of skyscrapers, changing the limits permitted directly by its location within the urban area. Population [ edit ] Aerial View of Guatemala City According to the 2017 census, the Guatemala City metropolitan area had a population of 3.3 million, making it the most populous urban agglomeration in Central America. The growth of the city's population has been robust since then, abetted by the mass migration of Guatemalans from the rural hinterlands to the largest and most vibrant regional economy in Guatemala. The inhabitants of Guatemala City are incredibly diverse given the size of the city, with those of Spanish and Mestizo descent being the most numerous. Guatemala City also has sizable indigenous populations, divided among the 23 distinct Mayan groups present in Guatemala. The numerous Mayan languages are now spoken in certain quarters of Guatemala City, making the city a linguistically rich area. Foreigners and foreign immigrants comprise the final distinct group of Guatemala City inhabitants, representing a very small minority among the city's citizens. Due to mass migration from impoverished rural districts wracked with political instability, Guatemala City's population has exploded since the 1970s, severely straining the existing bureaucratic and physical infrastructure of the city. As a result, chronic traffic congestion, shortages of safe potable water in some areas of the city, and a sudden and prolonged surge in crime have become perennial problems. The infrastructure, although continuing to grow and improve in some areas, it is lagging in relation to the increasing population of those less fortunate. Guatemala City is not unique in facing and tackling problems all too common among rapidly expanding cities around the world. Communications [ edit ] Guatemala City is headquarters to many communications and telecom companies, among them Tigo, Claro-Telgua, and Movistar-Telefónica. These companies also offer cable television, internet services and telephone access. Due to Guatemala City's large and concentrated consumer base in comparison to the rest of the country, these telecom and communications companies provide most of their services and offerings within the confines of the city. There are also seven local television channels, in addition to numerous international channels. The international channels range from children's programming channels, like Nickelodeon and the Disney Channel, to more adult offerings, such as E! and HBO. While most international programming is dominated by televised entertainment from the United States, most domestic programming is dominated by televised entertainment from Mexico. Due to its small and relatively income-restricted domestic market, Guatemala City produces very little in the way of its own programming outside of local news and sports. Economy and Finance [ edit ] Guatemala City, as the capital, is home to Guatemala's central bank, from which Guatemala's monetary and fiscal policies are formulated and promulgated. Guatemala City is also headquarters to numerous regional private banks, among them CitiBank, Banco Agromercantil, Banco Promerica, Banco Industrial, Banco GyT Continental, Banco de Antigua, Banco Reformador, Banrural, Grupo Financiero de Occidente, BAC Credomatic, and Banco Internacional. By far the richest and most powerful regional economy within Guatemala, Guatemala City is the largest market for goods and services, which provides the greatest number of investment opportunities for public and private investors in all of Guatemala. Financing for these investments is provided by the regional private banks, as well as by foreign direct and capital investment, mostly from the United States. Guatemala City's ample consumer base and sophisticated service sector is represented by the large department store chains present in the city, among them Siman, Hiper Paiz & Paiz (Walmart), Price Smart, ClubCo, Cemaco, Sears and Office Depot. Bank of Guatemala. Banrural Bank. Pradera Zone. Agromercantil Bank. G&T Continental Bank. CHN Bank. Places of interest by zones [ edit ] Guatemala City is divided into 22 zones in accordance with the urban layout plan designed by Raúl Aguilar Batres . Each zone has its own streets and avenues, facilitating navigation within the city. Zones are numbered 1 through 25. However, numbers 20, 22 and 23 have not been designated to zones, thus these zones do not exist within the city proper. Zone Main places Pictures Zone 1 Museums Historic Downtown District La Sexta Boulevard National Palace Biblioteca Nacional de Guatemala Teatro Abril Hogar Rafael Ayau Centro Cultural de España en Guatemala Guatemala National Theater. Zone 2 Guatemala Relief Map Hipódromo del Norte park Simeón Cañas Avenue Enrique Torrebiarte Baseball Stadium Relief Map of Guatemala. Zone 3 Guatemala City General Cemetery Guatemala City General Cemetery . Zone 4 La Terminal Market El Triángulo Building Cuatro Grados Norte Zone 5 Doroteo Guamuch Flores National Stadium Teodoro Palacios Flores Gym Olympic Villa Zone 6 Cementos Progreso Stadium Zone 7 Kaminaljuyú Archeological Site Erick Barrondo Sports Park Peri-Roosevelt Mall Megacentro Mall Zone 9 Torre del Reformador Parque de la Industria Avenida Reforma Obelisco Torre del Reformador . Zone 10 Universidad Francisco Marroquín Ixchel Museum of Indigenous Textiles and Clothing Universidad Galileo Museo Popol Vuh Zona Viva Jardín Botánico La Pradera mall Plaza Fontabella shopping center Oakland Mall Zone 11 Museo de Miraflores Miraflores Mall Hotel Tikal Futura Hospital Roosevelt Centro Universitario Metropolitano de la Universidad de San Carlos Calzada Roosevelt Hotel Tikal Futura, zone 11. Zone 12 Ciudad Universitaria University of San Carlos Central Campus. Zone 13 Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología Museo Nacional de Arte Moderno "Carlos Mérida" Museo de los Niños Museo Nacional de Historia Natural Zoológico La Aurora La Aurora International Airport Avenida Las Américas Contraloría General de Cuentas de la Nación Universidad del Istmo Domo Polideportivo Mercado de Artesanías Reloj de Flores Antiguo Aqueducto de La Aurora Monument to Justo Rufino Barrios Monument to Tecún Umán La Aurora International Airport Zone 14 Centro Recreativo Universitario Los Arcos Las Américas Avenue Gerentes de Guatemala Association (AGG) Zone 15 Church of Latter-day Saints Guatemala City Temple Latter Day Saints Guatemala City Temple Zone 16 Universidad Rafael Landívar Guatemala Military Hospital Universidad Panamericana de Guatemala Paseo Cayalá Universidad Rafael Landívar Transmetro Transurbano La Aurora International Airport Transportation [ edit ] Renovated and expanded, La Aurora International Airport lies to the south of the city center. La Aurora serves as Guatemala's principal air hub. Public transport is provided by buses and supplemented by a BRT system. The three main highways that bisect and serve Guatemala start in the city. (CA9 Transoceanic Highway - Puerto San Jose to Puerto Santo Tomas de Castilla-, CA1 Panamerican Highway - from the Mexican border to Salvadorian border - and to Peten.) Construction of freeways and underpasses by the municipal government, the implementation of reversible lanes during peak rush-hour traffic, as well as the establishment of the Department of Metropolitan Transit Police (PMT), has helped improve traffic flow in the city. Despite these municipal efforts, the Guatemala City metropolitan area still faces growing traffic congestion. A BRT ( Bus Rapid Transit ) system called Transmetro , consisting of special-purpose lanes for high-capacity buses, began operating in 2007, and aimed to improve traffic flow in the city through the implementation of an efficient mass transit system. The system currently consists of five lines. In the future, it is expected to be made up of around 10 lines, with some over-capacity expected lines considered to be made Light Metro or Heavy Metro. Traditional buses are now required to discharge passengers at transfer stations at the city's edge to board the Transmetro. This is being implemented as new Transmetro lines become established. In conjunction with the new mass transit implementation in the city, there is also a prepaid bus card system called Transurbano that is being implemented in the metro area to limit cash handling for the transportation system. A new fleet of buses tailored for this system has been purchased from a Brazilian firm. Universities and schools [ edit ] See also: List of universities in Guatemala Guatemala City is home to ten universities, among them the oldest institution of higher education in Central America, the University of San Carlos of Guatemala . Founded in 1676, the Universidad de San Carlos is older than all North American universities except for Harvard University . The other nine institutions of higher education to be found in Guatemala City include the Universidad Mariano Gálvez, the Universidad Panamericana, the Universidad Mesoamericana, the Universidad Rafael Landivar, the Universidad Francisco Marroquín , the Universidad del Valle , the Universidad del Istmo , Universidad Galileo , Universidad da Vinci and the Universidad Rural. Whereas these nine named universities are private, the Universidad de San Carlos remains the only public institution of higher learning. Sports [ edit ] Guatemala City possesses several sportsgrounds and is home to many sports clubs. Association football is the most popular sport, with CSD Municipal , Aurora FC and Comunicaciones being the main clubs. The Estadio Mateo Flores , located in the Zone 5 of the city, is the largest stadium in the country, followed in capacity by the Estadio Cementos Progreso , Estadio del Ejército & Estadio El Trébol . An important multi-functional hall is the Domo Polideportivo de la CDAG . The city has hosted several promotional functions and some international sports events: in 1950 it hosted the VI Central American and Caribbean Games , and in 2000 the FIFA Futsal World Championship . On July 4, 2007 the International Olympic Committee gathered in Guatemala City and voted Sochi to become the host for the 2014 Winter Olympics and Paralympics . In April 2010, it hosted the XIVth Pan-American Mountain Bike Championships. Guatemala City hosted the 2008 edition of the CONCACAF Futsal Championship , played at the Domo Polideportivo from June 2 to June 8, 2008. Panoramic views of Guatemala City [ edit ] 1875 [ edit ] See also: Eadweard Muybridge Guatemala City skyline in 1875. Phographs by Eadweard Muybridge . 2008 [ edit ] Panoramic view of Guatemala City. Skyline of the zone 14 or residential buildings zone. International relations [ edit ] See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in Central America International organizations with headquarters in Guatemala City [ edit ] Central American Parliament Twin towns — sister cities [ edit ] Guatemala City is twinned with: City Jurisdiction Country [ hide ] Year Caracas Capital District Venezuela 1969 San Salvador San Salvador El Salvador 1979 Madrid Madrid Spain 1983 Lima Lima Peru 1987 Santiago de Chile Metropolitan Santiago Chile 1991 Saltillo Coahuila Mexico 1993 La Habana La Habana Cuba 1997 Bogotá Distrito Capital Colombia 1997 San Pedro Sula Cortés Honduras 1999 Santa Cruz de Tenerife Santa Cruz de Tenerife Spain 2002 San José San José Costa Rica 2005 Ciudad de Panamá Panamá Panama 2005 Taipei Northern Taiwan Republic of China 2007 Managua Managua Nicaragua 2008 Beijing Beijing China 2009 Notable residents [ edit ] Raúl Aguilar Batres , Engineer, creator of Guatemala City's system of avenue/street notation Miguel Ángel Asturias , Writer and diplomat, Nobel Prize Laureate Ricardo Arjona , Singer /songwriter Manuel Colom Argueta , Former mayor of Guatemala City and politician Toti Fernández , triathlete and ultramarathon runner Juan José Gutiérrez , CEO of Pollo Campero and on the board of directors of Corporación Multi Inversiones . Has been featured on the cover of Newsweek as Super CEO and named one of the Ten Big Thinkers for Big Business. Ted Hendricks , Oakland Raiders NFL Hall Of Fame Linebacker. 5-Time Super Bowl Champion Jorge de León , performance artist Carlos Mérida , painter Gaby Moreno , Singer/ Songwriter Carlos Peña , Singer, Winner of Latin American Idol 2007 Georgina Pontaza , actress and artistic director of the Teatro Abril and Teatro Fantasía Fernando Quevedo , Theoretical Physicist, currently a professor of High Energy Physics at the university of Cambridge Rodolfo Robles , Physician, discovered onchocercosis "Robles' Disease" Fabiola Rodas , Winner of The Third TV Azteca's Desafio de Estrellas 2nd Place in The Last Generation of La Academia Carlos Ruíz , football/soccer player Alida Boer , designer/Guatemalan designer clothing Alvaro Arzu , Mayor/businessman Shery , singer / songwriter Jaime Viñals , Mountaineer (Scaled seven highest peaks in the world) Luis von Ahn , Computer Scientist, CAPTCHA 's creator and Researcher at Carnegie Mellon University Rodrigo Saravia , Guatemala national team and IK Frej footballer Climate [ edit ] Despite its location in the tropics , Guatemala City’s relatively high altitude moderates average temperatures. The city has a tropical savanna climate ( Köppen Aw ) bordering on a subtropical highland climate ( Cwb ). Guatemala City is generally warm, almost springlike, throughout the course of the year. It occasionally gets hot during the dry season, but not as hot and humid as in the cities located at sea level. The hottest month is April. The rainy season extends from May to October, coinciding with the tropical storm and hurricane season in the western Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea, while the dry season extends from November to April. The city can at times be windy, which also leads to lower ambient temperatures. The average annual temperature ranges from 22 to 28 °C (72 to 82 °F) during the day, and 12 to 17 °C (54 to 63 °F) at night. Average morning relative humidity : 82%, evening relative humidity: 58%. Average dew point is 16 °C (61 °F ). [ hide ] Climate data for Guatemala City (1990–2011) Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high °C (°F) 30.0 (86) 32.1 (89.8) 32.0 (89.6) 33.9 (93) 33.9 (93) 31.2 (88.2) 29.1 (84.4) 30.2 (86.4) 29.8 (85.6) 28.6 (83.5) 29.9 (85.8) 28.8 (83.8) 33.9 (93) Average high °C (°F) 24.3 (75.7) 25.8 (78.4) 26.8 (80.2) 27.8 (82) 27.1 (80.8) 25.8 (78.4) 25.4 (77.7) 25.5 (77.9) 25.1 (77.2) 24.7 (76.5) 24.2 (75.6) 23.9 (75) 25.5 (77.9) Average low °C (°F) 13.2 (55.8) 13.6 (56.5) 14.6 (58.3) 16.0 (60.8) 16.8 (62.2) 16.8 (62.2) 16.3 (61.3) 16.5 (61.7) 16.4 (61.5) 16.0 (60.8) 14.7 (58.5) 13.7 (56.7) 15.4 (59.7) Record low °C (°F) 6.0 (42.8) 7.8 (46) 8.4 (47.1) 8.6 (47.5) 12.3 (54.1) 11.2 (52.2) 12.1 (53.8) 13.5 (56.3) 13.0 (55.4) 11.4 (52.5) 9.4 (48.9) 7.6 (45.7) 6.0 (42.8) Average rainfall mm (inches) 2.8 (0.11) 5.4 (0.213) 6.0 (0.236) 31.0 (1.22) 128.9 (5.075) 271.8 (10.701) 202.6 (7.976) 202.7 (7.98) 236.6 (9.315) 131.6 (5.181) 48.8 (1.921) 6.6 (0.26) 1,274.8 (50.188) Average rainy days 1.68 1.45 2.00 4.73 12.36 21.14 18.59 19.04 20.82 14.59 6.18 2.64 125.22 Average relative humidity (%) 74.3 73.4 73.2 74.3 77.3 82.4 80.8 80.9 84.5 82.0 79.2 76.0 77.8 Mean monthly sunshine hours 248.4 236.2 245.6 237.9 184.4 155.3 183.4 191.8 159.0 178.0 211.7 209.2 2,440.9 Source: Instituto Nacional de Sismologia, Vulcanologia, Meteorologia, e Hidrologia Volcanic activity [ edit ] Four stratovolcanoes are visible from the city, two of them active. The nearest and most active is Pacaya , which at times erupts a considerable amount of ash. These volcanoes lie to the south of the Valle de la Ermita, providing a natural barrier between Guatemala City and the Pacific lowlands that define the southern regions of Guatemala. Agua , Fuego , Pacaya and Acatenango comprise a line of 33 stratovolcanoes that stretches across the breadth of Guatemala, from the Salvadorian border to the Mexican border. Earthquakes [ edit ] See also: 1917 Guatemala earthquake and 1976 Guatemala earthquake Lying on the Ring of Fire , the Guatemalan highlands and the Valle de la Ermita are frequently shaken by large earthquakes. The last large tremor to hit the Guatemala City region occurred in the 1976, on the Motagua Fault , a left-lateral strike-slip fault that forms the boundary between the Caribbean Plate and the North American Plate . The 1976 event registered 7.5 on the moment magnitude scale . Smaller, less severe tremors are frequently felt in Guatemala City and environs. Mudslides [ edit ] Torrential downpours, similar to the more famous monsoons, occur frequently in the Valle de la Ermita during the rainy season, leading to flash floods that sometimes inundate the city. Due to these heavy rainfalls, some of the slums perched on the steep edges of the canyons that criss-cross the Valle de la Ermita are washed away and buried under mudslides, as in October 2005. Tropical waves, tropical storms and hurricanes sometimes strike the Guatemalan highlands, which also bring torrential rains to the Guatemala City region and trigger these deadly mudslides. Piping pseudokarst [ edit ] 2007 Sinkhole The 2010 sinkhole in Zona 2 In February 2007, a very large, deep circular hole with vertical walls opened in northeastern Guatemala City ( 14°39′1.40″N 90°29′25″W  /  14.6503889°N 90.49028°W  / 14.6503889; -90.49028 ), killing five people. This sinkhole, which is classified by geologists as either a " piping feature " or " piping pseudokarst ", was 100 metres (330 ft) deep, and apparently was created by fluid from a sewer eroding the loose volcanic ash , limestone , and other pyroclastic deposits that underlie Guatemala City. As a result, one thousand people were evacuated from the area. This piping feature has since been mitigated by City Hall by providing proper maintenance to the sewerage collection system and plans to develop the site have been proposed. However, critics believe municipal authorities have neglected needed maintenance on the city's aging sewerage system, and have speculated that more dangerous piping features are likely to develop unless action is taken. 3 years later the 2010 Guatemala City sinkhole arose. Geographic location [ edit ] The city is completely surrounded by Guatemala Department municipalities: See also [ edit ] Guatemala portal Geography portal 2007 Guatemala earthquake La Aurora International Airport List of places in Guatemala Notes and references [ edit ] References [ edit ] Bibliography [ edit ] Almengor, Oscar Guillermo (1994). "La Nueva Guatemala de la Asunción y los terremotos de 1917-18". Ciudad de Guatemala (in Spanish). Guatemala: Centro de estudios urbanos y regionales-USAC. Assardo, Luis (2010). "Llueve ceniza y piedras del Volcán de Pacaya" . El Periódico . Guatemala. Archived from the original on 4 July 2014 . Retrieved 28 May 2010 . Baily, John (1850). Central America; Describing Each of the States of Guatemala, Honduras, Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica . London: Trelawney Saunders. p. 72. Barrios Vital, Jenny Ivette (2006). "Restauración y revitalización del complejo arquitectónico de la Recolección" (PDF) (in Spanish). Guatemala: University of San Carlos of Guatemala thesis . Retrieved 2 September 2013 . Bascome Jones, J.; Scoullar, William T.; Soto Hall, Máximo (1915). El Libro azul de Guatemala (in Spanish). Searcy & Pfaff. relato é historia sobre la vida de las personas más prominentes; historia condensada de la república; artículos especiales sobre el comercio, agricultura y riqueza mineral, basado sobre las estadísticas oficiales Comisión para el Esclarecimiento Histórico: Vol. IV,2 (1999). "Atentados contra la libertad" . Programa de Ciencia y Derechos Humanos, Asociación Americana del Avance de la Ciencia (in Spanish). Guatemala: memoria del silencio. Archived from the original (Online edition) on 6 May 2013 . Retrieved 20 September 2014 . Comisión para el Esclarecimiento Histórico: Vol. IV (1999). "Atentados contra sedes municipales" . Programa de Ciencia y Derechos Humanos, Asociación Americana del Avance de la Ciencia (in Spanish). Guatemala: memoria del silencio. Archived from the original (Online edition) on 6 May 2013 . Retrieved 20 September 2014 . Conkling, Alfred R. (1884). Appleton's guide to Mexico, including a chapter on Guatemala, and a complete English-Spanish vocabulary . Nueva York: D. Appleton and Company. Dary Fuentes, Claudia (1994). "Una ciudad que empezaba a crecer". Revista Crónica, suplemento Revolución (in Spanish). Guatemala: Editorial Anahté. Diario de Navarra (2010). "El volcán Pacaya continúa activo y obliga a seguir con evacuaciones" . Diario de Navarra (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 31 July 2014 . Retrieved 5 June 2010 . El País (2010). "Socavón causado por la tormenta Agatha" . El País (in Spanish). Madrid, Spain. Archived from the original on 18 February 2012. El Periódico (31 January 2012). "Quema de embajada española" . elPeriódico (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 30 October 2013 . Retrieved 8 October 2013 . Figueroa, Luis (2011). "Bombazo en el Palacio Nacional" . Luis Figueroa Blog (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 26 June 2014 . Retrieved 25 October 2014 . Funtec (n.d.). "Mapa en Relieve de Guatemala" . Funtec-Guatemala (in Spanish). Guatemala. Archived from the original on 9 February 2008 . Retrieved 25 July 2009 . González Davison, Fernando (2008). La montaña infinita;Carrera, caudillo de Guatemala (in Spanish). Guatemala: Artemis y Edinter. ISBN 84-89452-81-4 . Guateantaño (17 October 2011). "Parques y plazas antiguas de Guatemala" . Guatepalabras Blogspot . Guatemala. Archived from the original on 27 January 2015. Halliday, W.R. (2007). "Pseudokarst in the 21st century". Journal of Cave and Karst Studies . 69 (1): 103–113. Ine (2013). "Caracterización Departamental, Guatemala 2012" (PDF) . Instituto Nacional de Estadística (in Spanish). Guatemala: Gobierno de Guatemala. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 June 2014. Hernández de León, Federico (1959). "El capítulo de las efemérides". Diario La Hora (in Spanish). Guatemala. Hernández de León, Federico (1930). El libro de las efemérides (in Spanish). Tomo III. Guatemala: Tipografía Sánchez y de Guise. La Hora (2013). "Una crónica impactante en el aniversario de la quema de la Embajada de España tras 33 años de impunidad" . Diario La Hora (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 7 December 2013 . Retrieved 8 October 2013 . La otra memoria histórica (5 December 2011). "Guatemala, viudas y huérfanos que dejó el comunismo" . La otra memoria histórica (in Spanish). Guatemala. Archived from the original on 7 December 2013 . Retrieved 10 October 2013 . Milla y Vidaurre, José (1980). Cuadros de Costumbres . Textos Modernos (in Spanish). Guatemala: Escolar Piedra Santa. Moncada Maya, José Omar (n.d.). "En torno a la destrucción de la ciudad de Guatemala, 1773. Una carta del ingeniero militar Antonio Marín" . Ub.es (in Spanish) . Retrieved 8 July 2009 . Morán Mérida, Amanda (1994). "Movimientos de pobladores en la Ciudad de Guatemala (1944-1954)" (PDF) . Boletín del CEUR-USAC (in Spanish). Guatemala: Centro de estudios urbanos y regionales-USAC (23). Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 October 2014 . Retrieved 27 September 2014 . Mundo Chapín (2013). "La Aurora y el Hipódromo del Sur" . Mundo Chapín . Guatemala. Archived from the original on 30 March 2014 . Retrieved 23 September 2014 . Municipalidad de Guatemala (August 2008). "Paso a desnivel de Tecún Umán" . Segmento cultural de la Municipalidad de Guatemala (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 24 February 2011 . Retrieved 27 September 2014 . Municipalidad de Guatemala (2014). "Mi barrio querido, Ciudad de Guatemala" (in Spanish). Guatemala City. Municipalidad de Guatemala (2007). "Conmemoración de los doscientos treinta años de fundación de la Ciudad de Guatemala" . Boletín de la Municipalidad de Guatemala . Archived from the original on 20 March 2013 . Retrieved 18 August 2009 . Municipalidad de Guatemala (2008). "Plan de Ordenamiento Territorial, Ciudad de Guatemala" (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 18 September 2009. Museo Ixchel (2008). "Museo Ixchel" . Museo Ixchel del traje indígena (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 2 February 2008 . Retrieved 25 July 2009 . Natural Reserve (2005). "Jardin Botanico" . Natureserve.org (in Spanish) . Retrieved 25 July 2009 . Newskeek (2005). "10 Big Thinkers for Big Business - The Daily Beast" . Newsweek.com . Retrieved 15 September 2011 . Population data (2012). "Guatemala population" . Population data . Archived from the original on 26 December 2013 . Retrieved 12 December 2012 . Prensa Libre (6 September 1980). "Avalancha terrorista en contra de la manifestación de mañana; poder público y transporte extraurbano blancos de ataque". Prensa Libre (in Spanish). Guatemala. Reilly, Michael (2 June 2010). "Don't Call the Guatemala Sinkhole a Sinkhole" . Discovery News . Retrieved 9 June 2010 . Sharer, Robert J. ; Traxler, Loa P. (2006). The Ancient Maya (6th (fully revised) ed.). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press . ISBN 0-8047-4817-9 . OCLC 57577446 . Sydney Morning Herald (2010). "Hole that swallowed a three-story building" . Sydney Morning Herald . Archived from the original on 3 July 2014. Walker, Peter (2010). "Tropical Storm Agatha blows a hole in Guatemala City" . The Guardian . London, UK. Archived from the original on 19 March 2013. Waltham, T. (2008). "Sinkhole hazard case histories in karst terrains" . Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology and Hydrogeology . 41 (3). Woodward, Ralph Lee, Jr. (2002). "Rafael Carrera y la creación de la República de Guatemala, 1821–1871" . Serie monográfica (in Spanish). CIRMA y Plumsock Mesoamerican Studies (12). ISBN 0-910443-19-X . Woodward, Ralph Lee, Jr. (1993). Rafael Carrera and the Emergence of the Republic of Guatemala, 1821-1871 (Online edition) . Athens, Georgia EE.UU.: University of Georgia Press . Retrieved 28 December 2014 . External links [ edit ] Media related to Guatemala City at Wikimedia Commons Guatemala City travel guide from Wikivoyage Official Website of the Municipalidad de Guatemala

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mexico city is in which state of mexico

Mexico 's capital is both the oldest capital city in the Americas and one of two founded by Native Americans, the other being Quito, Ecuador. The city was originally built on an island of Lake Texcoco by the Aztecs in 1325 as Tenochtitlan, which was almost completely destroyed in the 1521 siege of Tenochtitlan, and subsequently redesigned and rebuilt in accordance with the Spanish urban standards. In 1524, the municipality of Mexico City was established, known as México Tenochtitlán, and as of 1585 it was officially known as Ciudad de México (Mexico City). Mexico City served as the political, administrative and financial center of a major part of the Spanish colonial empire. After independence from Spain was achieved, the federal district was created in 1824.

['ghana', 'the flag of uganda']

ìlú mexico wà ní ìpínlẹ̀ mexico wo

Yes

['Ilu Meksiko ni oluilu orile-ede Mexico.']

['Ilu Meksiko ni oluilu orile-ede Mexico.']

['P1']

Ilu Meksiko Ilu Meksiko ni oluilu orile-ede Mexico.

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where is cross river state located in nigeria

Cross River is a state in South South Nigeria, bordering Cameroon to the east. Its capital is Calabar, and its name is derived from the Cross River (Oyono), which passes through the state. Boki, Ejagham and Efik are major languages of this state.

['neonate']

níbo ni ìpínlẹ̀ cross river wà ní nàìjíríà

Yes

['Ìpínlẹ̀ Cross River jẹ́ kan láàárín àwọn ìpínlẹ̀ mẹ́rìndínlógójì ní agbègbè Gúúsù-Gúúsù ní orílẹ̀ èdè Nàìjíríà.', 'Láyé òde-òní Ìpínlẹ̀ Cross River ti ní olùgbé láti bí ọ̀pọ̀ ọgọ́rùn-ún ọdún sẹ́yìn kúnfún àwọn oríṣiríṣi ẹ̀yà, pàáp̀á àwọn ará Efik ti gúúsù ni apá odò àti Calabar; àwọn ará Ekoi (Ejagham) ti erékùṣù gúúsù; àwọn ará Akunakuna, Boki, Bahumono, àti Yakö (Yakurr) ti àáríngbùngbùn agbègbè náà; àti àwọn ará Bekwarra, Bette, Igede, Ukelle (Kukele) ti agbègbè àríwá.']

['Ìpínlẹ̀ Cross River jẹ́ kan láàárín àwọn ìpínlẹ̀ mẹ́rìndínlógójì ní agbègbè Gúúsù-Gúúsù ní orílẹ̀ èdè Nàìjíríà.', 'Láyé òde-òní Ìpínlẹ̀ Cross River ti ní olùgbé láti bí ọ̀pọ̀ ọgọ́rùn-ún ọdún sẹ́yìn kúnfún àwọn oríṣiríṣi ẹ̀yà, pàáp̀á àwọn ará Efik ti gúúsù ni apá odò àti Calabar; àwọn ará Ekoi (Ejagham) ti erékùṣù gúúsù; àwọn ará Akunakuna, Boki, Bahumono, àti Yakö (Yakurr) ti àáríngbùngbùn agbègbè náà; àti àwọn ará Bekwarra, Bette, Igede, Ukelle (Kukele) ti agbègbè àríwá.']

['P1']

Ìpínl?? Cross River Ìpínl?? Cross River j?? kan láàárín àw?n ìpínl?? m??rìndínlógójì ní agbègbè Gúúsù-Gúúsù ní oríl?? èdè Nàìjíríà. W??n s??? lórúk? fún àw?n ará Cross River, w??n dá Ìpínl?? náà síl?? látara ìlà-oòrùn ní agbègbè ìlà-oòrùn ní ?j?? k?tàdínl??gb??n o?ù karùn-ún ?dún 1967. Olú-ìlú r?? ni Calabar, Ó pín ààlà sí àríwá p??lú Ìpínl?? Benue, sí ìw??-oòrùn p??lú Ìpínl?? Ebonyi p??lú sí Ìpínl?? Abia , àti sí gúúsù-ìw??-oòrùn p??lú Ìpínl?? Akwa Ibom nígbàtí ààlà ìlà-oòrùn r?? parap?? di ààlà oríl?? èdè p??lú oríl?? èdè Cameroon.[1] Ìpínl?? Gúúsù-Ìlà-oòrùnni w??n m???? sí kí w??n tó yí orúk? r?? padà ní ?dún 1976, Ìpínl?? Cross River t??l??rí ?àkóónú agbègbè tí ó wá di Ìpínl?? Akwa Ibom báyìí, tí ó di ìpínl?? tí ó dá yàt?? ní ?dún 1987.[2] Láàárín àw?n ìpínl?? m??rìndínlógójì ti oríl?? èdè Nàìjíríà, ìpínl?? Cross River j?? ìpínl?? ?l????k?sàn-án tí ó gbòòrò jùl? ní ààyè tàbí agbègbè àti ?l????k?tàdínl??gb??n ní iye p??lú ènìyàn tí ó tó mílí??nnù m??tàlél??gb??rin-?g??rùn-ún g??g?? bí àbájáde ?dún 2016.[3] Láyé òd-òní Ìpínl?? Cross River ti ní olùgbé láti bí ??p?? ?g??rùn-ún ?dún s??yìn kúnfún àw?n orí?irí?i ??yà, pàáp?á àw?n ará Efik ti gúúsù ni apá odò àti Calabar; àw?n ará Ekoi (Ejagham) ti erékù?ù gúúsù; àw?n ará Akunakuna, Boki, Bahumono, àti Yakö (Yakurr) ti àáríngbùngbùn agbègbè náà; àti àw?n ará Bekwarra, Bette, Igede, Ukelle (Kukele) ti agbègbè àríwá. Ní àkókò ìmúnisìn, ibi tí awá m?? sí Ìpínl?? Cross River báyìí pín sí àw?n ??yà tí àw?n kún àw?n ará E?gbé? Aro nígbà tí àw?n ará Efik ???dá Akwa Akpa (Calabar àtij??) ìlú-ìpínl??.[1]

Cross River is a state in South South Nigeria , bordering Cameroon to the east. Its capital is Calabar , and its name is derived from the Cross River (Oyono) , which passes through the state. Boki , Ejagham and Efik are major languages of this state. Contents [ hide ] 1 Geography 2 History 3 Demographics 4 Health Sector Development 5 Local Government Areas 6 Festivals 7 Tourism 8 Education 9 See also 10 References 11 External links Geography [ edit ] Cross River State is a coastal state in South South Nigeria, named after the Cross River, which passes through the state. Located in the Niger Delta , Cross River State occupies 20,156 square kilometers. It shares boundaries with Benue State to the north, Ebonyi and Abia States to the west, to the east by Cameroon Republic and to the south by Akwa-Ibom and the Atlantic Ocean . History [ edit ] The South-South State was created on May 27,1967 from the former Eastern Region, Nigeria by the General Yakubu Gowon regime. Its name was changed to Cross River State in the 1976 state creation exercise by the then General Murtala Mohammed regime from South Eastern State. The present day Akwa Ibom State was excised from it in the state creation exercise of September 1987 by the then regime of General Ibrahim Babangida. Its capital is Calabar . Its major towns are Akamkpa , Biase , Calabar South , Ikom , Igede , Obubra , Odukpani , Ogoja , Ugep , Obudu , Obanliku , Akpabuyo , Ofutop , Iso-bendghe , Danare , Boki , Yala and Ukelle The state has been previously governed by many governors and administrators including Udoakaha J. Esuene, Paul Omu, Tunde Elegbede, Clement Isong, Donald Etiebet, Daniel Archibong, Ibim Princewill, Ernest Atta, Clement Ebri, Ibrahim Kefas, Gregory Agboneni, Umar Faoruk Ahmed, Christopher Osondu, Donald Duke and Liyel Imoke. The Current Governor is Ben Ayade, who came into power on the 29th of May, 2015. Demographics [ edit ] The State is composed of several ethnic groups, which include the Efik, the Ejagham, Yakurr, Bette, Yala, Igede, Ukelle and the Bekwarra. The Efik language is widely spoken in the southern part of Cross River State, especially in Calabar Municipality, Calabar South and Odukpani. The Ejagham language is the most widely spoken language in Cross River State; from Calabar Municipality, Akamkpa, Ikom, Obubura, Ojoga, Obudu, and Etung local government councils, to the south west province of Cameroon . The Efik-speaking people live mainly in the Southern senetorial districts of Cross River, or as it is commonly referred to, the Greater Calabar district, which includes Calabar Municipality, Calabar South, Bakassi, Biase, Akpabuyo, Odukpani, and Akamkpa LGAs. There is also the Qua community in Calabar, which speaks Ejagham. The main Ejagham group occupies mostly the Greater Calabar areas of Calabar Municipality, Odukpani, Biase and Akampkpa sections of Cross River State. There are also the Yakurr/Agoi/Bahumono ethnic groups in Yakurr and Abi LGA, while the Mbembe are predominantly found in Obubra LGA. Further up the core northern part of the state are several sub-dialectical groups, among which are Etung, Olulumo, Ofutop, Nkim/Nkum, Abanajum, Nseke and Boki in both Ikom, Etung and Boki LGAs. Also, the Yala/Yache,Igede, Ukelle, Ekajuk, Mbube, Bette, Bekwarra and Utugwanga people are found in Ogoja, Yala, Obudu and Obanliku LGA's. The Yala are a subgroup of the Idoma nation, part of the Yala LGA's subgroups are the Igede speaking people believed to have migrated from the Oju part of Benue State, who migrated from Ora, in Edo North. Cross River State epitomises the nation's linguistic and cultural plurality and it is important to note that, in spite of the diversity of dialects, all the indigenous languages in the state have common linguistic roots as Niger–Congo languages . Finally, the state boasts of being the venue for the largest carnival in Africa. Health Sector Development [ edit ] Cross River healthcare delivery system is skewed in favour of the urban settlements. Local Government Areas [ edit ] Cross River State consists of eighteen (18) Local Government Areas . They are: Abi Akamkpa Akpabuyo Bakassi Bekwarra Biase Boki Calabar Municipal Calabar South Etung Ikom Obanliku Obubra Obudu Odukpani Ogoja Yakuur Yala Festivals [ edit ] In line with the objectives of the former Governor of the state Mr. Donald Duke to mix business with pleasure, there are many festivals. These festivals bring in tourists from far and wide into the state to enjoy themselves and also do business in the state. These festivals include The Cross River State Christmas Festival,which promises to be an event that will rival any festival events in Africa, with over 30 days of endless fun, carnival, games, cultural display, art exhibition, pageant and music performance. This year's Christmas event and Carnival promise to be the best. The Cross River State Christmas Festival – 1 December to 31 December annually The Cross River State Carnival Float – 26th and 27th December yearly The Yakurr Leboku Yam festival – 28 August annually The Calabar Boat Regata Another Interesting Festival in cross River state is Anong Bahumono Festival which holds in Anong Village, during which different cultural dances are showcased, including Ikpobin (acclaimed to be the most entertaining dance in the state), Ekoi, Obam, Emukei and Etangala Dances. Obanliku New Yam Festival - last Saturday of August Every Year. Tourism [ edit ] From the soaring plateaus of the mountain tops of Obanliku to the Rain forests of Afi, from the Waterfalls of Agbokim and Kwa to the spiralling ox-bow Calabar River which provides sights and images of the Tinapa Business Resort , Calabar Marina , Calabar Residency Museum and the Calabar Slave Park along its course, there is always a thrilling adventure awaiting the eco-tourist visiting Cross River State. Other tourist attractions are the Ikom Monoliths (a series of volcanic-stone monoliths of unknown age), the Mary Slessor Tomb, Calabar Drill Monkey Sanctuary, Cross River National Park, Afi Mountain walkway canopy, Kwa falls, Agbokim waterfalls, Tinapa Business Resort and the annual Calabar Carnival that takes place during the Christmas period. Cross River State can be accessed by air through the Margaret Ekpo International Airport at Calabar. There are daily flights to Calabar from Lagos and Abuja serviced by airlines such as Virgin Nigeria, Arik Airlines and Aero Contractors. Aero Contractors also have flights to the Bebi airstrip at Obanliku for trips to the Obanliku Mountain Resort. Calabar, the capital of Cross River State, is now the leading tourism city of Nigeria [ citation needed ] . Visitors from different parts of Nigeria come to the city in large numbers all year around. Education [ edit ] Tertiary educational institutions are the University of Calabar and the Cross River State University of Technology both in Calabar , the Ibrahim Babangida College of Agriculture in Obubra ,Cross River State College of Education in akamkpa , College of Health Technology, Iboko at Okpoma, Yala and Technical college Ugep . See also [ edit ] Tinapa Resort Akwa Akpa References [ edit ] http://crossriverwatch.com/?p=25473 External links [ edit ] Cross River State Government website

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how many local goverment do we have in delta state

Delta State consists of 25 Local Government Areas (shown with 2006 population figures) :

['chioma ajunwa-opara']

iye ìjọba ìbílẹ̀ mélòó la ní ní ìpínlẹ̀ delta

Yes

['Ìpinlè Delta ní Ìjoba Agbegbe Ibile marundinlogbon(25) [3]Arakunrin Emmanuel Uduaaghan ti fi igba je gomina ipinle delta ri labe asia egbe oselu PDP.']

['Ìjoba Agbegbe Ibile marundinlogbon(25)']

['P1']

Ipinle Delta Ipinle Delta je ipinle kan nini awon Ipinle ni orile-ede Naijiria. Ìpínlè Delta wà ní apa Guusu Nàìjíríà. Adá Ìpínlè Delta kalè ní ojo ketadinlogbon, osu kejo, odun 1991(27, Osu? ke?jo?, o?du?n 1991) ní abe isejoba Gen. Ibrahim Babangida [1]. Olú-ìlú Ìpínlè Delta ní Asaba bí otile jepe ìlú Warri ìkan aje/oja kale sí jù. Àwon èyà tí opoju ní Ìpinlè Delta ni Igbo, Urhobo, Isoko, Ijaw, Itsekiri [2]. Ìpinlè Delta ní Ìjoba Agbegbe Ibile marundinlogbon(25) [3] Arakunrin Emmanuel Uduaaghan ti fi igba je gomina ipinle delta ri labe asia egbe oselu PDP. Oruko gomina ipinle delta lowolowo bayii ni arakunrin Ifeanyi Okowa Awon Ìjoba Agbegbe Ìbílè ti Delta • Ariwa Aniocha • Guusu Aniocha • Bomadi • Burutu • Guusu Ethiope • Ila-oorun Ethiope • Ariwa Ila-oorun Ika • Guusu Ika • Ariwa Isoko • Guusu Isoko • Ila-oorun Ndokwa • ìw?? oòrùn Ndokwa • Okpe • Ariwa Oshimili • Guusu Oshimili • Patani • Sapele • Udu • Ariwa Ughelli • Guusu Ughelli • Ukwuani • Uvwie • Ariwa Warri • Guusu Warri • Guusu ìw?? oòrùn Warri Olokiki eniyan Kefee, olori obinrin ati ko-orin Naijiria Sunny Ofehe, oluselu ati ajafitafita Isaiah Ogedegbe, elesin aguntan ati oluso buloogi[4]

This article is about the state in Nigeria. For the Canadian animated TV series, see Delta State (TV series) . For states called delta, see Delta (disambiguation) . For other uses, see Delta State (disambiguation) . Delta or Delta State is an oil and agricultural producing state of Nigeria, situated in the region known as the South-South geo-political zone with a population of 4,112,445 (males: 2,069,309; females: 2,043,136). The capital city is Asaba , located at the northern end of the state, with an estimated area of 762 square kilometres (294 sq mi), while Warri is the economic nerve center of the state and also the most populated. It is located in the southern end of the state. The state has a total land area of 16,842 square kilometres (6,503 sq mi). Contents 1 Geography 2 History 3 Demographics 4 Administration 4.1 Past & Present Administrations [4] 4.2 Local government areas 5 Natural resources 6 Higher education 7 Tourist attractions 8 Sports 9 Notable people 10 References 11 External links Geography [ edit ] The state covers a landmass of about 18,050 km², of which more than 60% is land. The state lies approximately between Longitude 5°00 and 6°.45' East and Latitude 5°00 and 6°.30' North. It is bounded in the north and west by Edo State , the east by Anambra , Imo , and Rivers States, southeast by Bayelsa State , and on the southern flank is the Bight of Benin which covers about 160 kilometres of the state's coastline. Delta State is generally low-lying without remarkable hills. The state has a wide coastal belt inter-lace with rivulets and streams, which form part of the Niger River Delta . History [ edit ] Delta State was carved out of the former Bendel State on 27 August 1991. The state was created following agitations for the creation of a separate distinct state by the peoples of the old Delta Province: the Urhobos , Ijaw Izon , Isoko , Itsekiri and Ukwuani (later joined Anioma). There was yet another state creation movement designated as "Niger State" comprising the old midwestern Igbo-speaking Asaba divisions and Ukwuani-speaking Aboh division of the old Midwest region. This was transformed into "Anioma" following the creation of Niger State from the old Northwestern State by the Murtala Muhammed administration in 1976. The then Military President, Gen. Ibrahim Babangida , created the state using the name "Delta" advanced by Niger Delta region and "Asaba" a prominent town within the "Anioma" axis as capital. Asaba was designated as capital of the proposed Anioma State. The proposed capital was a virgin land or "Anioma city" in the heart of the two constituent divisions that had evolved to become the Anioma area. Delta state was once integrated in the Mid Western state from 1963 to 1976 and later Bendel state, from 1976 to 1991. The name "Bendel" (Ben-Del) coined from the old Benin and Delta Provinces of Western Region-Delta to reflect the integration of Benin and Delta provinces. Demographics [ edit ] Delta State is ethnically diverse, with various linguistic stocks. The first region is made up of three linguistic groupings, collectively referred to as Anioma . They are of Igboid stock and composed of three main groups namely Enuani, who inhabit the Aniocha and Oshimili Local Government Areas; Ika ; and Ndokwa/Ukwuani . All three inhabit the Delta North senatorial district. The second region consists of the other three main linguistic groups: Edoid , comprising the Isoko and Urhobo ; Yoruboid , Itsekiri ; and Ijoid , Izon. The Urhobo cultural extraction is the largest in the state with over 2 million native speakers. The Itsekiri speak a language very closely related to Yoruba but have been culturally influenced by the Edo ethnic group from neighbouring Edo state, as well as the Urhobo, Ijaw and Portuguese . The Izon are a branch of their kith and kin, in neighbouring Bayelsa State. The vast majority of inhabitants are Christian, with very few practicing Traditional Religion . Administration [ edit ] Arthur Okowa Ifeanyi , a member of the People's Democratic Party , was elected Governor and chief executive of Delta State in April 2015. His deputy is Barr. Kingsley Otuaro. The state has three National Senatorial Districts (South, North and Central). In 2011 and 2013, the elected senators were James Manager , Arthur Okowa Ifeanyi and Emmanuel Aguariavwodo who replaced Pius Ewherido who died in 2013 at National Hospital, Abuja. In 2015, Chief Ighoyeta Amori was elected Senator of Delta Central but his election was annulled and Senator Ovie Omo-Agege sworn in as Senator of Delta Central, James Manager retained his position and Chief Peter Nwaoboshi was elected Senator of Delta North. The Executive, Legislative and Judicial Chambers are housed in Asaba with a government house annex in Warri . Past & Present Administrations [ edit ] Ifeanyi Okowa - 29 May, 2015 to date ( PDP ) Emmanuel Uduaghan - 29 May 2007 to 29 May 2015 ( PDP ) James Ibori - 29 May 1999 to 29 May 2007 ( PDP ) Walter Feghabo - 12 August 1998 to 29 May 1999 (Military) John Dungs - 22 August 1996 to 12 August 1998 (Military) Ibrahim Kefas - 26 September 1994 to 22 August 1996 (Military) Bassey Asuquo - 10 December 1993 to 26 September 1994 (Military) Abdulkadir Shehu - 17 November 1993 - 10 December 1993 (Military) Luke Chijiuba Ochulor - 28 August 1991 - January 1992 (Military) Felix Ibru - January 1992 - November 1993 ( SDP ) Local government areas [ edit ] Delta State consists of 25 Local Government Areas (shown with 2006 population figures): Delta Central Senatorial District 1,575,738 Delta North Senatorial District 1,293,074 Delta South Senatorial District 1,229,282 Ethiope East 200,942 Aniocha North 104,062 Bomadi 86,016 Ethiope West 202,712 Aniocha South 142,045 Burutu 207,977 Okpe 128,398 Ika North East 182,819 Isoko North 143,559 Sapele 174,273 Ika South 167,060 Isoko South 235,147 Udu 142,480 Ndokwa East 103,224 Patani 67,391 Ughelli North 320,687 Ndokwa West 150,024 Warri North 136,149 Ughelli South 212,638 Oshimili North 118,540 Warri South 311,970 Uvwie 188,728 Oshimili South 150,032 Warri South West 116,538 Ukwuani 119,034 See also: Delta State Executive Council Natural resources [ edit ] There are various solid mineral deposits within state - industrial clay , silica , lignite , kaolin , tar sand , decorative rocks, limestone , etc. These are raw materials for industries such as brick making, ceramics , bottle manufacturing, glass manufacturing, chemical/insulators production, chalk manufacturing and sanitary wares , decorative stone cutting and quarrying . Delta state also has huge deposits of crude oil and is also one the largest producers of petroleum products in Nigeria Higher education [ edit ] Delta state has one of the highest numbers of tertiary institutions in any Nigerian state. This is a product of the people's thirst for knowledge and academic work. Some of these institutions are: Federal University of Petroleum Resources, Effurun Delta State University (Abraka Campus, Oleh Campus, Asaba Campus) Delta State Polytechnic, Ogwashi-Uku Delta State Polytechnic, Otefe-Oghara Delta State Polytechnic, Ozoro The Film and Broadcast Academy, Ozoro College of Education, Agbor College of Education, Warri Federal College of Education Technical, Asaba College of Physical Education, Mosogar School of Health Technology, Ughelli Petroleum Training Institute , Effurun Western Delta University , Oghara Novena University, Ogume-Amai National Open University of Nigeria, Asaba Study Center, Asaba National Open University of Nigeria, Emevor Study Center, Emevor Delta State School of Marine Technology, Burutu Nigerian Maritime University, Okerenkoko, Warri Conarina School of Maritime & Transport Technology, Oria- Abraka University of Information and Communication Technology, Agbor State School of Midwifery, Asaba School of Nursing, Agbor School of Nursing, Warri Baptist School of Nursing, Eku Edwin Clark University, Kiagbodo Eagle Heights University, Omadino, Warri Nigerian Naval School, Sapele Nigerian Navy Maritime University, Ibusa Tourist attractions [ edit ] Delta State has some historical, cultural and socio-political tourist centers that attract visitors from around the globe. Some of these sites of tourism include: The Nana's Palace built by Chief Nana Olomu of Ebrohim. He was a powerful 19th century indigenous entrepreneur who traded with the British. The relationship eventually turned sour. Later, he surrendered (not without putting up a fight) and was exiled to Ghana. His personal effects are housed in this grand palace. The River Ethiope which is reputed to be the deepest inland waterway in Africa (at 176 km). Its source is at the foot of a giant silk-cotton tree at Umuaja in Ukwuani Local Government Area of the state and flows through seven Local Government Areas in the State. It is a place of worship for Olokun traditional religion and also a common site for faithfuls of the Igbe Religious Movement . The Araya Bible Site which houses a copy of the Holy Bible . It is believed that the bible descended to this spot miraculously from heaven around August, 1914. The bible dropped on rain-soaked yam and it didn't get wet. The site now attracts thousands of Christians yearly. Demas Nwoko Edifice which was built using traditional materials, designs and construction techniques of the Igbo civilization and the Benin Empire by Demas Nwoko , an architect, builder and artist of international repute from Idumuje-Ugboko, in Aniocha North Local Government Area, Delta State. The Mungo Park House which is now the site of the National Museum, Asaba . The house was constructed by the Royal Niger Company (RNC) in 1886 and was used as a colonial administrative headquarters, a military house, the colonial administrative divisional headquarters, the RNC Constabulary building, and the seat of the Urban District Council at different times. The Niger Bridge which connects Delta State (by extension, western Nigeria) to the Eastern part of Nigeria. It is a beauty to behold. It was completed in 1965 and cost £5 million. It was damaged during the civil war, but later repaired. Lander Brothers Anchorage, Asaba which was built in memory of early British explorers. The complex has a museum, a graveyard, and many artworks and writings. It houses a replica of one of the boats that was used by the brothers. Falcorp Mangrove Park Warri Kingdom Royal Cemetery which is 512 year old burial ground and serves as the resting place of past rulers of Warri kingdom. A tree is planted on each grave. Sports [ edit ] Delta State is known to have produced several sportsmen and women, notably Stephen Okechukwu Keshi , Sunday Oliseh , Austin Jay-Jay Okocha , Wilson Oruma , Efetobore Sodje Blessing Okagbare and Jonathan Akpoborie , Cindy Ofili . Notable people [ edit ] Dennis Osadebe Gamaliel Onosode Patrick Utomi Zulu Sofola Stephen Keshi Michael Ashikodi Agbamuche , former Attorney General & Minister for Justice of Nigeria Bovi , popular Nigerian comedian John Pepper Clark , first professor of English in Africa, poet and writer Joy Ogwu , former Permanent Representative of Nigeria to the United Nations . Emmanuel Ibe Kachikwu , Minister of State, Petroleum Resources, Nigeria. Dominic Oneya Jim Ovia Tony Elumelu , UBA and Heirs Holdings . Olorogun O'tega Emerhor , Nigerian financial industry leader and politician. Jeremiah Omoto Fufeyin , founder of Christ Mercyland Deliverance Ministry RMD , veteran actor Ali Baba , veteran comedian. I Go Dye , popular comedian across Africaand United Nations ' Millennium Development Goals Ambassador James Ibori , former governor of Delta State Michael Ibru , business leader Tanure Ojaide , professor of English and renowned writer Blessing Okagbare , athlete, Olympic and World Championships medalist in the long jump, and a world medallist in the 200 metres Sunny Ofehe , international human & environmental rights activist. Okocha , former Super Eagles Captain Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala Ben Okri , writer Omawumi , popular Nigerian entertainer. Bruce Onobrakpeya , 2006 UNESCO Living Human Treasure Award, trustee of Western Niger Delta University Ayo Oritsejafor , founder of Word of Life Bible Church Amaju Pinnick , president of the Nigeria Football Federation Emmanuel Uduaghan Abel Ubeku , first black Managing Director of Guinness Nigeria Plc. Udoka Azubuike , college basketball player at the University of Kansas References [ edit ] External links [ edit ] Delta State Government Governor of Delta State Delta State Newspaper

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where is the yoruba tribe located in africa

The Yoruba people (Yoruba : Ìran Yorùbá, lit. ' Yoruba lineage ' ; also known as Àwon omo Yorùbá, lit. ' Children of Yoruba ', or simply as the Yoruba) are an ethnic group of southwestern and north - central Nigeria, as well as southern and central Benin. Together, these regions are known as Yorubaland. The Yoruba constitute over 40 million people in total. The majority of this population is from Nigeria, and the Yoruba make up 21 % of the country 's population, according to the CIA World Factbook, making them one of the largest ethnic groups in Africa. The majority of the Yoruba speak the Yoruba language, which is tonal, and is the Niger - Congo language with the largest number of native speakers.

[]

níbo ni ẹ̀yà yorùbá wà ní áfíríkà

Yes

['Ìran Yorùbá, àwọn ọmọ Yorùbá tàbí Ọmọ káàárọ̀-oòjíire, jé árá ìpinle ẹ̀yà, ní apá ìwọ̀ oòrùn ilẹ̀ Áfríkà.']

['apá ìwọ̀ oòrùn ilẹ̀ Áfríkà.']

['P1']

Ìran Yorùbá Ìran Yorùbá, àw?n ?m? Yorùbá tàbí ?m? káàár??-oòjíire, jé árá ìpinle ??yà, ní apá ìw?? oòrùn il?? Áfríkà. W?n jé árá ìpin àw?n ìran to pò ju ní oríl?? Áfríkà. Il?? Yorùbá ní púpò nínú w??n.[1] ? lè ri w??n ní ìpínl?? púpò bíi ìpínl?? ?dó, Ìpínl?? Èkìtì, ìpínl?? Èkó, Ìpínl?? Kwara, ìpínl?? Kogí, ìpínl?? Ògùn, Ìpínl?? O?dó, ìpínl?? ???un, ìpínl?? ??y??, àti ní ??yà ila ??w?? òsi ti ilè Nàìjíríà. ? tún le rí w??n ní ìpínl?? to wa nínú oríl??-èdè Olómìnira Benin, ní oríl??-èdè Sàró, àti ní àw?n oríl??-èdè miiran bíi àw?n tí w??n pè ní Togo, Brazil, Cuba, Haiti, Am??ríkà ati Venezuela. Àw?n Yorùbá wà l’árá àw?n to tóbí ju ní oríl??-èdè Nàìjíríà. Ó le j?? pe àw?n lo p?? jù, abí kí w??n j?? ìkejì, tàbí ??yà k?ta tí w??n p?? jùl? ní oríl??-èdè Nàìjíríà.[2][3] Àw?n Yorùbá j?? àw?n ènìyàn kan ti èdè wón pín sí orísirísi. Di?? lára àw?n ìpínsís??rí àw?n èdè w?n ni a ti ri: "Èkìtì"; "Èkó"; "Ìjèbú"; "Ìj???hà"; "Ìkál??"; "??y??"; "??gbá" àti b???? b???? l?. Àw?n ìpínsís??rí yí ni a ? pe ní ??ka èdè tàbí èdè àdúgbò. Ìran Yorùbá je ènìyàn kan tí w??n f??ràn láti máà se áájò àti àlejò àw?n ?l??yà míràn, w??n sì ma ? níf?? sí ?m?'làkejì. Èdè Èdè Yorùbá jé èdè ti àw?n ìran Yorùbá ma'? s? sí ara w?n. Ój?? èdè to pé jù ni il?? Yorùbá. ? lè ri èdè yi ni Il? Nàìjíríà, Il? Benin, ati ni Il? Togo. Iye to'n s? èdè yi ju ni gbogbo il?? Yorùbá 30 milli?nu l?.[4][5]

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the spontaneous emission of radiation by a nucleus is known as

Radioactive decay (also known as nuclear decay or radioactivity) is the process by which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy (in terms of mass in its rest frame) by emitting radiation, such as an alpha particle, beta particle with neutrino or only a neutrino in the case of electron capture, gamma ray, or electron in the case of internal conversion. A material containing such unstable nuclei is considered radioactive. Certain highly excited short - lived nuclear states can decay through neutron emission, or more rarely, proton emission.

['1998', "russian', 'american", 'low earth orbit']

ohun tí wọ́n ń pè ní ìmújáde Ìtànṣán láìgbèròtẹ́lẹ̀ nípa núkléù ni

Yes

['Ituka, tabi ipofo okun-inu, unsele nigbati atomu kan to ni iru nukleu kan, to unje radionuklidi obi, yirapada di atomu to ni nukleu kan ni ipoaye to yato, tabi to di nukleu oto to ni iye proton ati neutron oto.']

['Ituka, tabi ipofo okun-inu, unsele nigbati atomu kan to ni iru nukleu kan, to unje radionuklidi obi, yirapada di atomu to ni nukleu kan ni ipoaye to yato, tabi to di nukleu oto to ni iye proton ati neutron oto.']

['P1']

Ìtúká onítítànyindin Ìtúká onítítànyindin tabi ítuka titanyindin tabi ituka radioaktifu ni igbese nibi ti nukleu atomu kan ti atomu ti ko ni iduro lese pofo okun-inu nipa yiyojade awon alaratintinni toun je sisodi ioni (iranka ijeonisisodiioni|). Awon orisirisi iru ituka titanyindin lowa. Ituka, tabi ipofo okun-inu, unsele nigbati atomu kan to ni iru nukleu kan, to unje radionuklidi obi, yirapada di atomu to ni nukleu kan ni ipoaye to yato, tabi to di nukleu oto to ni iye proton ati neutron oto. Eyi to wu ninu awon yi ni o unje nuklidi omo. Ninu awon ituka miran obi ati omo je elimenti kemika otooto, nitori eyi igbese ituka fa iyirapada nukleu wa (ida atomu elimenti tuntun). Ìtúká álfà j?? àp?r? kan irú is one example type of ìtúká títànyindin, nibi ti nukleu atomu kan ti tu alfa alaratintinni kan sita, bi bayi to yirapada (tabi 'tuka') di atomu to din ni nomba akojo 4 ati to din ni nomba atomu 2. Orisi iru ituka miran lo tun se e se.

train

why do some atoms decay and emit radioactive rays

Although alpha, beta, and gamma radiations were most commonly found, other types of emission were eventually discovered. Shortly after the discovery of the positron in cosmic ray products, it was realized that the same process that operates in classical beta decay can also produce positrons (positron emission), along with neutrinos (classical beta decay produces antineutrinos). In a more common analogous process, called electron capture, some proton - rich nuclides were found to capture their own atomic electrons instead of emitting positrons, and subsequently these nuclides emit only a neutrino and a gamma ray from the excited nucleus (and often also Auger electrons and characteristic X-rays, as a result of the re-ordering of electrons to fill the place of the missing captured electron). These types of decay involve the nuclear capture of electrons or emission of electrons or positrons, and thus acts to move a nucleus toward the ratio of neutrons to protons that has the least energy for a given total number of nucleons. This consequently produces a more stable (lower energy) nucleus.

[]

kí nìdí tí àwọn átọ́ọ̀mù kan fi máa ń bà jẹ́ tí wọ́n sì máa ń tú ìtànṣán olóró jáde?

Yes

['Ninu awon ituka miran obi ati omo je elimenti kemika otooto, nitori eyi igbese ituka fa iyirapada nukleu wa (ida atomu elimenti tuntun).', 'Ituka, tabi ipofo okun-inu, unsele nigbati atomu kan to ni iru nukleu kan, to unje radionuklidi obi, yirapada di atomu to ni nukleu kan ni ipoaye to yato, tabi to di nukleu oto to ni iye proton ati neutron oto.']

['Ninu awon ituka miran obi ati omo je elimenti kemika otooto, nitori eyi igbese ituka fa iyirapada nukleu wa (ida atomu elimenti tuntun).', 'Ituka, tabi ipofo okun-inu, unsele nigbati atomu kan to ni iru nukleu kan, to unje radionuklidi obi, yirapada di atomu to ni nukleu kan ni ipoaye to yato, tabi to di nukleu oto to ni iye proton ati neutron oto.']

['P1']

Ìtúká onítítànyindin Ìtúká onítítànyindin tabi ítuka titanyindin tabi ituka radioaktifu ni igbese nibi ti nukleu atomu kan ti atomu ti ko ni iduro lese pofo okun-inu nipa yiyojade awon alaratintinni toun je sisodi ioni (iranka ijeonisisodiioni|). Awon orisirisi iru ituka titanyindin lowa. Ituka, tabi ipofo okun-inu, unsele nigbati atomu kan to ni iru nukleu kan, to unje radionuklidi obi, yirapada di atomu to ni nukleu kan ni ipoaye to yato, tabi to di nukleu oto to ni iye proton ati neutron oto. Eyi to wu ninu awon yi ni o unje nuklidi omo. Ninu awon ituka miran obi ati omo je elimenti kemika otooto, nitori eyi igbese ituka fa iyirapada nukleu wa (ida atomu elimenti tuntun). Ìtúká álfà j?? àp?r? kan irú is one example type of ìtúká títànyindin, nibi ti nukleu atomu kan ti tu alfa alaratintinni kan sita, bi bayi to yirapada (tabi 'tuka') di atomu to din ni nomba akojo 4 ati to din ni nomba atomu 2. Orisi iru ituka miran lo tun se e se.

train

where in the bible is the story of samuel

The Books of Samuel, 1 Samuel and 2 Samuel, form part of the narrative history of Israel in the Nevi'im or `` prophets '' section of the Hebrew Bible / Old Testament, called the Deuteronomistic history, a series of books (Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings) that constitute a theological history of the Israelites and aim to explain God 's law for Israel under the guidance of the prophets. According to Jewish tradition, the book was written by Samuel, with additions by the prophets Gad and Nathan. Modern scholarly thinking is that the entire Deuteronomistic history was composed in the period c. 630 -- 540 BC by combining a number of independent texts of various ages.

['june 28, 1870', 'the coming to earth of jesus']

ibo nínú bíbélì ni ìtàn sámúẹ́lì wà

Yes

['Ìwé Sámúẹ́lì jẹ́ ìwé Bíbélì Mímọ́ tó sọ̀rọ̀ nípa Sámúẹ́lì, ìbí rẹ̀, bí ó ti ṣe dàgbà nínú ìjọ lábẹ́ wòlíì Ọlọ́run kan Élì, tí ó sì jẹ́ láti ìgbà èwe rẹ̀ ni Ọlọ́run ti pè é.']

['Ìwé Sámúẹ́lì jẹ́ ìwé Bíbélì Mímọ́ tó sọ̀rọ̀ nípa Sámúẹ́lì']

['P1']

Ìwé Sámú??lì Ìwé Sámú??lì j?? ìwé Bíbélì Mím?? tó s??r?? nípa Sámú??lì, ìbí r??, bí ó ti ?e dàgbà nínú ìj? láb?? wòlíì ?l??run kan Élì, tí ó sì j?? láti ìgbà èwe r?? ni ?l??run ti pè é. Sámú??lì ni wòlíì Ísír??lì tó kàn l??yìn Élì, tí ó sì ? fi i??? tí ?l??run ran gba àw?n ènìyàn r?? nípa yíyàn ?ba S????lù g??g?? bí i ?ba Ísír??lì àk??k??. Tí ó sì tún s??r?? nípa ày?rísí àwon àw?n Ísír??lì g??g?? bí i olùborí lórí àw?n Filísínì, àti ìgbàgb?? nínú ?l??run láti má k? àw?n ènìyàn r?? síl??. Abbl.

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According to Jewish tradition, the book was written by Samuel , with additions by the prophets Gad and Nathan . Modern scholarly thinking is that the entire Deuteronomistic history was composed in the period c. 630–540 BC by combining a number of independent texts of various ages. Samuel begins with the prophet Samuel 's birth and God 's call to him as a boy. The story of the Ark of the Covenant that follows tells of Israel's oppression by the Philistines , which brought about Samuel's anointing of Saul as Israel's first king. But Saul proved unworthy and God's choice turned to David , who defeated Israel's enemies and brought the Ark to Jerusalem. God then promised David and his successors an everlasting dynasty. Contents 1 Summary 2 Composition 2.1 Versions 2.2 Authorship and date of composition 2.3 Sources 3 Themes 3.1 Samuel 3.2 Saul 3.3 David 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 Bibliography 7.1 Translations of 1 and 2 Samuel 7.2 Commentaries on Samuel 7.3 General 8 External links Summary [ edit ] Ernst Josephson , David and Saul , 1878. The childless Hannah vows to Yahweh of hosts that if she has a son, he will be dedicated to him. Eli , the priest of Shiloh (where the Ark of the Covenant is located), blesses her, and a child named Samuel is born. Samuel is dedicated to the Lord as a Nazirite – the only one beside Samson to be identified in the Bible. Eli's sons, Hophni and Phinehas , prove unworthy of the priesthood and are killed in battle during the Battle of Aphek , but the child Samuel grows up "in the presence of the Lord." The Philistines capture the Ark of the Covenant from Shiloh and take it to the temple of their god Dagon , who recognises the supremacy of Yahweh. The Philistines are afflicted with plagues and return the ark to the Israelites, but to the territory of the tribe of Benjamin rather than to Shiloh. The Philistines attack the Israelites gathered at Mizpah in Benjamin. Samuel appeals to Yahweh, the Philistines are decisively beaten, and the Israelites reclaim their lost territory. In Samuel's old age, he appoints his sons Joel and Abijah as judges, but they are unworthy, and so the people clamour for a king. God directs Samuel to grant them a king despite his concerns, and gives them Saul of the tribe of Benjamin. Saul defeats the enemies of the Israelites, but sins against Yahweh. Yahweh tells Samuel to anoint David of Bethlehem as king, and David enters Saul's court as his armour-bearer and harpist . Saul's son and heir Jonathan befriends David and recognises him as rightful king. Saul plots David's death, but David flees into the wilderness, where he becomes a champion of the Hebrews. David joins the Philistines, but continues secretly to champion his own people, until Saul and Jonathan are killed in battle at Mount Gilboa . At this point, David offers a majestic eulogy, where he praises the bravery and magnificence of both his friend Jonathan and King Saul. The elders of Judah anoint David as king, but in the north Saul's son Ish-bosheth , or Ishbaal, rules over the northern tribes. After a long war, Ishbaal is murdered by Rechab and Baanah , two of his captains who hope for a reward from David; but David has them killed for killing God's anointed. David is then anointed King of all Israel. David captures Jerusalem and brings the Ark there. David wishes to build a temple, but Nathan tells him that one of his sons will be the one to build the temple. David defeats the enemies of Israel, slaughtering Philistines, Moabites , Edomites , Syrians and Arameans . David commits adultery and has sex with Bathsheba and plots the death of her husband, Uriah the Hittite ; for this Yahweh sends disasters against his house. Nathan tells David that the sword shall never depart from his house. For the remainder of his reign there are problems. Amnon (one of David's sons) rapes his half-sister Tamar (one of David's daughters). Absalom (another son of David) kills Amnon, rebels against his father, and David flees from Jerusalem. Absalom is killed following the Battle of the Wood of Ephraim , David is restored as king, and he returns to his palace. Finally only two contenders for the succession remain, Adonijah and Bathsheba's son Solomon . The Second Book of Samuel concludes with four chapters (chapters 21 to 24) which lie outside the chronological narrative of Saul and David. The narrative is resumed with the first Book of Kings , which relates how, as David lies dying, Bathsheba and Nathan ensure Solomon's elevation to the throne. The four supplementary chapters cover a great famine during David's reign, the execution of seven of Saul's remaining descendants, only Mephibosheth being saved, David's song of thanksgiving , which is almost identical to Psalm 18 , his last words, a list of David's " mighty warriors ", an offering made by David using water from the well of Bethlehem, David's sinful census , a plague over Israel which David opted for as preferable to either famine or oppression, and the construction of an altar on land he purchased from Araunah the Jebusite . Composition [ edit ] David and Bathsheba , by Artemisia Gentileschi . David is seen in the background, standing on a balcony. Versions [ edit ] What it is now commonly known as 1 Samuel and 2 Samuel are called by the Vulgate , in imitation of the Septuagint , 1 Kings and 2 Kings respectively. Then, what it is now commonly known as 1 Kings and 2 Kings would be 3 Kings and 4 Kings in old Bibles before the year 1516. It was in 1517 that use of the division we know now today used by Protestant Bibles and adopted by Catholics began. Some Bibles still preserve the old denomination, for example, Douay Rheims bible . 1 and 2 Samuel were originally (and, in some Jewish bibles, still are [ citation needed ] ) a single book, but the first Greek translation, called Septuagint and produced around the second century BCE, divided it into two; this was adopted by the Latin translations used in the early Christian church of the West, and finally introduced into Jewish bibles around the early 16th century. The Hebrew text, that is used by Jews today, called the Masoretic text , differs considerably from the Hebrew text that was the basis of the first Greek translation, and scholars are still working at finding the best solutions to the many problems this presents. Authorship and date of composition [ edit ] According to passages 14b and 15a of the Bava Basra tractate of the Talmud , the book was written by Samuel up until 1 Samuel 25, which notes the death of Samuel, and the remainder by the prophets Gad and Nathan . Critical scholars from the 19th century onward have rejected this idea. Martin Noth in 1943 theorized that Samuel was composed by a single author as part of a history of Israel: the Deuteronomistic history (made up of Deuteronomy , Joshua , Judges , Samuel and Kings ). Although Noth's belief that the entire history was composed by a single individual has been largely abandoned, his theory in its broad outline has been adopted by most scholars. The most common view today is that an early version of the history was composed in the time of king Hezekiah (8th century BC); the bulk of the first edition dates from his grandson Josiah at the end of the 7th BC, with further sections added during the Babylonian exile (6th century BC) and the work was substantially complete by about 550 BC. Further editing was apparently done even after then: for example, the silver quarter-shekel which Saul's servant offers to Samuel in 1 Samuel 9 almost certainly fixes the date of this story in the Persian or Hellenistic periods . The 6th century BC authors and editors responsible for the bulk of the history drew on many earlier sources, including (but not limited to) an "ark narrative" (1 Samuel 4:1–7:1 and perhaps part of 2 Samuel 6), a "Saul cycle" (parts of 1 Samuel 9–11 and 13–14), the "history of David's rise" (1 Samuel 16:14-2 Samuel 5:10), and the "succession narrative" (2 Samuel 9–20 and 1 Kings 1–2). The oldest of these, the "ark narrative," may even predate the Davidic era. Sources [ edit ] The sources used to construct 1 and 2 Samuel are believed to include the following: Call of Samuel or Youth of Samuel (1 Samuel 1–7): From Samuel's birth his career as Judge and prophet over Israel. This source includes the Eli narrative and part of the ark narrative. Ark narrative (1 Samuel 4:1b–7:1 and 2 Samuel 6:1–20): the ark's capture by the Philistines in the time of Eli and its transfer to Jerusalem by David – opinion is divided over whether this is actually an independent unit. Jerusalem source : a fairly brief source discussing David conquering Jerusalem from the Jebusites . Republican source : a source with an anti-monarchial bias . This source first describes Samuel as decisively ridding the people of the Philistines, and begrudgingly appointing an individual chosen by God to be king, namely Saul. David is described as someone renowned for his skill at playing the harp, and consequently summoned to Saul's court to calm his moods. Saul's son Jonathan becomes friends with David, which some commentators view as romantic , and later acts as his protector against Saul's more violent intentions. At a later point, having been deserted by God on the eve of battle, Saul consults a medium at Endor , only to be condemned for doing so by Samuel's ghost, and told he and his sons will be killed. David is heartbroken on discovering the death of Jonathan, tearing his clothes as a gesture of grief. Monarchial source : a source with a pro-monarchial bias and covering many of the same details as the republican source . This source begins with the divinely appointed birth of Samuel. It then describes Saul as leading a war against the Ammonites, being chosen by the people to be king, and leading them against the Philistines. David is described as a shepherd boy arriving at the battlefield to aid his brothers, and is overheard by Saul, leading to David challenging Goliath and defeating the Philistines. David's warrior credentials lead to women falling in love with him, including Michal , Saul's daughter, who later acts to protect David against Saul. David eventually gains two new wives as a result of threatening to raid a village, and Michal is redistributed to another husband. At a later point, David finds himself seeking sanctuary amongst the Philistine army and facing the Israelites as an enemy. David is incensed that anyone should have killed Saul, even as an act of mercy, since Saul was anointed by Samuel, and has the individual responsible, an Amalekite , killed. Court History of David or Succession narrative (2 Samuel 9–20 and 1 Kings 1–2): a " historical novel ", in Alberto Soggin 's phrase, telling the story of David's reign from his affair with Bathsheba to his death. The theme is of retribution: David's sin against Uriah the Hittite is punished by God through the destruction of his own family, and its purpose is to serve as an apology for the coronation of Bathsheba's son Solomon instead of his older brother Adonijah . Some textual critics have posited that given the intimacy and precision of certain narrative details, the Court Historian may have been an eyewitness to some of the events he describes, or at the very least enjoyed access to the archives and battle reports of the royal house of David. Redactions : additions by the redactor to harmonize the sources together; many of the uncertain passages may be part of this editing. Various : several short sources, none of which have much connection to each other, and are fairly independent of the rest of the text. Many are poems or pure lists. Themes [ edit ] Hannah presenting Samuel to Eli , by Jan Victors , 1645. The Book of Samuel is a theological evaluation of kingship in general and of dynastic kingship and David in particular. The main themes of the book are introduced in the opening poem (the " Song of Hannah "): (1), the sovereignty of Yahweh , God of Israel; (2), the reversal of human fortunes; and (3), kingship. These themes are played out in the stories of the three main characters, Samuel , Saul and David . Samuel [ edit ] Main article: Samuel Samuel answers the description of the "prophet like Moses" predicted in Deuteronomy 18:15–22: like Moses, he has direct contact with Yahweh , acts as a judge, and is a perfect leader who never makes mistakes. Samuel's successful defence of the Israelites against their enemies demonstrates that they have no need for a king (who will, moreover, introduce inequality), yet despite this the people demand a king. But the king they are given is Yahweh's gift, and Samuel explains that kingship can be a blessing rather than a curse if they remain faithful to their God. On the other hand, total destruction of both king and people will result if they turn to wickedness. Saul [ edit ] Main article: Saul Saul is the chosen one, tall, handsome and "goodly", a king appointed by Yahweh, and anointed by Samuel, Yahweh's prophet, and yet he is ultimately rejected. Saul has two faults which make him unfit for the office of king: he carries out a sacrifice in place of Samuel (1 Samuel 13:8–14), and he fails to complete the genocide of the Amalekites as God has ordered (1 Samuel 15). David [ edit ] Main article: David One of the main units within Samuel is the "History of David's Rise", the purpose of which is to justify David as the legitimate successor to Saul. The narrative stresses that he gained the throne lawfully, always respecting "the Lord's anointed" (i.e. Saul) and never taking any of his numerous chances to seize the throne by violence. As God's chosen king over Israel, David is also the son of God ("I will be a father to him, and he shall be a son to me..." – 2 Samuel 7:14). God enters into an eternal covenant (treaty) with David and his line, promising divine protection of the dynasty and of Jerusalem through all time. 2 Samuel 23 contains a prophetic statement described as the "last words of David " (verses 1-7) and details of the 37 " mighty men " who were David's chief warriors (verses 8-38). The Jerusalem Bible states that last words were attributed to David in the style of Jacob (see Jacob's Blessing , Genesis 49) and Moses (see Blessing of Moses , Deuteronomy 33). Its editors note that "the text has suffered considerably and reconstructions are conjectural". 1 Kings 2:1-9 contains David's final words to Solomon , his son and successor as king . See also [ edit ] Biblical judges Midrash Shmuel (aggadah) The Bible and history History of ancient Israel and Judah Kingdom of Israel (Samaria) Kingdom of Judah Notes [ edit ] References [ edit ] Bibliography [ edit ] Translations of 1 and 2 Samuel [ edit ] Samuel 1 and 2 at Bible Gateway Commentaries on Samuel [ edit ] Shmuel I – Samuel I (Judaica Press) translation [with Rashi 's commentary] at Chabad.org Shmuel II – Samuel II (Judaica Press) translation [with Rashi 's commentary] at Chabad.org Auld, Graeme (2003). "1 & 2 Samuel". In James D. G. Dunn and John William Rogerson. Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible . Eerdmans. ISBN 9780802837110 . Bergen, David T. (1996). 1, 2 Samuel . B&H Publishing Group. ISBN 9780805401073 . Gordon, Robert (1986). I & II Samuel, A Commentary . Paternoster Press. ISBN 9780310230229 . Hertzberg, Hans Wilhelm (1964). I & II Samuel, A Commentary (trans. from German 2nd edition 1960 ed.). Westminster John Knox Press. p. 19. ISBN 978-0664223182 . Tsumura, David Toshio (2007). The First Book of Samuel . Eerdmans. ISBN 9780802823595 . General [ edit ] Breytenbach, Andries (2000). "Who Is Behind The Samuel Narrative?". In Johannes Cornelis de Moor and H.F. Van Rooy. Past, Present, Future: the Deuteronomistic History and the Prophets . Brill. ISBN 9789004118713 . Coogan, Michael D. (2009) A Brief Introduction to the Old Testament: the Hebrew Bible in its Context Oxford University Press Dick, Michael B (2004). "The History of "David's Rise to Power" and the Neo-Babylonian Succession Apologies". In Bernard Frank Batto and Kathryn L. Roberts. David and Zion: biblical studies in honor of J.J.M. Roberts . Eisenbrauns. ISBN 9781575060927 . Eynikel, Erik (2000). "The Relation Between the Eli Narrative and the Ark Narratives". In Johannes Cornelis de Moor and H.F. Van Rooy. Past, present, future: the Deuteronomistic history and the prophets . Brill. ISBN 9789004118713 . Halpern, Baruch (2001). David's Secret Demons: Messiah, Murderer, Traitor, King . Eerdmans. ISBN 9780802827975 . Jones, Gwilym H (2001). "1 and 2 Samuel". In John Barton and John Muddiman. The Oxford Bible Commentary . Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198755005 . Klein, R.W. (2003). "Samuel, books of". In Bromiley, Geoffrey W. The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia . Eerdmans. ISBN 9780802837844 . Knight, Douglas A (1995). "Chapter 4 Deuteronomy and the Deuteronomists". In James Luther Mays, David L. Petersen and Kent Harold Richards. Old Testament Interpretation . T&T Clark. p. 62. ISBN 9780567292896 . Knight, Douglas A (1991). "Sources". In Watson E. Mills, Roger Aubrey Bullard. Mercer Dictionary of the Bible . Mercer University Press. ISBN 9780865543737 . McCarter Jr., P. Kyle (1984). II Samuel: A New Translation With Introduction and Commentary By . Anchor Bible. ISBN 9780385068086 . Schleffer, Eben (2000). "Saving Saul from the Deuteronomist". In Johannes Cornelis de Moor and H.F. Van Rooy. Past, Present, Future: the Deuteronomistic History and the Prophets . Brill. ISBN 9789004118713 . Soggin, Alberto (1987). Introduction to the Old Testament . Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 9780664221560 . Spieckerman, Hermann (2001). "The Deuteronomistic History". In Leo G. Perdue. The Blackwell Companion to the Hebrew Bible . Blackwell. ISBN 9780631210719 . Van Seters, John (1997). In Search of History: Historiography in the Ancient World and the Origins of Biblical History . Eisenbrauns. ISBN 9781575060132 . Walton, John H (2009). "The Deuteronomistic History". In Andrew E. Hill, John H. Walton. A Survey of the Old Testament . Zondervan. ISBN 9780631210719 . External links [ edit ] Wikisource has original text related to this article: 1 Samuel (Bible) Wikisource has original text related to this article: 2 Samuel (Bible) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Books of Samuel . Wikiquote has quotations related to: First Book of Samuel Masoretic Text Samuel A - Mikraot Gedolot Haketer - online edition , Menachem Cohen , Bar Ilan University (Hebrew) Samuel B - Mikraot Gedolot Haketer - online edition , Menachem Cohen , Bar Ilan University (Hebrew) שמואל א Shmuel Aleph – Samuel A ( Hebrew – English at Mechon-Mamre.org) שמואל ב Shmuel Bet – Samuel B ( Hebrew – English at Mechon-Mamre.org) Jewish translations 1 Samuel at Mechon-Mamre (Jewish Publication Society translation) 2 Samuel at Mechon-Mamre (Jewish Publication Society translation) Christian translations Bible: 1 Samuel public domain audiobook at LibriVox Bible: 2 Samuel public domain audiobook at LibriVox Related articles Introduction to the book of 1 Samuel from the NIV Study Bible Introduction to the book of 2 Samuel from the NIV Study Bible Introduction to the book of 2 Samuel from Forward Movement Books of Samuel History books Preceded by Judges Hebrew Bible Succeeded by Kings Preceded by Ruth Christian Old Testament

train

what part of the world is india in

India (IAST : Bhārat), also known as the Republic of India (IAST : Bhārat Gaṇarājya), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh - largest country by area, the second-most populous country (with over 1.2 billion people), and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast, it shares land borders with Pakistan to the west ; China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast ; and Bangladesh and Myanmar to the east. In the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives, while its Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a maritime border with Thailand and Indonesia.

['206', '193']

apá wo nínú ayé ni íńdíà wà

Yes

['Índíà wà nítosí Sri Lanka, àti Maldives tí wọ́n wà ní Òkun Índíà.', 'Ó ni ààlà láàrin Pakistan ní ìwọ̀ oòrùn; Ṣáínà, Nepal, ati Bhutan si àríwà; ati Bangladẹ́shì ati Burma ní ìlà oòrùn.', 'Índíà, tàbí Orílẹ̀-èdè Olómìnira ilẹ̀ Índíà (ní èdè Híńdì: भारत गणराज्य Bhārat Gaṇarājya;), jẹ́ orílẹ̀-èdè kan ní Gúúsù Éṣíà.']

['Índíà wà nítosí Sri Lanka, àti Maldives tí wọ́n wà ní Òkun Índíà.', 'Àpapọ̀ wọn jẹ́ ẹ́fàlénígba', 'Índíà, tàbí Orílẹ̀-èdè Olómìnira ilẹ̀ Índíà jẹ́ orílẹ̀-èdè kan ní Gúúsù Éṣíà.']

['P1']

Índíà Índíà, tàbí Oríl??-èdè Olómìnira il?? Índíà (ní èdè Hí?dì: Bh?rat Ga?ar?jya;), j?? oríl??-èdè kan ní Gúúsù É?íà. Ohun ni oríl??-èdè kejè títóbi júl?? g??g?? bí ìtóbí j????gráfì, oríl??-èdè kìn-ín-ni tó ní ìye àw?n ènìyàn júl?[12] p??lú bíi 1.43 bílí??nù ènìyàn,[13] àti ìj?ba-oníbò tó ni ìye àw?n ènìyàn júl?? lágbàyé. Ó ja m? Òkun Índíà ní gúúsù, Òkun Lárúbáwá ni ìw?? oòrùn, àti Ebado Benga ní ìlà oòrùn, India ní etíkun tó j?? 7,516.6 kilometres (4,700 mi)[14]. Ó ni ààlà láàrin Pakistan ní ìw?? oòrùn; ?áínà, Nepal, ati Bhutan si àríwà; ati Banglad??shì ati Burma ní ìlà oòrùn. Índíà wà nítosí Sri Lanka, àti Maldives tí w??n wà ní Òkun Índíà. G??g?? bíi il?? ??làjú Àfonífojì Indus j?? ibí tó ní ìdàgbàsókè púp??, ab??oríl?? Índíà j?? ibi àw?n ènìyàn m?? fún ?lá àti à?à r?? káàkiri ayé.[13] Esin nla merin, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism ati Sikhism ni won bere latibe, nigbati Zoroastrianism, Esin Ju, Esin Kristi ati Imale de sibe ni egberundun akoko IO (CE) won si kopa ninu bi orisirisi asa agbegbe na seri. Diedie o je fifamora latowo British East India Company lati ibere orundun ikejidinlogun, o si di ile amusin Ile-oba Isodokan lati arin orundun ikandinlogun, India di orile-ede alominira ni 1947 leyin akitiyan fun isominira to se pataki fun isatako alaise jagidijagan kakiri.[15] India je orile-ede olominira kan to ni ipinle 28 ati awon agbegbe isokan meje pelu sistemu onileasofin oseluaralu. Okowo India ni okowo ikokanla titobijulo gege bi olorujo GDP lagbaye ati ikerin titobijulo gege bi ibamu agbara iraja. Otun je omo egbe Ajoni awon Orile-ede, G-20, BRIC, SAFTA ati Agbajo Owo Agbaye. India je orile-ede toni ohun-ijagun bombu inuatomu, o si ni ile-ise ologun ikewa ton nawojulo pelu ile-ise ologun adigun keji titobijulo lagbaye. Atunse okowo to bere lati 1991 ti so India di ikan ninu awon okowo to n dagba kiakia julo lagbaye;[16] sibesibe, aini si tun ba ja,[17] aimookomooka, iwa-ibaje, arun, ati aijeunkanu. Gege bi awujo esin olopolopo, eledepupo ati eleya eniyan pupo, India tun je ibugbe fun opolopo awon eran-igbe ni opolopo ibi alaabo. Orísun ìtum?? ??r?? India (pípè /??ndi?/) gege bi oruko wa lati Indus, to wa lati oro Persia Atijo Hindu, lati Sanskrit Sindhu, oruko ibile fun Odo Indus.[12] Awon Griiki ayeijoun n pe awon ara India ni Indoi (?????), awon eniyan Indus.[18] Ilana Ibagbepo ile India ati lilo oro towopo ninu opo awon ede India bakanna tun seidamo Bharat (pipe [?b???r?t?] ( ? t??tí gb??)) gege bi oruko onibise iru kanna.[14] Bharat gege bi oruko wa lati oruko oba olokiki Bharata ninu awon Itan-Awaso Hindu. Hindustan ([h?nd???st??n] ( ? t??tí gb??)), ni berebere to je oro Persia fun “Ile Hindus” lati toka si apaariwa India, bakanna tun lilo gege bi oruko gbogbo India.[19] Ìtàn Awon ibugbe apata Igba Okuta pelu awon iyaworan ni Bhimbetka rock shelters ni Madhya Pradesh ni eri igbe eniyan pipejulo ni India. Awon ibudo akoko ti a mo bere ni odun to ju 9,000 seyin lo, diedie o si dagba soke si À?à Ìbílè? Tí Wó?n ? Kó? ní Àfonífojì Í?díà ,[20] ti ojo ori re to odun 3400 BCE ni apaiwoorun India. Eyi je titele pelu Àkókò Vedic, to se ipilese Esin Hindu ati awon asa miran igba ibere awujo India, o si pari ni awon odun 500 BCE. Lati bi 550 BCE, opolopo awon ile-oba alominira ati orile-ede olominira ti a mo bi Mahajanapadas je didasile kakiri ibe.[21] Ni orundun keta KIO (BCE), opo gbogbo Guusu Asia je piparapo di Ileobaluaye Maurya latowo Chandragupta Maurya o si lokunkun ni asiko Ashoka Olokiki.[22] Lati igba orundun keta IO (CE), ijoba iran Gupta samojuto igba ti a mo bi ancient "Igba Oniwura India ayeijoun."[23][24] Awon ileobaluaye ni Apaguusu India je kikopomo gbogbo awon ti Chalukya, ti Cholas ati ti Vijayanagara Empire. Sayensi, teknoloji, ise-ero, ise-ona, ogbon, ede, litireso, mathematiiki, itorawo, esin ati imo-oye di olokunkun labe itoju awon oba wonyi. Leyin awon iborile lati Arin Asia larin orundun 10th ati 12th, opo Ariwa India ni won bo si abe ijoba Delhi Sultanate ati leyin eyi sabe Ileobaluaye Mughal. Labe isejoba Akbar the Great, India gbadun idagbasoke asa ati okowo pupo ati irepo esin.[25][26] Awon obaluaye Mughal diedie fe ile won si pupo lati dori apa nla abeorile. Sibesibe, ni Ariwa-Apailaorun India, alagbara to joba ibe ni ileoba Ahom ti Assam, gege bi ikan ninu awon ileoba ti won lodi si ijobalenilori Mughal. Ihalemo ninla akoko si agbara ijoba Mughal wa latodo oba Hindu Rajput kan Maha Rana Pratap ti Mewar ni orundun 16th ati leyin eyi latodo orile-ede Hindu kan to n je adapapo Maratha, to joba lori opo India ni arin orundun 18th.[27] Lati orundun 16th, awon alagbara ara Europe bi Portugal, Hollandi, Fransi, ati Iparapo Ileoba se idasile ibudo owo (trading posts) be sini leyin eyi won lo anfani ti awon ija abele ibe fa wa lati sedasile awon ibiamusin nibe. Nigba to fi di 1856, opo India ti bo sabe idari British East India Company.[28] Odun kan leyin eyi, igbogundi kakiri awon eyo ologun olodi ijoba ati awon ileoba, ti a mo bi Ogun Ilominira Akoko India tabi Sepoy Mutiny, koju idari ile-ise yi gidigidi sugbon ko yori si rere. Nitori aidurorege, India bo si abe isejoba taara Oba Alade Britani. Mahatma Gandhi (right) with Jawaharlal Nehru, 1937. Ni orundun 20th, akitiyan fun ilominira kakiri orile-ede bere latowo Indian National Congress ati awon agbajo oloselu miran.[29] Olori India Mahatma Gandhi lewaju awon egbegberun eniyan ni opolopo igbese torile-ede fun aigboran araalu aini-jagidijagan .[15] Ni ojo 15 osu kejo 1947, India gba ilominira kuro lowo isejoba Britani, sugbon nigba kanna awon agbegbe ogunlogo Musulum je pipinniya lati da orile-ede otooto Pakistan.[30] Ni ojo 26 osi kinni 1950, India di orile-ede olominira be sini ilana ibagbepo tuntun je gbigbe jade.[31] Lati igba ilominira, India ti ni awon isoro lati owojagidijagan esin, casteism, naxalism, isedaniloro ati latowo awon igbogunti oludase agbegbe, agaga ni Jammu ati Kashmir ati Ariwailaorun India. Lati igba awon odun 1990 awon idigbolu adaniloro ti nipa lori opolopo awon ilu India. India ni ariyanjiyan ile pelu orile-ede Olominira awon Eniyan ile Saina, to di ni odun 1962 Ogun Saina-India, ati pelu Pakistan, to fa awon ogun ni 1947, 1965, 1971 ati ni 1999. India je omo egbe adasile Iparapo awon Orile-ede (gege bi India Britani) ati Non-Aligned Movement. Ni odun 1974, India se nuclear test nipamo[32] ati idanwo marun ni 1998, eyi so India di orile-ede to ni bombu inuatomu.[32] Lati 1991, atundase okowo pataki[33] ti so India di ikan ninu awon okowo to n dagba kiakia julo lagbaye, eyi fun lagbara pupo laye.[16] Ijoba Ày?kà olórí: Ìj?ba India Ilana-Ibagbepo ile India, to je ilana-ibagbepo togunjulo ati to kunrerejulo ti orile-ede alominira lagbaye, je gbigba bi ofin ni 26 January 1950.[34] Akokoso ilana-ibagbepo yi setumo India gege bi orile-ede olominira toseluaralu sovereign, sosialisti, ti araaye.[35] India ni ileasofin oniyewumeji to n sise bi sistemu onileasofin iru Westminster. Iru ijoba re je jijuwe pe o je bi 'quasi-federal' pelu gbongan to lagbara ati awon ipinle ti won ko lagbara,[36] sugbon o ti di apapo diedie lati opin awon odun 1990 nitori awon iyipada oloselu, olokowo ati alawujo.[37] Aare ile India ni olori orile-ede[38] to je didiboyan latowo igbimo onidiboyan[39] fun igba odun marun kan.[40][41] Alakoso Agba ni olori ijoba, ohun lo si segbese opo agbara alase.[38] Gege bi yiyan latowo Aare,[42]Alakoso Agba je titileyin latowo egbe oloselu tabi ifowosowopo oloselu to ni ogunlogo awon ijoko ni ile kekere Ileasofin.[38] Apa ijoba apase ni Aare, Igbakeji Aare, ati Igbimo awon Alakoso (Kabinet ni igbimo apase re) ti olori re je Alakoso Agba. Alakoso yiowu to ni ipo gbodo je ikan ninu awon omo ile ileasofin. Ninu sistemu onileasofin ti India, apase wa labe asofin, nibi ti Alakoso Agba ati Igbimo re wa labe ile kekere.[43] Asofin ile India ni Ileasofin oniyewumeji, to ni ile oke ti o n je Rajya Sabha (Igbimo awon Ipinle) ati ile kekere to n je Lok Sabha (Ile awon Eniyan).[44] Rajya Sabha, agbarajo aiyese, ni 245 omo egbe ti won wa nibe fun odun marun.[45] Opo won je didiboyan taara latowo awon asofin ipinle ati agbegbe gege bi iye awon eniyan won.[45]

train

where did the name of india come from

The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, equivalent to the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi (Ἰνδοί), which translates as `` The people of the Indus ''.

['nonfiction']

ibo ni orúkọ india ti wá

Yes

['India (pípè /ˈɪndiə/) gege bi oruko wa lati Indus, to wa lati oro Persia Atijo Hindu, lati Sanskrit सिन्धु Sindhu, oruko ibile fun Odo Indus.']

['India gege bi oruko wa lati Indus, to wa lati oro Persia Atijo Hindu, lati Sanskrit Sindhu, oruko ibile fun Odo Indus.']

['P4']

Índíà Índíà, tàbí Oríl??-èdè Olómìnira il?? Índíà (ní èdè Hí?dì: Bh?rat Ga?ar?jya;), j?? oríl??-èdè kan ní Gúúsù É?íà. Ohun ni oríl??-èdè kejè títóbi júl?? g??g?? bí ìtóbí j????gráfì, oríl??-èdè kìn-ín-ni tó ní ìye àw?n ènìyàn júl?[12] p??lú bíi 1.43 bílí??nù ènìyàn,[13] àti ìj?ba-oníbò tó ni ìye àw?n ènìyàn júl?? lágbàyé. Ó ja m? Òkun Índíà ní gúúsù, Òkun Lárúbáwá ni ìw?? oòrùn, àti Ebado Benga ní ìlà oòrùn, India ní etíkun tó j?? 7,516.6 kilometres (4,700 mi)[14]. Ó ni ààlà láàrin Pakistan ní ìw?? oòrùn; ?áínà, Nepal, ati Bhutan si àríwà; ati Banglad??shì ati Burma ní ìlà oòrùn. Índíà wà nítosí Sri Lanka, àti Maldives tí w??n wà ní Òkun Índíà. G??g?? bíi il?? ??làjú Àfonífojì Indus j?? ibí tó ní ìdàgbàsókè púp??, ab??oríl?? Índíà j?? ibi àw?n ènìyàn m?? fún ?lá àti à?à r?? káàkiri ayé.[13] Esin nla merin, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism ati Sikhism ni won bere latibe, nigbati Zoroastrianism, Esin Ju, Esin Kristi ati Imale de sibe ni egberundun akoko IO (CE) won si kopa ninu bi orisirisi asa agbegbe na seri. Diedie o je fifamora latowo British East India Company lati ibere orundun ikejidinlogun, o si di ile amusin Ile-oba Isodokan lati arin orundun ikandinlogun, India di orile-ede alominira ni 1947 leyin akitiyan fun isominira to se pataki fun isatako alaise jagidijagan kakiri.[15] India je orile-ede olominira kan to ni ipinle 28 ati awon agbegbe isokan meje pelu sistemu onileasofin oseluaralu. Okowo India ni okowo ikokanla titobijulo gege bi olorujo GDP lagbaye ati ikerin titobijulo gege bi ibamu agbara iraja. Otun je omo egbe Ajoni awon Orile-ede, G-20, BRIC, SAFTA ati Agbajo Owo Agbaye. India je orile-ede toni ohun-ijagun bombu inuatomu, o si ni ile-ise ologun ikewa ton nawojulo pelu ile-ise ologun adigun keji titobijulo lagbaye. Atunse okowo to bere lati 1991 ti so India di ikan ninu awon okowo to n dagba kiakia julo lagbaye;[16] sibesibe, aini si tun ba ja,[17] aimookomooka, iwa-ibaje, arun, ati aijeunkanu. Gege bi awujo esin olopolopo, eledepupo ati eleya eniyan pupo, India tun je ibugbe fun opolopo awon eran-igbe ni opolopo ibi alaabo. Orísun ìtum?? ??r?? India (pípè /??ndi?/) gege bi oruko wa lati Indus, to wa lati oro Persia Atijo Hindu, lati Sanskrit Sindhu, oruko ibile fun Odo Indus.[12] Awon Griiki ayeijoun n pe awon ara India ni Indoi (?????), awon eniyan Indus.[18] Ilana Ibagbepo ile India ati lilo oro towopo ninu opo awon ede India bakanna tun seidamo Bharat (pipe [?b???r?t?] ( ? t??tí gb??)) gege bi oruko onibise iru kanna.[14] Bharat gege bi oruko wa lati oruko oba olokiki Bharata ninu awon Itan-Awaso Hindu. Hindustan ([h?nd???st??n] ( ? t??tí gb??)), ni berebere to je oro Persia fun “Ile Hindus” lati toka si apaariwa India, bakanna tun lilo gege bi oruko gbogbo India.[19] Ìtàn Awon ibugbe apata Igba Okuta pelu awon iyaworan ni Bhimbetka rock shelters ni Madhya Pradesh ni eri igbe eniyan pipejulo ni India. Awon ibudo akoko ti a mo bere ni odun to ju 9,000 seyin lo, diedie o si dagba soke si À?à Ìbílè? Tí Wó?n ? Kó? ní Àfonífojì Í?díà ,[20] ti ojo ori re to odun 3400 BCE ni apaiwoorun India. Eyi je titele pelu Àkókò Vedic, to se ipilese Esin Hindu ati awon asa miran igba ibere awujo India, o si pari ni awon odun 500 BCE. Lati bi 550 BCE, opolopo awon ile-oba alominira ati orile-ede olominira ti a mo bi Mahajanapadas je didasile kakiri ibe.[21] Ni orundun keta KIO (BCE), opo gbogbo Guusu Asia je piparapo di Ileobaluaye Maurya latowo Chandragupta Maurya o si lokunkun ni asiko Ashoka Olokiki.[22] Lati igba orundun keta IO (CE), ijoba iran Gupta samojuto igba ti a mo bi ancient "Igba Oniwura India ayeijoun."[23][24] Awon ileobaluaye ni Apaguusu India je kikopomo gbogbo awon ti Chalukya, ti Cholas ati ti Vijayanagara Empire. Sayensi, teknoloji, ise-ero, ise-ona, ogbon, ede, litireso, mathematiiki, itorawo, esin ati imo-oye di olokunkun labe itoju awon oba wonyi. Leyin awon iborile lati Arin Asia larin orundun 10th ati 12th, opo Ariwa India ni won bo si abe ijoba Delhi Sultanate ati leyin eyi sabe Ileobaluaye Mughal. Labe isejoba Akbar the Great, India gbadun idagbasoke asa ati okowo pupo ati irepo esin.[25][26] Awon obaluaye Mughal diedie fe ile won si pupo lati dori apa nla abeorile. Sibesibe, ni Ariwa-Apailaorun India, alagbara to joba ibe ni ileoba Ahom ti Assam, gege bi ikan ninu awon ileoba ti won lodi si ijobalenilori Mughal. Ihalemo ninla akoko si agbara ijoba Mughal wa latodo oba Hindu Rajput kan Maha Rana Pratap ti Mewar ni orundun 16th ati leyin eyi latodo orile-ede Hindu kan to n je adapapo Maratha, to joba lori opo India ni arin orundun 18th.[27] Lati orundun 16th, awon alagbara ara Europe bi Portugal, Hollandi, Fransi, ati Iparapo Ileoba se idasile ibudo owo (trading posts) be sini leyin eyi won lo anfani ti awon ija abele ibe fa wa lati sedasile awon ibiamusin nibe. Nigba to fi di 1856, opo India ti bo sabe idari British East India Company.[28] Odun kan leyin eyi, igbogundi kakiri awon eyo ologun olodi ijoba ati awon ileoba, ti a mo bi Ogun Ilominira Akoko India tabi Sepoy Mutiny, koju idari ile-ise yi gidigidi sugbon ko yori si rere. Nitori aidurorege, India bo si abe isejoba taara Oba Alade Britani. Mahatma Gandhi (right) with Jawaharlal Nehru, 1937. Ni orundun 20th, akitiyan fun ilominira kakiri orile-ede bere latowo Indian National Congress ati awon agbajo oloselu miran.[29] Olori India Mahatma Gandhi lewaju awon egbegberun eniyan ni opolopo igbese torile-ede fun aigboran araalu aini-jagidijagan .[15] Ni ojo 15 osu kejo 1947, India gba ilominira kuro lowo isejoba Britani, sugbon nigba kanna awon agbegbe ogunlogo Musulum je pipinniya lati da orile-ede otooto Pakistan.[30] Ni ojo 26 osi kinni 1950, India di orile-ede olominira be sini ilana ibagbepo tuntun je gbigbe jade.[31] Lati igba ilominira, India ti ni awon isoro lati owojagidijagan esin, casteism, naxalism, isedaniloro ati latowo awon igbogunti oludase agbegbe, agaga ni Jammu ati Kashmir ati Ariwailaorun India. Lati igba awon odun 1990 awon idigbolu adaniloro ti nipa lori opolopo awon ilu India. India ni ariyanjiyan ile pelu orile-ede Olominira awon Eniyan ile Saina, to di ni odun 1962 Ogun Saina-India, ati pelu Pakistan, to fa awon ogun ni 1947, 1965, 1971 ati ni 1999. India je omo egbe adasile Iparapo awon Orile-ede (gege bi India Britani) ati Non-Aligned Movement. Ni odun 1974, India se nuclear test nipamo[32] ati idanwo marun ni 1998, eyi so India di orile-ede to ni bombu inuatomu.[32] Lati 1991, atundase okowo pataki[33] ti so India di ikan ninu awon okowo to n dagba kiakia julo lagbaye, eyi fun lagbara pupo laye.[16] Ijoba Ày?kà olórí: Ìj?ba India Ilana-Ibagbepo ile India, to je ilana-ibagbepo togunjulo ati to kunrerejulo ti orile-ede alominira lagbaye, je gbigba bi ofin ni 26 January 1950.[34] Akokoso ilana-ibagbepo yi setumo India gege bi orile-ede olominira toseluaralu sovereign, sosialisti, ti araaye.[35] India ni ileasofin oniyewumeji to n sise bi sistemu onileasofin iru Westminster. Iru ijoba re je jijuwe pe o je bi 'quasi-federal' pelu gbongan to lagbara ati awon ipinle ti won ko lagbara,[36] sugbon o ti di apapo diedie lati opin awon odun 1990 nitori awon iyipada oloselu, olokowo ati alawujo.[37] Aare ile India ni olori orile-ede[38] to je didiboyan latowo igbimo onidiboyan[39] fun igba odun marun kan.[40][41] Alakoso Agba ni olori ijoba, ohun lo si segbese opo agbara alase.[38] Gege bi yiyan latowo Aare,[42]Alakoso Agba je titileyin latowo egbe oloselu tabi ifowosowopo oloselu to ni ogunlogo awon ijoko ni ile kekere Ileasofin.[38] Apa ijoba apase ni Aare, Igbakeji Aare, ati Igbimo awon Alakoso (Kabinet ni igbimo apase re) ti olori re je Alakoso Agba. Alakoso yiowu to ni ipo gbodo je ikan ninu awon omo ile ileasofin. Ninu sistemu onileasofin ti India, apase wa labe asofin, nibi ti Alakoso Agba ati Igbimo re wa labe ile kekere.[43] Asofin ile India ni Ileasofin oniyewumeji, to ni ile oke ti o n je Rajya Sabha (Igbimo awon Ipinle) ati ile kekere to n je Lok Sabha (Ile awon Eniyan).[44] Rajya Sabha, agbarajo aiyese, ni 245 omo egbe ti won wa nibe fun odun marun.[45] Opo won je didiboyan taara latowo awon asofin ipinle ati agbegbe gege bi iye awon eniyan won.[45]

train

where is india located name its neighbouring countries

India (IAST : Bhārat), also called the Republic of India (IAST : Bhārat Gaṇarājya), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh - largest country by area, the second-most populous country (with over 1.2 billion people), and the most populous democracy in the world. It is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west ; China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast ; and Bangladesh and Myanmar to the east. In the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. India 's Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a maritime border with Thailand and Indonesia.

['moscow']

ibo ni india wà, sorúkọ àwọn orílẹ̀-èdè tó yí i ká

Yes

['Índíà wà nítosí Sri Lanka, àti Maldives tí wọ́n wà ní Òkun Índíà.', 'Ó ni ààlà láàrin Pakistan ní ìwọ̀ oòrùn; Ṣáínà, Nepal, ati Bhutan si àríwà; ati Bangladẹ́shì ati Burma ní ìlà oòrùn.', 'Índíà, tàbí Orílẹ̀-èdè Olómìnira ilẹ̀ Índíà (ní èdè Híńdì: भारत गणराज्य Bhārat Gaṇarājya;), jẹ́ orílẹ̀-èdè kan ní Gúúsù Éṣíà.']

['Índíà wà nítosí Sri Lanka, àti Maldives tí wọ́n wà ní Òkun Índíà.', 'Índíà jẹ́ orílẹ̀-èdè kan ní Gúúsù Éṣíà.', 'Ó ni ààlà láàrin Pakistan ní ìwọ̀ oòrùn; Ṣáínà, Nepal, ati Bhutan si àríwà; ati Bangladẹ́shì ati Burma ní ìlà oòrùn.']

['P1']

Índíà Índíà, tàbí Oríl??-èdè Olómìnira il?? Índíà (ní èdè Hí?dì: Bh?rat Ga?ar?jya;), j?? oríl??-èdè kan ní Gúúsù É?íà. Ohun ni oríl??-èdè kejè títóbi júl?? g??g?? bí ìtóbí j????gráfì, oríl??-èdè kìn-ín-ni tó ní ìye àw?n ènìyàn júl?[12] p??lú bíi 1.43 bílí??nù ènìyàn,[13] àti ìj?ba-oníbò tó ni ìye àw?n ènìyàn júl?? lágbàyé. Ó ja m? Òkun Índíà ní gúúsù, Òkun Lárúbáwá ni ìw?? oòrùn, àti Ebado Benga ní ìlà oòrùn, India ní etíkun tó j?? 7,516.6 kilometres (4,700 mi)[14]. Ó ni ààlà láàrin Pakistan ní ìw?? oòrùn; ?áínà, Nepal, ati Bhutan si àríwà; ati Banglad??shì ati Burma ní ìlà oòrùn. Índíà wà nítosí Sri Lanka, àti Maldives tí w??n wà ní Òkun Índíà. G??g?? bíi il?? ??làjú Àfonífojì Indus j?? ibí tó ní ìdàgbàsókè púp??, ab??oríl?? Índíà j?? ibi àw?n ènìyàn m?? fún ?lá àti à?à r?? káàkiri ayé.[13] Esin nla merin, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism ati Sikhism ni won bere latibe, nigbati Zoroastrianism, Esin Ju, Esin Kristi ati Imale de sibe ni egberundun akoko IO (CE) won si kopa ninu bi orisirisi asa agbegbe na seri. Diedie o je fifamora latowo British East India Company lati ibere orundun ikejidinlogun, o si di ile amusin Ile-oba Isodokan lati arin orundun ikandinlogun, India di orile-ede alominira ni 1947 leyin akitiyan fun isominira to se pataki fun isatako alaise jagidijagan kakiri.[15] India je orile-ede olominira kan to ni ipinle 28 ati awon agbegbe isokan meje pelu sistemu onileasofin oseluaralu. Okowo India ni okowo ikokanla titobijulo gege bi olorujo GDP lagbaye ati ikerin titobijulo gege bi ibamu agbara iraja. Otun je omo egbe Ajoni awon Orile-ede, G-20, BRIC, SAFTA ati Agbajo Owo Agbaye. India je orile-ede toni ohun-ijagun bombu inuatomu, o si ni ile-ise ologun ikewa ton nawojulo pelu ile-ise ologun adigun keji titobijulo lagbaye. Atunse okowo to bere lati 1991 ti so India di ikan ninu awon okowo to n dagba kiakia julo lagbaye;[16] sibesibe, aini si tun ba ja,[17] aimookomooka, iwa-ibaje, arun, ati aijeunkanu. Gege bi awujo esin olopolopo, eledepupo ati eleya eniyan pupo, India tun je ibugbe fun opolopo awon eran-igbe ni opolopo ibi alaabo. Orísun ìtum?? ??r?? India (pípè /??ndi?/) gege bi oruko wa lati Indus, to wa lati oro Persia Atijo Hindu, lati Sanskrit Sindhu, oruko ibile fun Odo Indus.[12] Awon Griiki ayeijoun n pe awon ara India ni Indoi (?????), awon eniyan Indus.[18] Ilana Ibagbepo ile India ati lilo oro towopo ninu opo awon ede India bakanna tun seidamo Bharat (pipe [?b???r?t?] ( ? t??tí gb??)) gege bi oruko onibise iru kanna.[14] Bharat gege bi oruko wa lati oruko oba olokiki Bharata ninu awon Itan-Awaso Hindu. Hindustan ([h?nd???st??n] ( ? t??tí gb??)), ni berebere to je oro Persia fun “Ile Hindus” lati toka si apaariwa India, bakanna tun lilo gege bi oruko gbogbo India.[19] Ìtàn Awon ibugbe apata Igba Okuta pelu awon iyaworan ni Bhimbetka rock shelters ni Madhya Pradesh ni eri igbe eniyan pipejulo ni India. Awon ibudo akoko ti a mo bere ni odun to ju 9,000 seyin lo, diedie o si dagba soke si À?à Ìbílè? Tí Wó?n ? Kó? ní Àfonífojì Í?díà ,[20] ti ojo ori re to odun 3400 BCE ni apaiwoorun India. Eyi je titele pelu Àkókò Vedic, to se ipilese Esin Hindu ati awon asa miran igba ibere awujo India, o si pari ni awon odun 500 BCE. Lati bi 550 BCE, opolopo awon ile-oba alominira ati orile-ede olominira ti a mo bi Mahajanapadas je didasile kakiri ibe.[21] Ni orundun keta KIO (BCE), opo gbogbo Guusu Asia je piparapo di Ileobaluaye Maurya latowo Chandragupta Maurya o si lokunkun ni asiko Ashoka Olokiki.[22] Lati igba orundun keta IO (CE), ijoba iran Gupta samojuto igba ti a mo bi ancient "Igba Oniwura India ayeijoun."[23][24] Awon ileobaluaye ni Apaguusu India je kikopomo gbogbo awon ti Chalukya, ti Cholas ati ti Vijayanagara Empire. Sayensi, teknoloji, ise-ero, ise-ona, ogbon, ede, litireso, mathematiiki, itorawo, esin ati imo-oye di olokunkun labe itoju awon oba wonyi. Leyin awon iborile lati Arin Asia larin orundun 10th ati 12th, opo Ariwa India ni won bo si abe ijoba Delhi Sultanate ati leyin eyi sabe Ileobaluaye Mughal. Labe isejoba Akbar the Great, India gbadun idagbasoke asa ati okowo pupo ati irepo esin.[25][26] Awon obaluaye Mughal diedie fe ile won si pupo lati dori apa nla abeorile. Sibesibe, ni Ariwa-Apailaorun India, alagbara to joba ibe ni ileoba Ahom ti Assam, gege bi ikan ninu awon ileoba ti won lodi si ijobalenilori Mughal. Ihalemo ninla akoko si agbara ijoba Mughal wa latodo oba Hindu Rajput kan Maha Rana Pratap ti Mewar ni orundun 16th ati leyin eyi latodo orile-ede Hindu kan to n je adapapo Maratha, to joba lori opo India ni arin orundun 18th.[27] Lati orundun 16th, awon alagbara ara Europe bi Portugal, Hollandi, Fransi, ati Iparapo Ileoba se idasile ibudo owo (trading posts) be sini leyin eyi won lo anfani ti awon ija abele ibe fa wa lati sedasile awon ibiamusin nibe. Nigba to fi di 1856, opo India ti bo sabe idari British East India Company.[28] Odun kan leyin eyi, igbogundi kakiri awon eyo ologun olodi ijoba ati awon ileoba, ti a mo bi Ogun Ilominira Akoko India tabi Sepoy Mutiny, koju idari ile-ise yi gidigidi sugbon ko yori si rere. Nitori aidurorege, India bo si abe isejoba taara Oba Alade Britani. Mahatma Gandhi (right) with Jawaharlal Nehru, 1937. Ni orundun 20th, akitiyan fun ilominira kakiri orile-ede bere latowo Indian National Congress ati awon agbajo oloselu miran.[29] Olori India Mahatma Gandhi lewaju awon egbegberun eniyan ni opolopo igbese torile-ede fun aigboran araalu aini-jagidijagan .[15] Ni ojo 15 osu kejo 1947, India gba ilominira kuro lowo isejoba Britani, sugbon nigba kanna awon agbegbe ogunlogo Musulum je pipinniya lati da orile-ede otooto Pakistan.[30] Ni ojo 26 osi kinni 1950, India di orile-ede olominira be sini ilana ibagbepo tuntun je gbigbe jade.[31] Lati igba ilominira, India ti ni awon isoro lati owojagidijagan esin, casteism, naxalism, isedaniloro ati latowo awon igbogunti oludase agbegbe, agaga ni Jammu ati Kashmir ati Ariwailaorun India. Lati igba awon odun 1990 awon idigbolu adaniloro ti nipa lori opolopo awon ilu India. India ni ariyanjiyan ile pelu orile-ede Olominira awon Eniyan ile Saina, to di ni odun 1962 Ogun Saina-India, ati pelu Pakistan, to fa awon ogun ni 1947, 1965, 1971 ati ni 1999. India je omo egbe adasile Iparapo awon Orile-ede (gege bi India Britani) ati Non-Aligned Movement. Ni odun 1974, India se nuclear test nipamo[32] ati idanwo marun ni 1998, eyi so India di orile-ede to ni bombu inuatomu.[32] Lati 1991, atundase okowo pataki[33] ti so India di ikan ninu awon okowo to n dagba kiakia julo lagbaye, eyi fun lagbara pupo laye.[16] Ijoba Ày?kà olórí: Ìj?ba India Ilana-Ibagbepo ile India, to je ilana-ibagbepo togunjulo ati to kunrerejulo ti orile-ede alominira lagbaye, je gbigba bi ofin ni 26 January 1950.[34] Akokoso ilana-ibagbepo yi setumo India gege bi orile-ede olominira toseluaralu sovereign, sosialisti, ti araaye.[35] India ni ileasofin oniyewumeji to n sise bi sistemu onileasofin iru Westminster. Iru ijoba re je jijuwe pe o je bi 'quasi-federal' pelu gbongan to lagbara ati awon ipinle ti won ko lagbara,[36] sugbon o ti di apapo diedie lati opin awon odun 1990 nitori awon iyipada oloselu, olokowo ati alawujo.[37] Aare ile India ni olori orile-ede[38] to je didiboyan latowo igbimo onidiboyan[39] fun igba odun marun kan.[40][41] Alakoso Agba ni olori ijoba, ohun lo si segbese opo agbara alase.[38] Gege bi yiyan latowo Aare,[42]Alakoso Agba je titileyin latowo egbe oloselu tabi ifowosowopo oloselu to ni ogunlogo awon ijoko ni ile kekere Ileasofin.[38] Apa ijoba apase ni Aare, Igbakeji Aare, ati Igbimo awon Alakoso (Kabinet ni igbimo apase re) ti olori re je Alakoso Agba. Alakoso yiowu to ni ipo gbodo je ikan ninu awon omo ile ileasofin. Ninu sistemu onileasofin ti India, apase wa labe asofin, nibi ti Alakoso Agba ati Igbimo re wa labe ile kekere.[43] Asofin ile India ni Ileasofin oniyewumeji, to ni ile oke ti o n je Rajya Sabha (Igbimo awon Ipinle) ati ile kekere to n je Lok Sabha (Ile awon Eniyan).[44] Rajya Sabha, agbarajo aiyese, ni 245 omo egbe ti won wa nibe fun odun marun.[45] Opo won je didiboyan taara latowo awon asofin ipinle ati agbegbe gege bi iye awon eniyan won.[45]

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is iceland part of europe or north america

Iceland is closer to continental Europe than to mainland North America, although it is closest to Greenland (290 km, 180 mi), an island of North America. Iceland is generally included in Europe for historical, political, cultural, geographical, and practical reasons. Geologically, the island includes parts of both continental plates. The closest bodies of land in Europe are the Faroe Islands (420 km, 260 mi) ; Jan Mayen Island (570 km, 350 mi) ; Shetland and the Outer Hebrides, both about 740 km (460 mi) ; and the Scottish mainland and Orkney, both about 750 km (470 mi). The nearest part of Continental Europe is mainland Norway, about 970 km (600 mi) away, while mainland North America is 2,070 km (1,290 mi) away, at the northern tip of Labrador.

['first in the noble gas group in the periodic table']

ṣé Iceland jẹ́ apá kan ilẹ̀ Yúróòpù ni àbí ilẹ̀ Àríwá Amẹ́ríkà

Yes

['Íslándì[note 1] (Íslándíkì: [Ísland] error: {{lang}}: text has italic markup (help); IPA: [ˈislant]) je is orile-ede erekusu Europe ni to budo si Okun Ariwa Atlantiki[6] lori Ebe Arin-Atlantiki.']

['Europe']

['P1']

Íslándì Íslándì (Íslándíkì IPA: [?islant]) je is orile-ede erekusu Yuropu to budo si Okun Ariwa Atlantiki[6] lori Ebe Arin-Atlantiki. O ni olugbe bi 399,000 ati apapo iye aala 103,000 km2 (39,769 sq mi).[7] Oluilu re ati ilu totobijulo re ni Reykjavík, pelu ayika re to ni ida meji-inu meta olugbe orile-ede na. Íslándì je agbese lileru ati loro-ile.

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where is iceland located on a world map

Iceland is at the juncture of the North Atlantic and Arctic Oceans. The main island is entirely south of the Arctic Circle, which passes through the small Icelandic island of Grímsey off the main island 's northern coast. The country lies between latitudes 63 and 68 ° N, and longitudes 25 and 13 ° W.

['old land of my fathers']

ibo ni orílẹ̀-èdè iceland wà lórí àwòrán ayé

Yes

['Íslándì[note 1] (Íslándíkì: [Ísland] error: {{lang}}: text has italic markup (help); IPA: [ˈislant]) je is orile-ede erekusu Europe ni to budo si Okun Ariwa Atlantiki[6] lori Ebe Arin-Atlantiki.']

['erekusu Europe ni to budo si Okun Ariwa Atlantiki[6] lori Ebe Arin-Atlantiki.']

['P1']

Íslándì Íslándì (Íslándíkì IPA: [?islant]) je is orile-ede erekusu Yuropu to budo si Okun Ariwa Atlantiki[6] lori Ebe Arin-Atlantiki. O ni olugbe bi 399,000 ati apapo iye aala 103,000 km2 (39,769 sq mi).[7] Oluilu re ati ilu totobijulo re ni Reykjavík, pelu ayika re to ni ida meji-inu meta olugbe orile-ede na. Íslándì je agbese lileru ati loro-ile.

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who said if you find yourself in a hole stop digging

The adage has been attributed to a number of sources. It appeared in print on page six of The Washington Post dated October 25, 1911, in the form : `` Nor would a wise man, seeing that he was in a hole, go to work and blindly dig it deeper... '' In The Bankers Magazine, it was published in 1964 as : `` Let me tell you about the law of holes : If you find yourself in a hole, stop digging. ''

[]

ta ló sọ pé tó o bá rí i pé inú kòtò lo wà, má ṣe tú u mọ́?

Yes

['Òfin kòtò àkọ́kọ́ tàbí Òfin kòtò jẹ́ òwe tí ó sọ wípé "tí o bá ba ara rẹ nínú kòtò, kí o maa ṣe gbẹ́ ẹ síwájú síi". Oríṣiríṣi ibi ni wọ́n rò wípé òwe yìí ti jẹyọ. Ó yọjú nínú àtẹ̀jáde ojú ewé kẹfà ti The Washington Post ti ọjọ́ karùndínlọ́gbọ̀n Oṣù kẹwá ọdún 1911, báyìí: "Kò ṣeéṣe kí ọlọ́gbọ́n ènìyàn bá ara rẹ̀ nínú kòtò, kí ó lọ ibiṣẹ́ kí ó sì tún maa gbẹ́ẹ lọ..."', 'Ó yọjú nínú àtẹ̀jáde ojú ewé kẹfà ti The Washington Post ti ọjọ́ karùndínlọ́gbọ̀n Oṣù kẹwá ọdún 1911, báyìí: "Kò ṣeéṣe kí ọlọ́gbọ́n ènìyàn bá ara rẹ̀ nínú kòtò, kí ó lọ ibiṣẹ́ kí ó sì tún maa gbẹ́ẹ lọ..." Nínú The Bankers Magazine wọ́n ṣe àtèjáde rẹ̀ ní ọdún 1964 báyìí:"Jẹ́ kí n sọ fún ẹ nípa òfin kòtò:Tí o bá bá ara rẹ nínú kòtò, maa ṣe gbẹ́ẹ síwájú si." Wọ́n sọ wípé Will Rogers, aláwàdà ará Amẹ́ríkà ni ó sọ ọ̀rọ̀ tí ó wà níwájú àmì ìṣafihan.']

['Òfin kòtò àkọ́kọ́ tàbí Òfin kòtò jẹ́ òwe tí ó sọ wípé "tí o bá ba ara rẹ nínú kòtò, kí o maa ṣe gbẹ́ ẹ síwájú síi". Oríṣiríṣi ibi ni wọ́n rò wípé òwe yìí ti jẹyọ. Ó yọjú nínú àtẹ̀jáde ojú ewé kẹfà ti The Washington Post ti ọjọ́ karùndínlọ́gbọ̀n Oṣù kẹwá ọdún 1911, báyìí: "Kò ṣeéṣe kí ọlọ́gbọ́n ènìyàn bá ara rẹ̀ nínú kòtò, kí ó lọ ibiṣẹ́ kí ó sì tún maa gbẹ́ẹ lọ..."', 'Will Rogers, aláwàdà ará Amẹ́ríkà ni ó sọ ọ̀rọ̀ yìí']

['P1,P2', 'P2']

Òfin kòtò àk??k?? Òfin kòtò àk??k?? tàbí Òfin kòtò j?? òwe tí ó s? wípé "tí o bá ba ara r? nínú kòtò, kí o maa ?e gb?? ? síwájú síi".[1][2] Ìtum?? r?? ni wípé tí o ba bá ara r? ní ipò tí kò dára, ki o dúró kí o sì ?e àtún?e oun tí ò ? ?e t??l?? kí o má s? t??síwájú. Ibi tí ó ti j?y? Orí?irí?i ibi ni w??n rò wípé òwe yìí ti j?y?. Ó y?jú nínú àt??jáde ojú ewé k?fà ti The Washington Post ti ?j?? karùndínl??gb??n O?ù k?wá ?dún 1911, báyìí: "Kò ?eé?e kí ?l??gb??n ènìyàn bá ara r?? nínú kòtò, kí ó l? ibi??? kí ó sì tún maa gb??? l?..."[3] Nínú Ìwé ìròyìn The Bankers w??n ?e àtèjáde r?? ní ?dún 1964 báyìí:"J?? kí n s? fún ? nípa òfin kòtò:Tí o bá bá ara r? nínú kòtò, maa ?e gb??? síwájú si."[4] W??n s? wípé Will Rogers, aláwàdà ará Am??ríkà ni ó s? ??r?? tí ó wà níwájú àmì ì?afihan.[5] Ní UK w??n pèé ní "Òfin kòtò ti Healey àk??k??"[2] lórúk? oló?èlú Denis Healey, tí ó pòwe yìí ní ?dún 1980 àti l??yìn ìgbà náà.[1]

An excavator that is in a hole and has stopped digging The first law of holes , or the law of holes , is an adage which states that "if you find yourself in a hole, stop digging". Digging a hole makes it deeper and therefore harder to get back out, which is used as a metaphor that when in an untenable position, it is best to stop carrying on and exacerbating the situation. Contents [ hide ] 1 Attribution 2 Use 3 References 4 External links Attribution [ edit ] The adage has been attributed to a number of sources. It appeared in print on page six of The Washington Post dated October 25, 1911, in the form: "Nor would a wise man, seeing that he was in a hole, go to work and blindly dig it deeper..." In The Bankers Magazine , it was published in 1964 as: "Let me tell you about the law of holes: If you find yourself in a hole, stop digging." In the United Kingdom, it has been referred to as "Healey's first law of holes" after politician Denis Healey , who used the adage in the 1980s and later. Use [ edit ] It has been quoted by American humorist Will Rogers . References [ edit ] External links [ edit ] Quotations related to Denis Healey at Wikiquote

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what part of the bible has the ten commandments

Different religious traditions divide the seventeen verses of Exodus 20 : 1 -- 17 and their parallels at Deuteronomy 5 : 4 -- 21 into ten `` commandments '' or `` sayings '' in different ways, shown in the table below. Some suggest that the number ten is a choice to aid memorization rather than a matter of theology.

['1968', 'securing legal rights for african americans', 'the mid-1950s']

apá wo nínú bíbélì ni òfin mẹ́wàá wà

No

['Àwọn ẹsẹ òfin mẹ́wàá bí wọn ṣe wà nínú ìwé Eksodu àti Deuteronomi.']

['Àwọn ẹsẹ òfin mẹ́wàá wà nínú ìwé Eksodu àti Deuteronomi.']

['P2']

Òfin Mẹ́wàá Àwọn Ọ̀fin Mẹ́wàá jẹ́ àkòjọ àwọn òfin mẹ́wàá ìwùwà tí Bíbélì sọ pé Ọlọ́run fún Mose lórí Òkè Sinai nínú pátákó òkúta méjí. Àwọn òfin mẹ́wàá [ àtúnṣe | àtúnṣe àmìọ̀rọ̀ ] Àwọn ẹsẹ òfin mẹ́wàá bí wọn ṣe wà nínú ìwé Eksodu àti Deuteronomi . Òfin Mẹ́wàá Eksodu 20:2–17 Deuteronomi 5:6–21 2 Èmi ni Olúwa Ọlọ́run rẹ, tí ó mú ọ jáde láti ilẹ̀ Egipti, láti okoẹrú jáde wá; 3 Ìwọ kò gbọdọ̀ ní Ọlọ́run míràn pẹ̀lú mi. 4 Ìwọ kò gbọdọ̀ ya ère fún ara rẹ, tàbí àwòrán ohun kan tí nbẹ lókè ọ̀run, tàbí ti ohun kan tí nbẹ ní ìsàlẹ̀ ilẹ̀, tàbí ti ohun kan tí nbẹ nínú omi ní ìsàlẹ̀ ilẹ̀. 5 You shall not bow down to them or worship them; for I the Lord your God am a jealous God, punishing children for the iniquity of parents, to the third and the fourth generation of those who reject me, 6 but showing steadfast love to the thousandth generation of those who love me and keep my commandments. 7 You shall not make wrongful use of the name of the Lord your God, for the Lord will not acquit anyone who misuses his name. 8 Remember the Sabbath day and keep it holy. 9 For six days you shall labour and do all your work. 10 But the seventh day is a Sabbath to the Lord your God; you shall not do any work—you, your son or your daughter, your male or female slave, your livestock, or the alien resident in your towns. 11 For in six days the Lord made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that is in them, but rested the seventh day; therefore the Lord blessed the Sabbath day and consecrated it. 12 Honor your father and your mother, so that your days may be long in the land that the Lord your God is giving you. 13 You shall not murder. 14 You shall not commit adultery. 15 You shall not steal. 16 You shall not bear false witness against your neighbour. 17 You shall not covet your neighbour’s house; you shall not covet your neighbour’s wife, or male or female slave, or ox, or donkey, or anything that belongs to your neighbour. 6 I am the Lord your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of slavery; 7 you shall have no other gods before me. 8 You shall not make for yourself an idol, whether in the form of anything that is in heaven above, or that is on the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth. 9 You shall not bow down to them or worship them; for I the Lord your God am a jealous God, punishing children for the iniquity of parents, to the third and fourth generation of those who reject me, 10 but showing steadfast love to the thousandth generation of those who love me and keep my commandments. 11 You shall not make wrongful use of the name of the Lord your God, for the Lord will not acquit anyone who misuses his name. 12 Observe the sabbath day and keep it holy, as the Lord your God commanded you. 13 For six days you shall labour and do all your work. 14 But the seventh day is a sabbath to the Lord your God; you shall not do any work—you, or your son or your daughter, or your male or female slave, or your ox or your donkey, or any of your livestock, or the resident alien in your towns, so that your male and female slave may rest as well as you. 15 Remember that you were a slave in the land of Egypt, and the Lord your God brought you out from there with a mighty hand and an outstretched arm; therefore the Lord your God commanded you to keep the sabbath day. 16 Honor your father and your mother, as the Lord your God commanded you, so that your days may be long and that it may go well with you in the land that the Lord your God is giving you. 17 You shall not murder. 18 Neither shall you commit adultery. 19 Neither shall you steal. 20 Neither shall you bear false witness against your neighbour. 21 Neither shall you covet your neighbour’s wife. Neither shall you desire your neighbour’s house, or field, or male or female slave, or ox, or donkey, or anything that belongs to your neighbour.

For other uses, see Ten Commandments (disambiguation) . "Decalogue" redirects here. For other uses, see Decalogue (disambiguation) . Part of a series on The Ten Commandments I am the L ORD thy God No other gods before me No graven images or likenesses Not take the L ORD 's name in vain Remember the sabbath day Honour thy father and thy mother Thou shalt not kill Thou shalt not commit adultery Thou shalt not steal Thou shalt not bear false witness Thou shalt not covet Related articles Tablets of Stone Ritual Decalogue Finger of God Moses Ark of the Covenant Catholic theology v t e This 1768 parchment (612×502 mm) by Jekuthiel Sofer emulated the 1675 Ten Commandments at the Amsterdam Esnoga synagogue . The Ten Commandments ( Hebrew : עֲשֶׂרֶת הַדִּבְּרוֹת ‬, Aseret ha'Dibrot ), also known as the Decalogue , are a set of biblical principles relating to ethics and worship , which play a fundamental role in Judaism and Christianity . The commandments include instructions to worship only God , to honour one's parents , and to keep the sabbath , as well as prohibitions against idolatry , blasphemy , murder , adultery , theft , dishonesty , and coveting . Different religious groups follow different traditions for interpreting and numbering them. The Ten Commandments appear twice in the Hebrew Bible , in the books of Exodus and Deuteronomy . Modern scholarship has found likely influences in Hittite and Mesopotamian laws and treaties, but is divided over exactly when the Ten Commandments were written and who wrote them. Contents 1 Terminology 2 The Ten Commandments 3 Religious interpretations 3.1 Judaism 3.1.1 Two tablets 3.1.2 Use in Jewish ritual 3.2 Samaritan 3.3 Christianity 3.3.1 References in the New Testament 3.3.2 Roman Catholicism 3.3.3 Orthodox 3.3.4 Protestantism 3.3.4.1 Lutheranism 3.3.4.2 Reformed 3.3.4.3 Methodist 3.3.5 The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints 3.4 Main points of interpretative difference 3.4.1 Sabbath day 3.4.2 Killing or murder 3.4.3 Theft 3.4.4 Idolatry 3.4.5 Adultery 4 Critical historical analysis 4.1 Early theories 4.2 Hittite treaties 4.3 Dating 4.4 The Ritual Decalogue 5 United States debate over display on public property 6 Cultural references 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links Terminology [ edit ] Part of the All Souls Deuteronomy , containing the oldest extant copy of the Decalogue It is dated to the early Herodian period, between 30 and 1 BC. In biblical Hebrew , the Ten Commandments are called עשרת הדברים ‬ ( transliterated aseret ha-d'varîm ) and in Rabbinical Hebrew עשרת הדברות ‬ (transliterated aseret ha-dibrot ), both translatable as "the ten words", "the ten sayings", or "the ten matters". The Tyndale and Coverdale English translations used "ten verses". The Geneva Bible used "tenne commandements", which was followed by the Bishops' Bible and the Authorized Version (the "King James" version) as "ten commandments". Most major English versions use "commandments." The English name "Decalogue" is derived from Greek δεκάλογος , dekalogos , the latter meaning and referring to the Greek translation (in accusative ) δέκα λόγους , deka logous , "ten words", found in the Septuagint (or LXX) at Exodus 34:28 and Deuteronomy 10:4. The stone tablets, as opposed to the commandments inscribed on them, are called לוחות הברית ‬, Lukhot HaBrit , meaning "the tablets of the covenant ". The Ten Commandments [ edit ] Different religious traditions divide the seventeen verses of Exodus 20:1–17 and their parallels at Deuteronomy 5:4–21 into ten "commandments" or "sayings" in different ways, shown in the table below. Some suggest that the number ten is a choice to aid memorization rather than a matter of theology. The Ten Commandments LXX P S T A C L R Main article Exodus 20:1-17 Deuteronomy 5:4-21 — — — 1 — 1 — (1) I am the Lord thy God , which have brought thee out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage. 2 6 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 Thou shalt have no other gods before me 3 7 2 2 1 2 1 1 1 2 Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image 4–6 8–10 3 3 2 3 2 2 2 3 Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain 7 11 4 4 3 4 3 3 3 4 Remember the sabbath day, to keep it holy 8–11 12–15 5 5 4 5 4 4 4 5 Honour thy father and thy mother 12 16 6 7 5 6 5 5 5 6 Thou shalt not kill 13 17 7 6 6 7 6 6 6 7 Thou shalt not commit adultery 14 18 8 8 7 8 7 7 7 8 Thou shalt not steal 15 19 9 9 8 9 8 8 8 9 Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbour 16 20 10 10 9 10 10 10 9 10 Thou shalt not covet (neighbour's house) 17a 21b 10 10 9 10 9 9 10 10 Thou shalt not covet (neighbour's wife) 17b 21a 10 10 9 10 10 10 10 10 Thou shalt not covet (neighbour's slaves, animals, or anything else) 17c 21c — — 10 — — — — — You shall set up these stones, which I command you today, on Mount Gerizim. 14c 18c All scripture quotes above are from the King James Version unless otherwise stated. Click on verses at top of columns for other versions. Traditions: LXX : Septuagint , generally followed by Orthodox Christians. P : Philo , same as the Septuagint, but with the prohibitions on killing and adultery reversed. S : Samaritan Pentateuch , with an additional commandment about Mount Gerizim as 10th. T : Jewish Talmud , makes the "prologue" the first "saying" or "matter" and combines the prohibition on worshiping deities other than Yahweh with the prohibition on idolatry. A : Augustine follows the Talmud in combining verses 3–6, but omits the prologue as a commandment and divides the prohibition on coveting in two and following the word order of Deuteronomy 5:21 rather than Exodus 20:17. C : Catechism of the Catholic Church , largely follows Augustine. L : Lutherans follow Luther's Large Catechism , which follows Augustine but omits the prohibition of images and uses the word order of Exodus 20:17 rather than Deuteronomy 5:21 for the ninth and tenth commandments. R : Reformed Christians follow John Calvin 's Institutes of the Christian Religion , which follows the Septuagint; this system is also used in the Anglican Book of Common Prayer . The biblical narrative of the revelation at Sinai begins in Exodus 19 after the arrival of the children of Israel at Mount Sinai (also called Horeb ). On the morning of the third day of their encampment, "there were thunders and lightnings, and a thick cloud upon the mount, and the voice of the trumpet exceeding loud", and the people assembled at the base of the mount. After "the L ORD came down upon mount Sinai", Moses went up briefly and returned and prepared the people, and then in Exodus 20 "God spoke" to all the people the words of the covenant, that is, the "ten commandments" as it is written. Modern biblical scholarship differs as to whether Exodus 19-20 describes the people of Israel as having directly heard all or some of the decalogue, or whether the laws are only passed to them through Moses. The people were afraid to hear more and moved "afar off", and Moses responded with "Fear not." Nevertheless, he drew near the "thick darkness" where "the presence of the Lord" was to hear the additional statutes and "judgments", all which he "wrote" in the " book of the covenant " which he read to the people the next morning, and they agreed to be obedient and do all that the L ORD had said. Moses escorted a select group consisting of Aaron , Nadab and Abihu , and "seventy of the elders of Israel" to a location on the mount where they worshipped "afar off" and they "saw the God of Israel" above a "paved work" like clear sapphire stone. And the L ORD said unto Moses, Come up to me into the mount, and be there: and I will give thee tablets of stone, and a law, and commandments which I have written; that thou mayest teach them. 13 And Moses rose up, and his minister Joshua: and Moses went up into the mount of God. — First mention of the tablets in Exodus 24:12–13 Moses Breaking the Tablets of the Law (1659) by Rembrandt. ( Gemäldegalerie, Berlin ) The mount was covered by the cloud for six days, and on the seventh day Moses went into the midst of the cloud and was "in the mount forty days and forty nights ." And Moses said, "the L ORD delivered unto me two tablets of stone written with the finger of God ; and on them was written according to all the words, which the L ORD spake with you in the mount out of the midst of the fire in the day of the assembly." Before the full forty days expired, the children of Israel collectively decided that something had happened to Moses, and compelled Aaron to fashion a golden calf , and he "built an altar before it" and the people "worshipped" the calf. After the full forty days, Moses and Joshua came down from the mountain with the tablets of stone : "And it came to pass, as soon as he came nigh unto the camp, that he saw the calf, and the dancing: and Moses' anger waxed hot, and he cast the tablets out of his hands, and brake them beneath the mount." After the events in chapters 32 and 33, the L ORD told Moses, "Hew thee two tablets of stone like unto the first: and I will write upon these tablets the words that were in the first tablets, which thou brakest." "And he wrote on the tablets, according to the first writing, the ten commandments, which the L ORD spake unto you in the mount out of the midst of the fire in the day of the assembly: and the L ORD gave them unto me." According to Jewish tradition, Exodus 20:1–17 constitutes God's first recitation and inscription of the ten commandments on the two tablets, which Moses broke in anger with his rebellious nation, and were later rewritten on replacement stones and placed in the ark of the covenant ; and Deuteronomy 5:4–25 consists of God's re-telling of the Ten Commandments to the younger generation who were to enter the Promised Land. The passages in Exodus 20 and Deuteronomy 5 contain more than ten imperative statements, totalling 14 or 15 in all. Religious interpretations [ edit ] The Ten Commandments concern matters of fundamental importance in Judaism and Christianity: the greatest obligation (to worship only God), the greatest injury to a person (murder), the greatest injury to family bonds (adultery), the greatest injury to commerce and law (bearing false witness), the greatest inter-generational obligation (honour to parents), the greatest obligation to community (truthfulness), the greatest injury to moveable property (theft). The Ten Commandments are written with room for varying interpretation, reflecting their role as a summary of fundamental principles. They are not as explicit or detailed as rules or many other biblical laws and commandments, because they provide guiding principles that apply universally, across changing circumstances. They do not specify punishments for their violation. Their precise import must be worked out in each separate situation. The Bible indicates the special status of the Ten Commandments among all other Torah laws in several ways: They have a uniquely terse style. Of all the biblical laws and commandments, the Ten Commandments alone are said to have been "written with the finger of God" ( Exodus 31:18 ). The stone tablets were placed in the Ark of the Covenant ( Exodus 25:21 , Deuteronomy 10:2,5 ). Judaism [ edit ] The Ten Commandments form the basis of Jewish law, stating God's universal and timeless standard of right and wrong – unlike the rest of the 613 commandments in the Torah, which include, for example, various duties and ceremonies such as the kashrut dietary laws, and now unobservable rituals to be performed by priests in the Holy Temple . Jewish tradition considers the Ten Commandments the theological basis for the rest of the commandments; a number of works, starting with Rabbi Saadia Gaon , have made groupings of the commandments according to their links with the Ten Commandments. [ citation needed ] A conservative rabbi, Louis Ginzberg , stated in his book Legends of the Jews , that Ten Commandments are virtually entwined, that the breaking of one leads to the breaking of another. Echoing an earlier rabbinic comment found in the commentary of Rashi to the Songs of Songs (4:5) Ginzberg explained - there is also a great bond of union between the first five commandments and the last five. The first commandment: "I am the Lord, thy God," corresponds to the sixth: "Thou shalt not kill," for the murderer slays the image of God. The second: "Thou shalt have no strange gods before me," corresponds to the seventh: "Thou shalt not commit adultery," for conjugal faithlessness is as grave a sin as idolatry, which is faithlessness to God. The third commandment: "Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord in vain," corresponds to the eighth: "Thou shalt not steal," for stealing result in false oath in God's name. The fourth: "Remember the Sabbath day, to keep it holy," corresponds to the ninth: "Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbor," for he who bears false witness against his neighbor commits as grave a sin as if he had borne false witness against God, saying that He had not created the world in six days and rested on the seventh day (the holy Sabbath). The fifth commandment: "Honor thy father and thy mother," corresponds to the tenth: "Covet not thy neighbor's wife," for one who indulges this lust produces children who will not honor their true father, but will consider a stranger their father. The traditional Rabbinical Jewish belief is that the observance of these commandments and the other mitzvot are required solely of the Jewish people and that the laws incumbent on humanity in general are outlined in the seven Noahide laws , several of which overlap with the Ten Commandments. In the era of the Sanhedrin transgressing any one of six of the Ten Commandments theoretically carried the death penalty , the exceptions being the First Commandment, honouring your father and mother, saying God's name in vain, and coveting, though this was rarely enforced due to a large number of stringent evidentiary requirements imposed by the oral law . Two tablets [ edit ] Main article: Tablets of Stone The arrangement of the commandments on the two tablets is interpreted in different ways in the classical Jewish tradition. Rabbi Hanina ben Gamaliel says that each tablet contained five commandments, "but the Sages say ten on one tablet and ten on the other", that is, that the tablets were duplicates. This can be compared to diplomatic treaties of the ancient Near East, in which a copy was made for each party. According to the Talmud , the compendium of traditional Rabbinic Jewish law, tradition, and interpretation, one interpretation of the biblical verse "the tablets were written on both their sides", is that the carving went through the full thickness of the tablets, yet was miraculously legible from both sides. Use in Jewish ritual [ edit ] The Ten Commandments on a glass plate The Mishna records that during the period of the Second Temple , the Ten Commandments were recited daily, before the reading of the Shema Yisrael (as preserved, for example, in the Nash Papyrus , a Hebrew manuscript fragment from 150–100 BCE found in Egypt, containing a version of the ten commandments and the beginning of the Shema); but that this practice was abolished in the synagogues so as not to give ammunition to heretics who claimed that they were the only important part of Jewish law, or to dispute a claim by early Christians that only the Ten Commandments were handed down at Mount Sinai rather than the whole Torah. In later centuries rabbis continued to omit the Ten Commandments from daily liturgy in order to prevent a confusion among Jews that they are only bound by the Ten Commandments, and not also by many other biblical and Talmudic laws, such as the requirement to observe holy days other than the sabbath. Today, the Ten Commandments are heard in the synagogue three times a year: as they come up during the readings of Exodus and Deuteronomy, and during the festival of Shavuot . The Exodus version is read in parashat Yitro around late January–February, and on the festival of Shavuot, and the Deuteronomy version in parashat Va'etchanan in August–September. In some traditions, worshipers rise for the reading of the Ten Commandments to highlight their special significance though many rabbis, including Maimonides , have opposed this custom since one may come to think that the Ten Commandments are more important than the rest of the Mitzvot . In printed Chumashim , as well as in those in manuscript form, the Ten Commandments carry two sets of cantillation marks. The ta'am 'elyon (upper accentuation), which makes each Commandment into a separate verse, is used for public Torah reading, while the ta'am tachton (lower accentuation), which divides the text into verses of more even length, is used for private reading or study. The verse numbering in Jewish Bibles follows the ta'am tachton . In Jewish Bibles the references to the Ten Commandments are therefore Exodus 20:2–14 and Deuteronomy 5:6–18 . Samaritan [ edit ] The Samaritan Pentateuch varies in the Ten Commandments passages, both in that the Samaritan Deuteronomical version of the passage is much closer to that in Exodus, and in that Samaritans count as nine commandments what others count as ten. The Samaritan tenth commandment is on the sanctity of Mount Gerizim . The text of the Samaritan tenth commandment follows: And it shall come to pass when the Lord thy God will bring thee into the land of the Canaanites whither thou goest to take possession of it, thou shalt erect unto thee large stones, and thou shalt cover them with lime, and thou shalt write upon the stones all the words of this Law, and it shall come to pass when ye cross the Jordan, ye shall erect these stones which I command thee upon Mount Gerizim , and thou shalt build there an altar unto the Lord thy God, an altar of stones, and thou shalt not lift upon them iron, of perfect stones shalt thou build thine altar, and thou shalt bring upon it burnt offerings to the Lord thy God, and thou shalt sacrifice peace offerings, and thou shalt eat there and rejoice before the Lord thy God. That mountain is on the other side of the Jordan at the end of the road towards the going down of the sun in the land of the Canaanites who dwell in the Arabah facing Gilgal close by Elon Moreh facing Shechem. Christianity [ edit ] See also: Christian views on the Old Covenant Most traditions of Christianity hold that the Ten Commandments have divine authority and continue to be valid, though they have different interpretations and uses of them. The Apostolic Constitutions , which implore believers to "always remember the ten commands of God," reveal the importance of the Decalogue in the early Church . Through most of Christian history the decalogue was considered a summary of God's law and standard of behaviour, central to Christian life, piety, and worship. References in the New Testament [ edit ] See also: Matthew 5 § Antitheses Moses and Aaron with the Ten Commandments (painting circa 1675 by Aron de Chavez) During his Sermon on the Mount , Jesus explicitly referenced the prohibitions against murder and adultery. In Matthew 19:16-19 Jesus repeated five of the Ten Commandments, followed by that commandment called "the second" ( Matthew 22:34-40 ) after the first and great commandment . And, behold, one came and said unto him, Good Master, what good thing shall I do, that I may have eternal life? And he said unto him, Why callest thou me good? there is none good but one, that is , God: but if thou wilt enter into life, keep the commandments. He saith unto him, Which? Jesus said, Thou shalt do no murder, Thou shalt not commit adultery, Thou shalt not steal, Thou shalt not bear false witness, Honour thy father and thy mother: and, Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself. — Matthew 19:16-19 In his Epistle to the Romans , Paul the Apostle also mentioned five of the Ten Commandments and associated them with the neighbourly love commandment. Romans 13:8 Owe no man any thing, but to love one another: for he that loveth another hath fulfilled the law. 9 For this, Thou shalt not commit adultery, Thou shalt not kill, Thou shalt not steal, Thou shalt not bear false witness, Thou shalt not covet; and if there be any other commandment, it is briefly comprehended in this saying, namely, Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself. 10 Love worketh no ill to his neighbour: therefore love is the fulfilling of the law. — Romans 13:8-10 KJV Roman Catholicism [ edit ] Main article: Ten Commandments in Catholic theology In Roman Catholicism, Jesus freed Christians from the rest of Jewish religious law , but not from their obligation to keep the Ten Commandments. It has been said that they are to the moral order what the creation story is to the natural order. According to the Catechism of the Catholic Church —the official exposition of the Catholic Church 's Christian beliefs—the Commandments are considered essential for spiritual good health and growth, and serve as the basis for social justice . Church teaching of the Commandments is largely based on the Old and New Testaments and the writings of the early Church Fathers . In the New Testament, Jesus acknowledged their validity and instructed his disciples to go further, demanding a righteousness exceeding that of the scribes and Pharisees . Summarized by Jesus into two " great commandments " that teach the love of God and love of neighbour, they instruct individuals on their relationships with both. Orthodox [ edit ] The Eastern Orthodox Church holds its moral truths to be chiefly contained in the Ten Commandments. A confession begins with the Confessor reciting the Ten Commandments and asking the penitent which of them he has broken. Protestantism [ edit ] See also: Law and Gospel After rejecting the Roman Catholic moral theology, giving more importance to biblical law and the gospel , early Protestant theologians continued to take the Ten Commandments as the starting point of Christian moral life. Different versions of Christianity have varied in how they have translated the bare principles into the specifics that make up a full Christian ethic . A Christian school in India displays the Ten Commandments Lutheranism [ edit ] The Lutheran division of the commandments follows the one established by St. Augustine , following the then current synagogue scribal division. The first three commandments govern the relationship between God and humans, the fourth through eighth govern public relationships between people, and the last two govern private thoughts. See Luther's Small Catechism and Large Catechism. Reformed [ edit ] The Articles of the Church of England , Revised and altered by the Assembly of Divines, at Westminster , in the year 1643 state that "no Christian man whatsoever is free from the obedience of the commandments which are called moral. By the moral law, we understand all the Ten Commandments taken in their full extent." The Westminster Confession , held by Presbyterian Churches , holds that the moral law contained in the Ten Commandments "does forever bind all, as well justified persons as others, to the obedience thereof". Methodist [ edit ] The moral law contained in the Ten Commandments, according to the founder of the Methodist movement John Wesley , was instituted from the beginning of the world and is written on the hearts of all people. As with the Reformed view, Wesley held that the moral law, which is contained in the Ten Commandments, stands today: Every part of this law must remain in force upon all mankind in all ages, as not depending either on time or place, nor on any other circumstances liable to change; but on the nature of God and the nature of man, and their unchangeable relation to each other" (Wesley's Sermons , Vol. I, Sermon 25). In keeping with Wesleyan covenant theology , "while the ceremonial law was abolished in Christ and the whole Mosaic dispensation itself was concluded upon the appearance of Christ, the moral law remains a vital component of the covenant of grace, having Christ as its perfecting end." As such, in Methodism, an "important aspect of the pursuit of sanctification is the careful following" of the Ten Commandments. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints [ edit ] According to The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS) doctrine, Jesus completed rather than rejected the Mosaic Law. The Ten Commandments are considered eternal gospel principles necessary for exaltation . They appear in the Book of Mosiah 12:34–36, 13:15–16, 13:21–24 and Doctrine and Covenants . According to the Book of Mosiah, a prophet named Abinadi taught the Ten Commandments in the court of King Noah and was martyred for his righteousness. Abinadi knew the Ten Commandments from the brass plates . In an October 2010 address, LDS president and prophet Thomas S. Monson taught "The Ten Commandments are just that—commandments. They are not suggestions." The Strangite denomination has different views of the Decalogue . [ citation needed ] Main points of interpretative difference [ edit ] Sabbath day [ edit ] See also: Remember the sabbath day, to keep it holy ; Shabbat ; and Judaizers All Abrahamic religions observe a weekly day of rest, often called the Sabbath, although the actual day of the week ranges from Friday in Islam, Saturday in Judaism (both reckoned from dusk to dusk), and Sunday, from midnight to midnight, in Christianity. Sabbath in Christianity is a day of rest from work, often dedicated to religious observance, derived from the Biblical Sabbath . Non-Sabbatarianism is the principle of Christian liberty from being bound to physical sabbath observance. Most dictionaries provide both first-day and seventh-day definitions for "sabbath" and "Sabbatarian", among other related uses. Observing the Sabbath on Sunday, the day of resurrection, gradually became the dominant Christian practice from the Jewish-Roman wars onward. [ citation needed ] The Church's general repudiation of Jewish practices during this period is apparent in the Council of Laodicea (4th century AD) where Canons 37–38 state: "It is not lawful to receive portions sent from the feasts of Jews or heretics, nor to feast together with them" and "It is not lawful to receive unleavened bread from the Jews, nor to be partakers of their impiety". Canon 29 of the Laodicean council specifically refers to the sabbath: "Christians must not judaize by resting on the [Jewish] Sabbath, but must work on that day, rather honouring the Lord's Day; and, if they can, resting then as Christians. But if any shall be found to be judaizers, let them be anathema from Christ." Killing or murder [ edit ] Main article: Thou shalt not kill The Sixth Commandment, as translated by the Book of Common Prayer (1549). The image is from the altar screen of the Temple Church near the Law Courts in London. Multiple translations exist of the fifth/sixth commandment; the Hebrew words לא תרצח ‬ (lo tirtzach) are variously translated as "thou shalt not kill" or "thou shalt not murder". The imperative is against unlawful killing resulting in bloodguilt . The Hebrew Bible contains numerous prohibitions against unlawful killing, but does not prohibit killing in the context of warfare ( 1Kings 2:5–6 ), capital punishment ( Leviticus 20:9–16 ) and self-defence ( Exodus 22:2–3 ), which are considered justified. The New Testament is in agreement that murder is a grave moral evil, and references the Old Testament view of bloodguilt. Theft [ edit ] Main article: Thou shalt not steal Some academic theologians, including German Old Testament scholar Albrecht Alt : Das Verbot des Diebstahls im Dekalog (1953), suggest that the commandment translated as "thou shalt not steal" was originally intended against stealing people—against abductions and slavery, in agreement with the Talmudic interpretation of the statement as "thou shalt not kidnap" (Sanhedrin 86a). Idolatry [ edit ] Main articles: Idolatry , Idolatry in Judaism , and Idolatry in Christianity Idolatry is forbidden in all Abrahamic religions. In Judaism there is a prohibition against worshipping an idol or a representation of God, but there is no restriction on art or simple depictions . Islam has a stronger prohibition, banning representations of God, and in some cases of Muhammad, humans and, in some interpretations, any living creature. In Gospel of Barnabas , Jesus stated that idolatry is the greatest sin as it divests a man fully of faith, and hence of God. In his time, Idolatry is not only worshipping statues of wood or stone; but also statues of flesh. All which a man loves, for which he leaves everything else but that, is his god, thus the glutton and drunkard has for his idol his own flesh, the fornicator has for his idol the harlot and the greedy has for his idol silver and gold, and so the same for every other sinner. In Christianity's earliest centuries, some Christians had informally adorned their homes and places of worship with images of Christ and the saints, which others thought inappropriate. No church council had ruled on whether such practices constituted idolatry. The controversy reached crisis level in the 8th century, during the period of iconoclasm : the smashing of icons. In 726 Emperor Leo III ordered all images removed from all churches; in 730 a council forbade veneration of images, citing the Second Commandment; in 787 the Seventh Ecumenical Council reversed the preceding rulings, condemning iconoclasm and sanctioning the veneration of images; in 815 Leo V called yet another council, which reinstated iconoclasm; in 843 Empress Theodora again reinstated veneration of icons. This mostly settled the matter until the Protestant Reformation , when John Calvin declared that the ruling of the Seventh Ecumenical Council "emanated from Satan". Protestant iconoclasts at this time destroyed statues, pictures, stained glass, and artistic masterpieces. The Eastern Orthodox Church celebrates Theodora's restoration of the icons every year on the First Sunday of Great Lent . Eastern Orthodox tradition teaches that while images of God, the Father, remain prohibited, depictions of Jesus as the incarnation of God as a visible human are permissible. To emphasize the theological importance of the incarnation, the Orthodox Church encourages the use of icons in church and private devotions, but prefers a two-dimensional depiction as a reminder of this theological aspect. Icons depict the spiritual dimension of their subject rather than attempting a naturalistic portrayal. In modern use (usually as a result of Roman Catholic influence), more naturalistic images and images of the Father, however, also appear occasionally in Orthodox churches, but statues, i.e. three-dimensional depictions, continue to be banned. Adultery [ edit ] Originally this commandment forbade male Israelites from having sexual intercourse with the wife of another Israelite; the prohibition did not extend to their own slaves. Sexual intercourse between an Israelite man, married or not, and a woman who was neither married nor betrothed was not considered adultery. This concept of adultery stems from the economic aspect of Israelite marriage whereby the husband has an exclusive right to his wife, whereas the wife, as the husband's possession, did not have an exclusive right to her husband. Louis Ginzberg argued that the tenth commandment ( Covet not thy neighbor's wife ) is directed against a sin which may lead to a trespassing of all Ten Commandments. Critical historical analysis [ edit ] Early theories [ edit ] Critical scholarship is divided over its interpretation of the ten commandment texts. Julius Wellhausen 's influential hypothesis regarding the formation of the Pentateuch suggests that Exodus 20-23 and 34 "might be regarded as the document which formed the starting point of the religious history of Israel." Deuteronomy 5 then reflects King Josiah's attempt to link the document produced by his court to the older Mosaic tradition. In a 2002 analysis of the history of this position, Bernard M. Levinson argued that this reconstruction assumes a Christian perspective, and dates back to Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 's polemic against Judaism, which asserted that religions evolve from the more ritualistic to the more ethical . Goethe thus argued that the Ten Commandments revealed to Moses at Mt. Sinai would have emphasized rituals, and that the "ethical" Decalogue Christians recite in their own churches was composed at a later date, when Israelite prophets had begun to prophesy the coming of the messiah, Jesus Christ. Levinson points out that there is no evidence, internal to the Hebrew Bible or in external sources, to support this conjecture. He concludes that its vogue among later critical historians represents the persistence of the idea that the supersession of Judaism by Christianity is part of a longer history of progress from the ritualistic to the ethical. By the 1930s, historians who accepted the basic premises of multiple authorship had come to reject the idea of an orderly evolution of Israelite religion. Critics instead began to suppose that law and ritual could be of equal importance, while taking different form, at different times. This means that there is no longer any a priori reason to believe that Exodus 20:2–17 and Exodus 34:10–28 were composed during different stages of Israelite history. For example, critical historian John Bright also dates the Jahwist texts to the tenth century BCE, but believes that they express a theology that "had already been normalized in the period of the Judges" (i.e., of the tribal alliance). He concurs about the importance of the decalogue as "a central feature in the covenant that brought together Israel into being as a people" but views the parallels between Exodus 20 and Deuteronomy 5, along with other evidence, as reason to believe that it is relatively close to its original form and Mosaic in origin. Hittite treaties [ edit ] According to John Bright, however, there is an important distinction between the Decalogue and the "book of the covenant" (Exodus 21-23 and 34:10–24). The Decalogue, he argues, was modelled on the suzerainty treaties of the Hittites (and other Mesopotamian Empires), that is, represents the relationship between God and Israel as a relationship between king and vassal, and enacts that bond. "The prologue of the Hittite treaty reminds his vassals of his benevolent acts.. (compare with Exodus 20:2 "I am the L ORD your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of slavery"). The Hittite treaty also stipulated the obligations imposed by the ruler on his vassals, which included a prohibition of relations with peoples outside the empire, or enmity between those within." (Exodus 20:3: "You shall have no other gods before Me"). Viewed as a treaty rather than a law code, its purpose is not so much to regulate human affairs as to define the scope of the king's power. Julius Morgenstern argued that Exodus 34 is distinct from the Jahwist document, identifying it with king Asa's reforms in 899 BCE. Bright, however, believes that like the Decalogue this text has its origins in the time of the tribal alliance. The book of the covenant, he notes, bears a greater similarity to Mesopotamian law codes (e.g. the Code of Hammurabi which was inscribed on a stone stele ). He argues that the function of this "book" is to move from the realm of treaty to the realm of law: "The Book of the Covenant (Ex., chs. 21 to 23; cf. ch. 34), which is no official state law, but a description of normative Israelite judicial procedure in the days of the Judges, is the best example of this process." According to Bright, then, this body of law too predates the monarchy. Hilton J. Blik writes that the phrasing in the Decalogue's instructions suggests that it was conceived in a mainly polytheistic milieu, evident especially in the formulation of the henotheistic "no-other-gods-before-me" commandment. [ self-published source ] Dating [ edit ] If the Ten Commandments are based on Hittite forms, it would date them to somewhere between the 14th-12th century BCE. Archaeologists Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher Silberman argue that "the astonishing composition came together … in the seventh century BCE". Critical scholar Yehezkel Kaufmann (1960) dates the oral form of the covenant to the time of Josiah . An even later date (after 586 BCE) is suggested by David H. Aaron. The Ritual Decalogue [ edit ] Main article: Ritual Decalogue Some proponents of the Documentary hypothesis have argued that the biblical text in Exodus 34:28 identifies a different list as the ten commandments, that of Exodus 34:11–27. Since this passage does not prohibit murder, adultery, theft, etc., but instead deals with the proper worship of Yahweh , some scholars call it the " Ritual Decalogue ", and disambiguate the ten commandments of traditional understanding as the "Ethical Decalogue". According to these scholars the Bible includes multiple versions of events. On the basis of many points of analysis including linguistic it is shown as a patchwork of sources sometimes with bridging comments by the editor (Redactor) but otherwise left intact from the original, frequently side by side. Richard Elliott Friedman argues that the Ten Commandments at Exodus 20:1–17 "does not appear to belong to any of the major sources. It is likely to be an independent document, which was inserted here by the Redactor." In his view, the Covenant Code follows that version of the Ten Commandments in the northern Israel E narrative. In the J narrative in Exodus 34 the editor of the combined story known as the Redactor (or RJE), adds in an explanation that these are a replacement for the earlier tablets which were shattered. "In the combined JE text, it would be awkward to picture God just commanding Moses to make some tablets, as if there were no history to this matter, so RJE adds the explanation that these are a replacement for the earlier tablets that were shattered." He writes that Exodus 34:14–26 is the J text of the Ten Commandments: "The first two commandments and the sabbath commandment have parallels in the other versions of the Ten Commandments. (Exodus 20 and Deuteronomy 5). … The other seven commandments here are completely different." He suggests that differences in the J and E versions of the Ten Commandments story are a result of power struggles in the priesthood. The writer has Moses smash the tablets "because this raised doubts about the Judah's central religious shrine". According to Kaufmann, the Decalogue and the book of the covenant represent two ways of manifesting God's presence in Israel: the Ten Commandments taking the archaic and material form of stone tablets kept in the ark of the covenant , while the book of the covenant took oral form to be recited to the people. Quranic reference to the ten commandments can be found in chapter 2 verses 83 and 84 "And [recall] when We took the covenant from the Children of Israel, [enjoining upon them], "Do not worship except Allah (1) ; and to parents do good (2) and to relatives (3), orphans (4), and the needy (5). And speak to people good words (6) and establish prayer (7) and give Zakat (8)." Then you turned away, except a few of you, and you were refusing." "And [recall] when We took your covenant, [saying], "Do not shed each other's blood (9) or evict one another from your homes (10)." Then you acknowledged [this] while you were witnessing" United States debate over display on public property [ edit ] Further information: Accommodationism See also: Roy Moore , Van Orden v. Perry , and Separation of church and state in the United States Ten Commandments display at the Texas State Capitol in Austin . European Protestants replaced some visual art in their churches with plaques of the Ten Commandments after the Reformation. In England, such "Decalogue boards" also represented the English monarch's emphasis on rule of royal law within the churches. The United States Constitution forbids establishment of religion by law; however images of Moses holding the tablets of the Decalogue, along other religious figures including Solomon, Confucius, and Mohamed holding the Qur'an, are sculpted on the north and south friezes of the pediment of the Supreme Court building in Washington . Images of the Ten Commandments have long been contested symbols for the relationship of religion to national law. In the 1950s and 1960s the Fraternal Order of Eagles placed possibly thousands of Ten Commandments displays in courthouses and school rooms, including many stone monuments on courthouse property. Because displaying the commandments can reflect a sectarian position if they are numbered (see above), the Eagles developed an ecumenical version that omitted the numbers, as on the monument at the Texas capitol (shown here). Hundreds of monuments were also placed by director Cecil B. DeMille as a publicity stunt to promote his 1956 film The Ten Commandments . Placing the plaques and monuments to the Ten Commandments in and around government buildings was another expression of mid-twentieth century U.S. civil religion , along with adding the phrase "under God" to the Pledge of Allegiance . By the beginning of the twenty-first century in the U.S., however, Decalogue monuments and plaques in government spaces had become a legal battleground between religious as well as political liberals and conservatives. Organizations such as the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) and Americans United for Separation of Church and State launched lawsuits challenging the posting of the ten commandments in public buildings. The ACLU has been supported by a number of religious groups (such as the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) , and the American Jewish Congress ), both because they do not want government to be issuing religious doctrine and because they feel strongly that the commandments are inherently religious. Many commentators see this issue as part of a wider culture war between liberal and conservative elements in American society. In response to the perceived attacks on traditional society, other legal organizations, such as the Liberty Counsel , have risen to advocate the conservative interpretation. Many Christian conservatives have taken the banning of officially sanctioned prayer from public schools by the U.S. Supreme Court as a threat to the expression of religion in public life. In response, they have successfully lobbied many state and local governments to display the ten commandments in public buildings. Those who oppose the posting of the ten commandments on public property argue that it violates the establishment clause of the First Amendment to the Constitution of the United States . In contrast, groups like the Fraternal Order of Eagles who support the public display of the ten commandments claim that the commandments are not necessarily religious but represent the moral and legal foundation of society, and are appropriate to be displayed as a historical source of present-day legal codes. Also, some argue like Judge Roy Moore that prohibiting the public practice of religion is a violation of the first amendment's guarantee of freedom of religion . The Ten Commandments by Lucas Cranach the Elder in the townhall of Wittenberg , (detail) U.S. courts have often ruled against displays of the Ten Commandments on government property. They conclude that the ten commandments are derived from Judeo-Christian religions, to the exclusion of others: the statement "Thou shalt have no other gods before me" excludes non-monotheistic religions like Hinduism , for example. Whether the Constitution prohibits the posting of the commandments or not, there are additional political and civil rights issues regarding the posting of what is construed as religious doctrine. Excluding religions that have not accepted the ten commandments creates the appearance of impropriety . The courts have been more accepting, however, of displays that place the Ten Commandments in a broader historical context of the development of law. One result of these legal cases has been that proponents of displaying the Ten Commandments have sometimes surrounded them with other historical texts to portray them as historical, rather than religious. Another result has been that other religious organizations have tried to put monuments to their laws on public lands. For example, an organization called Summum has won court cases against municipalities in Utah for refusing to allow the group to erect a monument of Summum aphorisms next to the ten commandments. The cases were won on the grounds that Summum's right to freedom of speech was denied and the governments had engaged in discrimination . Instead of allowing Summum to erect its monument, the local governments chose to remove their ten commandments. Cultural references [ edit ] Two famous films of this name were directed by Cecil B. DeMille : a silent movie released in 1923 starring Theodore Roberts as Moses and a colour VistaVision version of 1956 , starring Charlton Heston as Moses. Both Dekalog , a 1989 Polish film series directed by Krzysztof Kieślowski , and The Ten , a 2007 American film, use the ten commandments as a structure for 10 smaller stories. The receipt of the Ten Commandments by Moses was satirized in Mel Brooks 's movie History of the World Part I (1981), which shows Moses (played by Brooks, in a similar costume to Charlton Heston 's Moses in the 1956 film ), receiving three tablets containing fifteen commandments, but before he can present them to his people, he stumbles and drops one of the tablets, shattering it. He then presents the remaining tablets, proclaiming Ten Commandments. In The Prince of Egypt , a 1998 animated film that depicted the early life of Moses (voiced by Val Kilmer ), the ending depicts him with the Ten Commandments at Mount Sinai, accompanied by a reprise of Deliver Us . The story of Moses and the Ten Commandments is discussed in the Danish stageplay Biblen (2008). See also [ edit ] Bible portal Book of Mormon portal Alternatives to the Ten Commandments – Secular and humanist alternatives to the biblical lists Code of Hammurabi (1772 BCE) Code of Ur-Nammu (2050 BCE) Five Precepts Five Precepts (Taoism) Maat , 42 confessions, ' The negative confession ' (1500 BCE) of Papyrus of Ani , also known as The declaration of innocence before the Gods of the tribunal from The book of going forth by day, also Book of the dead The Ten Commandments (2007 film) K10C: Kids' Ten Commandments Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics Ten Conditions of Bai'at Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ten Commandments . References [ edit ] Further reading [ edit ] Aaron, David H (2006). Etched in Stone: The Emergence of the Decalogue . Continuum. ISBN 0-567-02791-0 . Abdrushin (2009). The Ten Commandments of God and the Lord's Prayer . Grail Foundation Press. ISBN 1-57461-004-X . https://web.archive.org/web/20100523082204/http://the10com.org/index.html Peter Barenboim, Biblical Roots of Separation of Powers , Moscow, 2005 , ISBN 5-94381-123-0 . Boltwood, Emily (2012). 10 Simple Rules of the House of Gloria . Tate Publishing. ISBN 978-1-62024-840-9 . Freedman, David Noel (2000). The Nine Commandments. Uncovering a Hidden Pattern of Crime and Punishment in the Hebrew Bible . Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-49986-8 . Friedman, Richard Elliott (1987). Who Wrote the Bible? . Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-671-63161-6 . Hazony, David (2010). The Ten Commandments: How Our Most Ancient Moral Text Can Renew Modern Life . New York: Scribner. ISBN 1-4165-6235-4 . Kaufmann, Yehezkel (1960). The Religion of Israel, From Its Beginnings To the Babylonian Exile . Translated by Moshe Greenberg. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Kuntz, Paul Grimley (2004). The Ten Commandments in History: Mosaic Paradigms for a Well-Ordered Society . Wm B Eerdmans Publishing, Emory University Studies in Law and Religion. ISBN 0-8028-2660-1 . Markl, Dominik (2012): "The Decalogue in History: A Preliminary Survey of the Fields and Genres of its Reception", in: Zeitschrift für Altorientalische und Biblische Rechtsgeschichte – vol. 18, nº., pp. 279–293. ( pdf ) Markl, Dominik (ed.) (2013). The Decalogue and its Cultural Influence . Sheffield: Sheffield Phoenix Press. ISBN 978-1-909697-06-5 . CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list ( link ) Mendenhall, George E (1973). The Tenth Generation: The Origins of the Biblical Tradition . Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-1267-4 . Mendenhall, George E (2001). Ancient Israel's Faith and History: An Introduction To the Bible In Context . Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 0-664-22313-3 . Watts, James W. (2004). "Ten Commandments Monuments and the Rivalry of Iconic Texts" (PDF) . Journal of Religion and Society . 6 . Retrieved 2014-08-27 . External links [ edit ] Ten Commandments: Ex. 20 version ( text , mp3 ), Deut. 5 version ( text , mp3 ) in The Hebrew Bible in English by Jewish Publication Society, 1917 ed.

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where is the ten commandments located in the bible

According to Jewish tradition, Exodus 20 : 1 -- 17 constitutes God 's first recitation and inscription of the ten commandments on the two tablets, which Moses broke in anger with his rebellious nation, and were later rewritten on replacement stones and placed in the ark of the covenant ; and Deuteronomy 5 : 4 -- 20 consists of God 's re-telling of the Ten Commandments to the younger generation who were to enter the Promised Land. The passages in Exodus 20 and Deuteronomy 5 contain more than ten imperative statements, totalling 14 or 15 in all.

['central europe']

níbo nínú bíbélì ni òfin mẹ́wàá wà

No

['Àwọn Ọ̀fin Mẹ́wàá jẹ́ àkòjọ àwọn òfin mẹ́wàá ìwùwà tí Bíbélì sọ pé Ọlọ́run fún Mose lórí Òkè Sinai nínú pátákó òkúta méjí.']

['Àwọn ẹsẹ òfin mẹ́wàá bí wọn ṣe wà nínú ìwé Eksodu àti Deuteronomi.']

['P1']

Òfin Mẹ́wàá Àwọn Ọ̀fin Mẹ́wàá jẹ́ àkòjọ àwọn òfin mẹ́wàá ìwùwà tí Bíbélì sọ pé Ọlọ́run fún Mose lórí Òkè Sinai nínú pátákó òkúta méjí. Àwọn òfin mẹ́wàá [ àtúnṣe | àtúnṣe àmìọ̀rọ̀ ] Àwọn ẹsẹ òfin mẹ́wàá bí wọn ṣe wà nínú ìwé Eksodu àti Deuteronomi . Òfin Mẹ́wàá Eksodu 20:2–17 Deuteronomi 5:6–21 2 Èmi ni Olúwa Ọlọ́run rẹ, tí ó mú ọ jáde láti ilẹ̀ Egipti, láti okoẹrú jáde wá; 3 Ìwọ kò gbọdọ̀ ní Ọlọ́run míràn pẹ̀lú mi. 4 Ìwọ kò gbọdọ̀ ya ère fún ara rẹ, tàbí àwòrán ohun kan tí nbẹ lókè ọ̀run, tàbí ti ohun kan tí nbẹ ní ìsàlẹ̀ ilẹ̀, tàbí ti ohun kan tí nbẹ nínú omi ní ìsàlẹ̀ ilẹ̀. 5 You shall not bow down to them or worship them; for I the Lord your God am a jealous God, punishing children for the iniquity of parents, to the third and the fourth generation of those who reject me, 6 but showing steadfast love to the thousandth generation of those who love me and keep my commandments. 7 You shall not make wrongful use of the name of the Lord your God, for the Lord will not acquit anyone who misuses his name. 8 Remember the Sabbath day and keep it holy. 9 For six days you shall labour and do all your work. 10 But the seventh day is a Sabbath to the Lord your God; you shall not do any work—you, your son or your daughter, your male or female slave, your livestock, or the alien resident in your towns. 11 For in six days the Lord made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that is in them, but rested the seventh day; therefore the Lord blessed the Sabbath day and consecrated it. 12 Honor your father and your mother, so that your days may be long in the land that the Lord your God is giving you. 13 You shall not murder. 14 You shall not commit adultery. 15 You shall not steal. 16 You shall not bear false witness against your neighbour. 17 You shall not covet your neighbour’s house; you shall not covet your neighbour’s wife, or male or female slave, or ox, or donkey, or anything that belongs to your neighbour. 6 I am the Lord your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of slavery; 7 you shall have no other gods before me. 8 You shall not make for yourself an idol, whether in the form of anything that is in heaven above, or that is on the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth. 9 You shall not bow down to them or worship them; for I the Lord your God am a jealous God, punishing children for the iniquity of parents, to the third and fourth generation of those who reject me, 10 but showing steadfast love to the thousandth generation of those who love me and keep my commandments. 11 You shall not make wrongful use of the name of the Lord your God, for the Lord will not acquit anyone who misuses his name. 12 Observe the sabbath day and keep it holy, as the Lord your God commanded you. 13 For six days you shall labour and do all your work. 14 But the seventh day is a sabbath to the Lord your God; you shall not do any work—you, or your son or your daughter, or your male or female slave, or your ox or your donkey, or any of your livestock, or the resident alien in your towns, so that your male and female slave may rest as well as you. 15 Remember that you were a slave in the land of Egypt, and the Lord your God brought you out from there with a mighty hand and an outstretched arm; therefore the Lord your God commanded you to keep the sabbath day. 16 Honor your father and your mother, as the Lord your God commanded you, so that your days may be long and that it may go well with you in the land that the Lord your God is giving you. 17 You shall not murder. 18 Neither shall you commit adultery. 19 Neither shall you steal. 20 Neither shall you bear false witness against your neighbour. 21 Neither shall you covet your neighbour’s wife. Neither shall you desire your neighbour’s house, or field, or male or female slave, or ox, or donkey, or anything that belongs to your neighbour.

For other uses, see Ten Commandments (disambiguation) . "Decalogue" redirects here. For other uses, see Decalogue (disambiguation) . Part of a series on The Ten Commandments I am the L ORD thy God No other gods before me No graven images or likenesses Not take the L ORD 's name in vain Remember the sabbath day Honour thy father and thy mother Thou shalt not kill Thou shalt not commit adultery Thou shalt not steal Thou shalt not bear false witness Thou shalt not covet Related articles Tablets of Stone Ritual Decalogue Catholic theology v t e This 1768 parchment (612×502 mm) by Jekuthiel Sofer emulated the 1675 Ten Commandments at the Amsterdam Esnoga synagogue . The Ten Commandments , also known as the Decalogue , are a set of biblical laws relating to ethics and worship , which play a fundamental role in Judaism and Christianity . The commandments include instructions to worship only God , to honour one's parents , and to keep the sabbath , as well as prohibitions against idolatry , blasphemy , murder , adultery , theft , dishonesty , and coveting . Different religious groups follow different traditions for interpreting and numbering them. The Ten Commandments appear twice in the Hebrew Bible , in the books of Exodus and Deuteronomy . Modern scholarship has found likely influences in Hittite and Mesopotamian laws and treaties, but is divided over exactly when the Ten Commandments were written and who wrote them. Contents [ hide ] 1 Terminology 2 Passages in Exodus and Deuteronomy 3 Traditions for numbering 4 Religious interpretations 4.1 Judaism 4.1.1 Two tablets 4.1.2 Use in Jewish ritual 4.2 Samaritan 4.3 Christianity 4.3.1 References in the New Testament 4.3.2 Roman Catholicism 4.3.3 Orthodox 4.3.4 Protestantism 4.3.4.1 Lutheranism 4.3.4.2 Reformed 4.3.4.3 Methodist 4.3.5 The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints 4.4 Main points of interpretative difference 4.4.1 Sabbath day 4.4.2 Killing or murder 4.4.3 Theft 4.4.4 Idolatry 4.4.5 Adultery 5 Critical historical analysis 5.1 Early theories 5.2 Hittite treaties 5.3 Dating 5.4 The Ritual Decalogue 6 United States debate over display on public property 7 Cultural references 8 See also 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links Terminology Part of the All Souls Deuteronomy , containing one of the oldest extant copies of the Decalogue In biblical Hebrew , the Ten Commandments are called עשרת הדברים ‬ ( transliterated aseret ha-d'varîm ) and in Rabbinical Hebrew עשרת הדברות ‬ (transliterated aseret ha-dibrot ), both translatable as "the ten words", "the ten sayings", or "the ten matters". The Tyndale and Coverdale English translations used "ten verses". The Geneva Bible used "tenne commandements", which was followed by the Bishops' Bible and the Authorized Version (the "King James" version) as "ten commandments". Most major English versions use "commandments." The English name "Decalogue" is derived from Greek δεκάλογος , dekalogos , the latter meaning and referring to the Greek translation (in accusative ) δέκα λόγους , deka logous , "ten words", found in the Septuagint (or LXX) at Exodus 34:28 and Deuteronomy 10:4. The stone tablets, as opposed to the commandments inscribed on them, are called לוחות הברית ‬, Lukhot HaBrit , meaning "the tablets of the covenant ". Passages in Exodus and Deuteronomy The biblical narrative of the revelation at Sinai begins in Exodus 19 after the arrival of the children of Israel at Mount Sinai (also called Horeb ). On the morning of the third day of their encampment, "there were thunders and lightnings, and a thick cloud upon the mount, and the voice of the trumpet exceeding loud", and the people assembled at the base of the mount. After "the L ORD came down upon mount Sinai", Moses went up briefly and returned and prepared the people, and then in Exodus 20 "God spoke" to all the people the words of the covenant, that is, the "ten commandments" as it is written. Modern biblical scholarship differs as to whether Exodus 19-20 describes the people of Israel as having directly heard all or some of the decalogue, or whether the laws are only passed to them through Moses. The people were afraid to hear more and moved "afar off", and Moses responded with "Fear not." Nevertheless, he drew near the "thick darkness" where "the presence of the Lord" was to hear the additional statutes and "judgments", all which he "wrote" in the " book of the covenant " which he read to the people the next morning, and they agreed to be obedient and do all that the L ORD had said. Moses escorted a select group consisting of Aaron , Nadab and Abihu , and "seventy of the elders of Israel" to a location on the mount where they worshipped "afar off" and they "saw the God of Israel" above a "paved work" like clear sapphire stone. And the L ORD said unto Moses, Come up to me into the mount, and be there: and I will give thee tablets of stone, and a law, and commandments which I have written; that thou mayest teach them. 13 And Moses rose up, and his minister Joshua: and Moses went up into the mount of God. — First mention of the tablets in Exodus 24:12–13 Moses Breaking the Tablets of the Law (1659) by Rembrandt. ( Gemäldegalerie, Berlin ) The mount was covered by the cloud for six days, and on the seventh day Moses went into the midst of the cloud and was "in the mount forty days and forty nights ." And Moses said, "the L ORD delivered unto me two tablets of stone written with the finger of God; and on them was written according to all the words, which the L ORD spake with you in the mount out of the midst of the fire in the day of the assembly." Before the full forty days expired, the children of Israel collectively decided that something had happened to Moses, and compelled Aaron to fashion a golden calf , and he "built an altar before it" and the people "worshipped" the calf. After the full forty days, Moses and Joshua came down from the mountain with the tablets of stone : "And it came to pass, as soon as he came nigh unto the camp, that he saw the calf, and the dancing: and Moses' anger waxed hot, and he cast the tablets out of his hands, and brake them beneath the mount." After the events in chapters 32 and 33, the L ORD told Moses, "Hew thee two tablets of stone like unto the first: and I will write upon these tablets the words that were in the first tablets, which thou brakest." "And he wrote on the tablets, according to the first writing, the ten commandments, which the L ORD spake unto you in the mount out of the midst of the fire in the day of the assembly: and the L ORD gave them unto me." According to Jewish tradition, Exodus 20:1–17 constitutes God's first recitation and inscription of the ten commandments on the two tablets, which Moses broke in anger with his rebellious nation, and were later rewritten on replacement stones and placed in the ark of the covenant ; and Deuteronomy 5:4–20 consists of God's re-telling of the Ten Commandments to the younger generation who were to enter the Promised Land. The passages in Exodus 20 and Deuteronomy 5 contain more than ten imperative statements, totalling 14 or 15 in all. Traditions for numbering Different religious traditions divide the seventeen verses of Exodus 20:1–17 and their parallels at Deuteronomy 5:4–21 into ten "commandments" or "sayings" in different ways, shown in the table below. Some suggest that the number ten is a choice to aid memorization rather than a matter of theology. Traditions: LXX : Septuagint , generally followed by Orthodox Christians. P : Philo , same as the Septuagint, but with the prohibitions on killing and adultery reversed. S : Samaritan Pentateuch , with an additional commandment about Mount Gerizim as 10th. T : Jewish Talmud , makes the "prologue" the first "saying" or "matter" and combines the prohibition on worshiping deities other than Yahweh with the prohibition on idolatry. A : Augustine follows the Talmud in combining verses 3–6, but omits the prologue as a commandment and divides the prohibition on coveting in two and following the word order of Deuteronomy 5:21 rather than Exodus 20:17. C : Catechism of the Catholic Church , largely follows Augustine. L : Lutherans follow Luther's Large Catechism , which follows Augustine but omits the prohibition of images and uses the word order of Exodus 20:17 rather than Deuteronomy 5:21 for the ninth and tenth commandments. R : Reformed Christians follow John Calvin 's Institutes of the Christian Religion , which follows the Septuagint; this system is also used in the Anglican Book of Common Prayer . The Ten Commandments LXX P S T A C L R Main article Exodus 20:1-17 Deuteronomy 5:4-21 — — — 1 — 1 — (1) I am the Lord thy God , which have brought thee out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage. 2 6 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 Thou shalt have no other gods before me 3 7 2 2 1 2 1 1 1 2 Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image 4–6 8–10 3 3 2 3 2 2 2 3 Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain 7 11 4 4 3 4 3 3 3 4 Remember the sabbath day, to keep it holy 8–11 12–15 5 5 4 5 4 4 4 5 Honour thy father and thy mother 12 16 6 7 5 6 5 5 5 6 Thou shalt not kill 13 17 7 6 6 7 6 6 6 7 Thou shalt not commit adultery 14 18 8 8 7 8 7 7 7 8 Thou shalt not steal 15 19 9 9 8 9 8 8 8 9 Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbour 16 20 10 10 9 10 10 10 9 10 Thou shalt not covet (neighbour's house) 17a 21b 10 10 9 10 9 9 10 10 Thou shalt not covet (neighbour's wife) 17b 21a 10 10 9 10 10 10 10 10 Thou shalt not covet (neighbour's servants, animals, or anything else) 17c 21c — — 10 — — — — — Ye shall erect these stones which I command thee upon Mount Gerizim [ citation needed ] [ citation needed ] All scripture quotes above are from the King James Version . Click on verses at top of columns for other versions. Religious interpretations The Ten Commandments concern matters of fundamental importance in Judaism and Christianity: the greatest obligation (to worship only God), the greatest injury to a person (murder), the greatest injury to family bonds (adultery), the greatest injury to commerce and law (bearing false witness), the greatest inter-generational obligation (honour to parents), the greatest obligation to community (truthfulness), the greatest injury to moveable property (theft). The Ten Commandments are written with room for varying interpretation, reflecting their role as a summary of fundamental principles. They are not as explicit or detailed as rules or many other biblical laws and commandments, because they provide guiding principles that apply universally, across changing circumstances. They do not specify punishments for their violation. Their precise import must be worked out in each separate situation. The Bible indicates the special status of the Ten Commandments among all other Torah laws in several ways: They have a uniquely terse style. Of all the biblical laws and commandments, the Ten Commandments alone are said to have been "written with the finger of God" ( Exodus 31:18 ). The stone tablets were placed in the Ark of the Covenant ( Exodus 25:21 , Deuteronomy 10:2,5 ). Judaism The Ten Commandments form the basis of Jewish law, stating God's universal and timeless standard of right and wrong – unlike the rest of the 613 commandments in the Torah, which include, for example, various duties and ceremonies such as the kashrut dietary laws, and now unobservable rituals to be performed by priests in the Holy Temple . Jewish tradition considers the Ten Commandments the theological basis for the rest of the commandments; a number of works, starting with Rabbi Saadia Gaon , have made groupings of the commandments according to their links with the Ten Commandments. [ citation needed ] A conservative rabbi, Louis Ginzberg , stated in his book Legends of the Jews , that Ten Commandments are virtually entwined, that the breaking of one leads to the breaking of another. There is also a great bond of union between the first five commandments and the last five. The first commandment: "I am the Lord, thy God," corresponds to the sixth: "Thou shalt not kill," for the murderer slays the image of God. The second: "Thou shalt have no strange gods before me," corresponds to the seventh: "Thou shalt not commit adultery," for conjugal faithlessness is as grave a sin as idolatry, which is faithlessness to God. The third commandment: "Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord in vain," corresponds to the eighth: "Thou shalt not steal," for stealing result in false oath in God's name. The fourth: "Remember the Sabbath day, to keep it holy," corresponds to the ninth: "Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbor," for he who bears false witness against his neighbor commits as grave a sin as if he had borne false witness against God, saying that He had not created the world in six days and rested on the seventh day (the holy Sabbath). The fifth commandment: "Honor thy father and thy mother," corresponds to the tenth: "Covet not thy neighbor's wife," for one who indulges this lust produces children who will not honor their true father, but will consider a stranger their father. The traditional Rabbinical Jewish belief is that the observance of these commandments and the other mitzvot are required solely of the Jewish people and that the laws incumbent on humanity in general are outlined in the seven Noahide laws , several of which overlap with the Ten Commandments. In the era of the Sanhedrin transgressing any one of six of the Ten Commandments theoretically carried the death penalty , the exceptions being the First Commandment, honouring your father and mother, saying God's name in vain, and coveting, though this was rarely enforced due to a large number of stringent evidentiary requirements imposed by the oral law . Two tablets Main article: Tablets of Stone The arrangement of the commandments on the two tablets is interpreted in different ways in the classical Jewish tradition. Rabbi Hanina ben Gamaliel says that each tablet contained five commandments, "but the Sages say ten on one tablet and ten on the other", that is, that the tablets were duplicates. This can be compared to diplomatic treaties of the ancient Near East, in which a copy was made for each party. According to the Talmud , the compendium of traditional Rabbinic Jewish law, tradition, and interpretation, one interpretation of the biblical verse "the tablets were written on both their sides", is that the carving went through the full thickness of the tablets, yet was miraculously legible from both sides. Use in Jewish ritual The Ten Commandments on a glass plate The Mishna records that during the period of the Second Temple , the Ten Commandments were recited daily, before the reading of the Shema Yisrael (as preserved, for example, in the Nash Papyrus , a Hebrew manuscript fragment from 150–100 BCE found in Egypt, containing a version of the ten commandments and the beginning of the Shema); but that this practice was abolished in the synagogues so as not to give ammunition to heretics who claimed that they were the only important part of Jewish law, or to dispute a claim by early Christians that only the Ten Commandments were handed down at Mount Sinai rather than the whole Torah. In later centuries rabbis continued to omit the Ten Commandments from daily liturgy in order to prevent a confusion among Jews that they are only bound by the Ten Commandments, and not also by many other biblical and Talmudic laws, such as the requirement to observe holy days other than the sabbath. Today, the Ten Commandments are heard in the synagogue three times a year: as they come up during the readings of Exodus and Deuteronomy, and during the festival of Shavuot . The Exodus version is read in parashat Yitro around late January–February, and on the festival of Shavuot, and the Deuteronomy version in parashat Va'etchanan in August–September. In some traditions, worshipers rise for the reading of the Ten Commandments to highlight their special significance though many rabbis, including Maimonides , have opposed this custom since one may come to think that the Ten Commandments are more important than the rest of the Mitzvot . In printed Chumashim , as well as in those in manuscript form, the Ten Commandments carry two sets of cantillation marks. The ta'am 'elyon (upper accentuation), which makes each Commandment into a separate verse, is used for public Torah reading, while the ta'am tachton (lower accentuation), which divides the text into verses of more even length, is used for private reading or study. The verse numbering in Jewish Bibles follows the ta'am tachton . In Jewish Bibles the references to the Ten Commandments are therefore Exodus 20:2–14 and Deuteronomy 5:6–18 . Samaritan The Samaritan Pentateuch varies in the Ten Commandments passages, both in that the Samaritan Deuteronomical version of the passage is much closer to that in Exodus, and in that Samaritans count as nine commandments what others count as ten. The Samaritan tenth commandment is on the sanctity of Mount Gerizim . The text of the Samaritan tenth commandment follows: And it shall come to pass when the Lord thy God will bring thee into the land of the Canaanites whither thou goest to take possession of it, thou shalt erect unto thee large stones, and thou shalt cover them with lime, and thou shalt write upon the stones all the words of this Law, and it shall come to pass when ye cross the Jordan, ye shall erect these stones which I command thee upon Mount Gerizim , and thou shalt build there an altar unto the Lord thy God, an altar of stones, and thou shalt not lift upon them iron, of perfect stones shalt thou build thine altar, and thou shalt bring upon it burnt offerings to the Lord thy God, and thou shalt sacrifice peace offerings, and thou shalt eat there and rejoice before the Lord thy God. That mountain is on the other side of the Jordan at the end of the road towards the going down of the sun in the land of the Canaanites who dwell in the Arabah facing Gilgal close by Elon Moreh facing Shechem. Christianity See also: Christian views on the Old Covenant Most traditions of Christianity hold that the Ten Commandments have divine authority and continue to be valid, though they have different interpretations and uses of them. The Apostolic Constitutions , which implore believers to "always remember the ten commands of God," reveal the importance of the Decalogue in the early Church . Through most of Christian history the decalogue was considered a summary of God's law and standard of behaviour, central to Christian life, piety, and worship. References in the New Testament See also: Matthew 5 § Antitheses During his Sermon on the Mount , Jesus explicitly referenced the prohibitions against murder and adultery. In Matthew 19:16-19 Jesus repeated five of the Ten Commandments, followed by that commandment called "the second" ( Matthew 22:34-40 ) after the first and great commandment . And, behold, one came and said unto him, Good Master, what good thing shall I do, that I may have eternal life? And he said unto him, Why callest thou me good? there is none good but one, that is , God: but if thou wilt enter into life, keep the commandments. He saith unto him, Which? Jesus said, Thou shalt do no murder, Thou shalt not commit adultery, Thou shalt not steal, Thou shalt not bear false witness, Honour thy father and thy mother: and, Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself. — Matthew 19:16-19 In his Epistle to the Romans , Paul the Apostle also mentioned five of the Ten Commandments and associated them with the neighbourly love commandment. Romans 13:8 Owe no man any thing, but to love one another: for he that loveth another hath fulfilled the law. 9 For this, Thou shalt not commit adultery, Thou shalt not kill, Thou shalt not steal, Thou shalt not bear false witness, Thou shalt not covet; and if there be any other commandment, it is briefly comprehended in this saying, namely, Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself. 10 Love worketh no ill to his neighbour: therefore love is the fulfilling of the law. — Romans 13:8-10 KJV Roman Catholicism Main article: Ten Commandments in Catholic theology In Roman Catholicism, Jesus freed Christians from the rest of Jewish religious law , but not from their obligation to keep the Ten Commandments. It has been said that they are to the moral order what the creation story is to the natural order. According to the Catechism of the Catholic Church —the official exposition of the Catholic Church 's Christian beliefs—the Commandments are considered essential for spiritual good health and growth, and serve as the basis for social justice . Church teaching of the Commandments is largely based on the Old and New Testaments and the writings of the early Church Fathers . In the New Testament, Jesus acknowledged their validity and instructed his disciples to go further, demanding a righteousness exceeding that of the scribes and Pharisees . Summarized by Jesus into two " great commandments " that teach the love of God and love of neighbour, they instruct individuals on their relationships with both. Orthodox The Eastern Orthodox Church holds its moral truths to be chiefly contained in the Ten Commandments. A confession begins with the Confessor reciting the Ten Commandments and asking the penitent which of them he has broken. Protestantism See also: Law and Gospel After rejecting the Roman Catholic moral theology, giving more importance to biblical law and the gospel , early Protestant theologians continued to take the Ten Commandments as the starting point of Christian moral life. Different versions of Christianity have varied in how they have translated the bare principles into the specifics that make up a full Christian ethic . A Christian school in India displays the Ten Commandments Lutheranism The Lutheran division of the commandments follows the one established by St. Augustine , following the then current synagogue scribal division. The first three commandments govern the relationship between God and humans, the fourth through eighth govern public relationships between people, and the last two govern private thoughts. See Luther's Small Catechism and Large Catechism. Reformed The Articles of the Church of England , Revised and altered by the Assembly of Divines, at Westminster , in the year 1643 state that "no Christian man whatsoever is free from the obedience of the commandments which are called moral. By the moral law, we understand all the Ten Commandments taken in their full extent." The Westminster Confession , held by Presbyterian Churches , holds that the moral law contained in the Ten Commandments "does forever bind all, as well justified persons as others, to the obedience thereof". Methodist The moral law contained in the Ten Commandments, according to the founder of the Methodist movement John Wesley , was instituted from the beginning of the world and is written on the hearts of all people. As with the Reformed view, Wesley held that the moral law, which is contained in the Ten Commandments, stands today: Every part of this law must remain in force upon all mankind in all ages, as not depending either on time or place, nor on any other circumstances liable to change; but on the nature of God and the nature of man, and their unchangeable relation to each other" (Wesley's Sermons , Vol. I, Sermon 25). In keeping with Wesleyan covenant theology , "while the ceremonial law was abolished in Christ and the whole Mosaic dispensation itself was concluded upon the appearance of Christ, the moral law remains a vital component of the covenant of grace, having Christ as its perfecting end." As such, in Methodism, an "important aspect of the pursuit of sanctification is the careful following" of the Ten Commandments. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints According to The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS) doctrine, Jesus completed rather than rejected the Mosaic Law. The Ten Commandments are considered eternal gospel principles necessary for exaltation . They appear in the Book of Mosiah 12:34–36, 13:15–16, 13:21–24 and Doctrine and Covenants . According to the Book of Mosiah, a prophet named Abinadi taught the Ten Commandments in the court of King Noah and was martyred for his righteousness. Abinadi knew the Ten Commandments from the brass plates . In an October 2010 address, LDS president and prophet Thomas S. Monson taught "The Ten Commandments are just that—commandments. They are not suggestions." The Strangite denomination has different views of the Decalogue . [ citation needed ] Main points of interpretative difference Sabbath day See also: Remember the sabbath day, to keep it holy ; Shabbat ; and Judaizers All Abrahamic religions observe a weekly day of rest, often called the Sabbath, although the actual day of the week ranges from Friday in Islam, Saturday in Judaism (both reckoned from dusk to dusk), and Sunday, from midnight to midnight, in Christianity. Sabbath in Christianity is a day of rest from work, often dedicated to religious observance, derived from the Biblical Sabbath . Non-Sabbatarianism is the principle of Christian liberty from being bound to physical sabbath observance. Most dictionaries provide both first-day and seventh-day definitions for "sabbath" and "Sabbatarian", among other related uses. Observing the Sabbath on Sunday, the day of resurrection, gradually became the dominant Christian practice from the Jewish-Roman wars onward. [ citation needed ] The Church's general repudiation of Jewish practices during this period is apparent in the Council of Laodicea (4th century AD) where Canons 37–38 state: "It is not lawful to receive portions sent from the feasts of Jews or heretics, nor to feast together with them" and "It is not lawful to receive unleavened bread from the Jews, nor to be partakers of their impiety". Canon 29 of the Laodicean council specifically refers to the sabbath: "Christians must not judaize by resting on the [Jewish] Sabbath, but must work on that day, rather honouring the Lord's Day; and, if they can, resting then as Christians. But if any shall be found to be judaizers, let them be anathema from Christ." Killing or murder Main article: Thou shalt not kill The Sixth Commandment, as translated by the Book of Common Prayer (1549). The image is from the altar screen of the Temple Church near the Law Courts in London. Multiple translations exist of the fifth/sixth commandment; the Hebrew words לא תרצח ‬ (lo tirtzach) are variously translated as "thou shalt not kill" or "thou shalt not murder". The imperative is against unlawful killing resulting in bloodguilt . The Hebrew Bible contains numerous prohibitions against unlawful killing, but does not prohibit killing in the context of warfare ( 1Kings 2:5–6 ), capital punishment ( Leviticus 20:9–16 ) and self-defence ( Exodus 22:2–3 ), which are considered justified. The New Testament is in agreement that murder is a grave moral evil, and references the Old Testament view of bloodguilt. Theft Main article: Thou shalt not steal Some academic theologians, including German Old Testament scholar Albrecht Alt : Das Verbot des Diebstahls im Dekalog (1953), suggest that the commandment translated as "thou shalt not steal" was originally intended against stealing people—against abductions and slavery, in agreement with the Talmudic interpretation of the statement as "thou shalt not kidnap" (Sanhedrin 86a). Idolatry Main articles: Idolatry , Idolatry in Judaism , and Idolatry in Christianity Idolatry is forbidden in all Abrahamic religions. In Judaism there is a prohibition against worshipping an idol or a representation of God, but there is no restriction on art or simple depictions . Islam has a stronger prohibition, banning representations of God, and in some cases of Muhammad, humans and, in some interpretations, any living creature. In Gospel of Barnabas , Jesus stated that idolatry is the greatest sin as it divests a man fully of faith, and hence of God. In his time, Idolatry is not only worshipping statues of wood or stone; but also statues of flesh. All which a man loves, for which he leaves everything else but that, is his god, thus the glutton and drunkard has for his idol his own flesh, the fornicator has for his idol the harlot and the greedy has for his idol silver and gold, and so the same for every other sinner. In Christianity's earliest centuries, some Christians had informally adorned their homes and places of worship with images of Christ and the saints, which others thought inappropriate. No church council had ruled on whether such practices constituted idolatry. The controversy reached crisis level in the 8th century, during the period of iconoclasm : the smashing of icons. In 726 Emperor Leo III ordered all images removed from all churches; in 730 a council forbade veneration of images, citing the Second Commandment; in 787 the Seventh Ecumenical Council reversed the preceding rulings, condemning iconoclasm and sanctioning the veneration of images; in 815 Leo V called yet another council, which reinstated iconoclasm; in 843 Empress Theodora again reinstated veneration of icons. This mostly settled the matter until the Protestant Reformation , when John Calvin declared that the ruling of the Seventh Ecumenical Council "emanated from Satan". Protestant iconoclasts at this time destroyed statues, pictures, stained glass, and artistic masterpieces. The Eastern Orthodox Church celebrates Theodora's restoration of the icons every year on the First Sunday of Great Lent . Eastern Orthodox tradition teaches that while images of God, the Father, remain prohibited, depictions of Jesus as the incarnation of God as a visible human are permissible. To emphasize the theological importance of the incarnation, the Orthodox Church encourages the use of icons in church and private devotions, but prefers a two-dimensional depiction as a reminder of this theological aspect. Icons depict the spiritual dimension of their subject rather than attempting a naturalistic portrayal. In modern use (usually as a result of Roman Catholic influence), more naturalistic images and images of the Father, however, also appear occasionally in Orthodox churches, but statues, i.e. three-dimensional depictions, continue to be banned. The Roman Catholic Church holds that one may build and use "likenesses", as long as the object is not worshipped. Many Roman Catholic Churches and services feature images; some feature statues. For Roman Catholics, this practice is understood as fulfilling the Second Commandment, as they understand that these images are not being worshipped. [ citation needed ] Some Protestants will picture Jesus in his human form, while refusing to make any image of God or Jesus in Heaven. [ citation needed ] Strict Amish people forbid any sort of image, such as photographs. [ citation needed ] Adultery Originally this commandment forbade male Israelites from having sexual intercourse with the wife of another Israelite; the prohibition did not extend to their own slaves. Sexual intercourse between an Israelite man, married or not, and a woman who was neither married nor betrothed was not considered adultery. This concept of adultery stems from the economic aspect of Israelite marriage whereby the husband has an exclusive right to his wife, whereas the wife, as the husband's possession, did not have an exclusive right to her husband. Louis Ginzberg argued that the tenth commandment ( Covet not thy neighbor's wife ) is directed against a sin which may lead to a trespassing of all Ten Commandments. Critical historical analysis Early theories Critical scholarship is divided over its interpretation of the ten commandment texts. Julius Wellhausen 's influential hypothesis regarding the formation of the Pentateuch suggests that Exodus 20-23 and 34 "might be regarded as the document which formed the starting point of the religious history of Israel." Deuteronomy 5 then reflects King Josiah's attempt to link the document produced by his court to the older Mosaic tradition. In a 2002 analysis of the history of this position, Bernard M. Levinson argued that this reconstruction assumes a Christian perspective, and dates back to Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 's polemic against Judaism, which asserted that religions evolve from the more ritualistic to the more ethical . Goethe thus argued that the Ten Commandments revealed to Moses at Mt. Sinai would have emphasized rituals, and that the "ethical" Decalogue Christians recite in their own churches was composed at a later date, when Israelite prophets had begun to prophesy the coming of the messiah, Jesus Christ. Levinson points out that there is no evidence, internal to the Hebrew Bible or in external sources, to support this conjecture. He concludes that its vogue among later critical historians represents the persistence of the idea that the supersession of Judaism by Christianity is part of a longer history of progress from the ritualistic to the ethical. By the 1930s, historians who accepted the basic premises of multiple authorship had come to reject the idea of an orderly evolution of Israelite religion. Critics instead began to suppose that law and ritual could be of equal importance, while taking different form, at different times. This means that there is no longer any a priori reason to believe that Exodus 20:2–17 and Exodus 34:10–28 were composed during different stages of Israelite history. For example, critical historian John Bright also dates the Jahwist texts to the tenth century BCE, but believes that they express a theology that "had already been normalized in the period of the Judges" (i.e., of the tribal alliance). He concurs about the importance of the decalogue as "a central feature in the covenant that brought together Israel into being as a people" but views the parallels between Exodus 20 and Deuteronomy 5, along with other evidence, as reason to believe that it is relatively close to its original form and Mosaic in origin. Hittite treaties According to John Bright, however, there is an important distinction between the Decalogue and the "book of the covenant" (Exodus 21-23 and 34:10–24). The Decalogue, he argues, was modelled on the suzerainty treaties of the Hittites (and other Mesopotamian Empires), that is, represents the relationship between God and Israel as a relationship between king and vassal, and enacts that bond. "The prologue of the Hittite treaty reminds his vassals of his benevolent acts.. (compare with Exodus 20:2 "I am the L ORD your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of slavery"). The Hittite treaty also stipulated the obligations imposed by the ruler on his vassals, which included a prohibition of relations with peoples outside the empire, or enmity between those within." (Exodus 20:3: "You shall have no other gods before Me"). Viewed as a treaty rather than a law code, its purpose is not so much to regulate human affairs as to define the scope of the king's power. Julius Morgenstern argued that Exodus 34 is distinct from the Jahwist document, identifying it with king Asa's reforms in 899 BCE. Bright, however, believes that like the Decalogue this text has its origins in the time of the tribal alliance. The book of the covenant, he notes, bears a greater similarity to Mesopotamian law codes (e.g. the Code of Hammurabi which was inscribed on a stone stele ). He argues that the function of this "book" is to move from the realm of treaty to the realm of law: "The Book of the Covenant (Ex., chs. 21 to 23; cf. ch. 34), which is no official state law, but a description of normative Israelite judicial procedure in the days of the Judges, is the best example of this process." According to Bright, then, this body of law too predates the monarchy. Hilton J. Blik writes that the phrasing in the Decalogue's instructions suggests that it was conceived in a mainly polytheistic milieu, evident especially in the formulation of the henotheistic "no-other-gods-before-me" commandment. [ self-published source ] Dating If the Ten Commandments are based on Hittite forms, it would date them to somewhere between the 14th-12th century BCE. Archaeologists Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher Silberman argue that "the astonishing composition came together … in the seventh century BCE". Critical scholar Yehezkel Kaufmann (1960) dates the oral form of the covenant to the time of Josiah . An even later date (after 586 BCE) is suggested by David H. Aaron. The Ritual Decalogue Main article: Ritual Decalogue Some proponents of the Documentary hypothesis have argued that the biblical text in Exodus 34:28 identifies a different list as the ten commandments, that of Exodus 34:11–27. Since this passage does not prohibit murder, adultery, theft, etc., but instead deals with the proper worship of Yahweh , some scholars call it the " Ritual Decalogue ", and disambiguate the ten commandments of traditional understanding as the "Ethical Decalogue". According to these scholars the Bible includes multiple versions of events. On the basis of many points of analysis including linguistic it is shown as a patchwork of sources sometimes with bridging comments by the editor (Redactor) but otherwise left intact from the original, frequently side by side. Richard Elliott Friedman argues that the Ten Commandments at Exodus 20:1–17 "does not appear to belong to any of the major sources. It is likely to be an independent document, which was inserted here by the Redactor." In his view, the Covenant Code follows that version of the Ten Commandments in the northern Israel E narrative. In the J narrative in Exodus 34 the editor of the combined story known as the Redactor (or RJE), adds in an explanation that these are a replacement for the earlier tablets which were shattered. "In the combined JE text, it would be awkward to picture God just commanding Moses to make some tablets, as if there were no history to this matter, so RJE adds the explanation that these are a replacement for the earlier tablets that were shattered." He writes that Exodus 34:14–26 is the J text of the Ten Commandments: "The first two commandments and the sabbath commandment have parallels in the other versions of the Ten Commandments. (Exodus 20 and Deuteronomy 5). … The other seven commandments here are completely different." He suggests that differences in the J and E versions of the Ten Commandments story are a result of power struggles in the priesthood. The writer has Moses smash the tablets "because this raised doubts about the Judah's central religious shrine". According to Kaufmann, the Decalogue and the book of the covenant represent two ways of manifesting God's presence in Israel: the Ten Commandments taking the archaic and material form of stone tablets kept in the ark of the covenant , while the book of the covenant took oral form to be recited to the people. United States debate over display on public property Further information: Accommodationism See also: Roy Moore , Van Orden v. Perry , and Separation of church and state in the United States Ten Commandments display at the Texas State Capitol in Austin . European Protestants replaced some visual art in their churches with plaques of the Ten Commandments after the Reformation. In England, such "Decalogue boards" also represented the English monarch's emphasis on rule of royal law within the churches. The United States Constitution forbids establishment of religion by law; however images of Moses holding the tablets of the Decalogue, along other religious figures including Solomon, Confucius, and Mohamed holding the Qur'an, are sculpted on the north and south friezes of the pediment of the Supreme Court building in Washington . Images of the Ten Commandments have long been contested symbols for the relationship of religion to national law. In the 1950s and 1960s the Fraternal Order of Eagles placed possibly thousands of Ten Commandments displays in courthouses and school rooms, including many stone monuments on courthouse property. Because displaying the commandments can reflect a sectarian position if they are numbered (see above), the Eagles developed an ecumenical version that omitted the numbers, as on the monument at the Texas capitol (shown here). Hundreds of monuments were also placed by director Cecil B. DeMille as a publicity stunt to promote his 1956 film The Ten Commandments . Placing the plaques and monuments to the Ten Commandments in and around government buildings was another expression of mid-twentieth century U.S. civil religion , along with adding the phrase "under God" to the Pledge of Allegiance . By the beginning of the twenty-first century in the U.S., however, Decalogue monuments and plaques in government spaces had become a legal battleground between religious as well as political liberals and conservatives. Organizations such as the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) and Americans United for Separation of Church and State launched lawsuits challenging the posting of the ten commandments in public buildings. The ACLU has been supported by a number of religious groups (such as the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) , and the American Jewish Congress ), both because they do not want government to be issuing religious doctrine and because they feel strongly that the commandments are inherently religious. Many commentators see this issue as part of a wider culture war between liberal and conservative elements in American society. In response to the perceived attacks on traditional society, other legal organizations, such as the Liberty Counsel , have risen to advocate the conservative interpretation. Many Christian conservatives have taken the banning of officially sanctioned prayer from public schools by the U.S. Supreme Court as a threat to the expression of religion in public life. In response, they have successfully lobbied many state and local governments to display the ten commandments in public buildings. Those who oppose the posting of the ten commandments on public property argue that it violates the establishment clause of the First Amendment to the Constitution of the United States . In contrast, groups like the Fraternal Order of Eagles who support the public display of the ten commandments claim that the commandments are not necessarily religious but represent the moral and legal foundation of society, and are appropriate to be displayed as a historical source of present-day legal codes. Also, some argue like Judge Roy Moore that prohibiting the public practice of religion is a violation of the first amendment's guarantee of freedom of religion . The Ten Commandments by Lucas Cranach the Elder in the townhall of Wittenberg , (detail) U.S. courts have often ruled against displays of the Ten Commandments on government property. They conclude that the ten commandments are derived from Judeo-Christian religions, to the exclusion of others: the statement "Thou shalt have no other gods before me" excludes non-monotheistic religions like Hinduism , for example. Whether the Constitution prohibits the posting of the commandments or not, there are additional political and civil rights issues regarding the posting of what is construed as religious doctrine. Excluding religions that have not accepted the ten commandments creates the appearance of impropriety . The courts have been more accepting, however, of displays that place the Ten Commandments in a broader historical context of the development of law. One result of these legal cases has been that proponents of displaying the Ten Commandments have sometimes surrounded them with other historical texts to portray them as historical, rather than religious. Another result has been that other religious organizations have tried to put monuments to their laws on public lands. For example, an organization called Summum has won court cases against municipalities in Utah for refusing to allow the group to erect a monument of Summum aphorisms next to the ten commandments. The cases were won on the grounds that Summum's right to freedom of speech was denied and the governments had engaged in discrimination . Instead of allowing Summum to erect its monument, the local governments chose to remove their ten commandments. Cultural references Two famous films of this name were directed by Cecil B. DeMille : a silent movie released in 1923 starring Theodore Roberts as Moses and a colour VistaVision version of 1956 , starring Charlton Heston as Moses. Both Dekalog , a 1989 Polish film series directed by Krzysztof Kieślowski , and The Ten , a 2007 American film, use the ten commandments as a structure for 10 smaller stories. The receipt of the Ten Commandments by Moses was satirized in Mel Brooks 's movie History of the World Part I (1981), which shows Moses (played by Brooks, in a similar costume to Charlton Heston 's Moses in the 1956 film ), receiving three tablets containing fifteen commandments, but before he can present them to his people, he stumbles and drops one of the tablets, shattering it. He then presents the remaining tablets, proclaiming Ten Commandments. In The Prince of Egypt , a 1998 animated film that depicted the early life of Moses (voiced by Val Kilmer ), the ending depicts him with the Ten Commandments at Mount Sinai, accompanied by a reprise of Deliver Us . See also Bible portal Book of Mormon portal Alternatives to the Ten Commandments – Secular and humanist alternatives to the biblical lists Code of Hammurabi (1772 BCE) Code of Ur-Nammu (2050 BCE) Five Precepts Five Precepts (Taoism) Maat , 42 confessions, ' The negative confession ' (1500 BCE) of Papyrus of Ani , also known as The declaration of innocence before the Gods of the tribunal from The book of going forth by day, also Book of the dead The Ten Commandments (2007 film) K10C: Kids' Ten Commandments Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics Ten Conditions of Bai'at Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ten Commandments . References Further reading Aaron, David H (2006). Etched in Stone: The Emergence of the Decalogue . Continuum. ISBN 0-567-02791-0 . Abdrushin (2009). The Ten Commandments of God and the Lord's Prayer . Grail Foundation Press. ISBN 1-57461-004-X . https://web.archive.org/web/20100523082204/http://the10com.org/index.html Peter Barenboim, Biblical Roots of Separation of Powers , Moscow, 2005 , ISBN 5-94381-123-0 . Boltwood, Emily (2012). 10 Simple Rules of the House of Gloria . Tate Publishing. ISBN 978-1-62024-840-9 . Freedman, David Noel (2000). The Nine Commandments. Uncovering a Hidden Pattern of Crime and Punishment in the Hebrew Bible . Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-49986-8 . Friedman, Richard Elliott (1987). Who Wrote the Bible? . Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-671-63161-6 . Hazony, David (2010). The Ten Commandments: How Our Most Ancient Moral Text Can Renew Modern Life . New York: Scribner. ISBN 1-4165-6235-4 . Kaufmann, Yehezkel (1960). The Religion of Israel, From Its Beginnings To the Babylonian Exile . Translated by Moshe Greenberg. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Kuntz, Paul Grimley (2004). The Ten Commandments in History: Mosaic Paradigms for a Well-Ordered Society . Wm B Eerdmans Publishing, Emory University Studies in Law and Religion. ISBN 0-8028-2660-1 . Markl, Dominik (2012): "The Decalogue in History: A Preliminary Survey of the Fields and Genres of its Reception", in: Zeitschrift für Altorientalische und Biblische Rechtsgeschichte – vol. 18, nº., pp. 279–293. ( pdf ) Markl, Dominik (ed.) (2013). The Decalogue and its Cultural Influence . Sheffield: Sheffield Phoenix Press. ISBN 978-1-909697-06-5 . CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list ( link ) Mendenhall, George E (1973). The Tenth Generation: The Origins of the Biblical Tradition . Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-1267-4 . Mendenhall, George E (2001). Ancient Israel's Faith and History: An Introduction To the Bible In Context . Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 0-664-22313-3 . Watts, James W. (2004). "Ten Commandments Monuments and the Rivalry of Iconic Texts" (PDF) . Journal of Religion and Society . 6 . Retrieved 2014-08-27 . External links Ten Commandments: Ex. 20 version ( text , mp3 ), Deut. 5 version ( text , mp3 ) in The Hebrew Bible in English by Jewish Publication Society, 1917 ed.

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who did god tell the 10 commandments to

The biblical narrative of the revelation at Sinai begins in Exodus 19 after the arrival of the children of Israel at Mount Sinai (also called Horeb). On the morning of the third day of their encampment, `` there were thunders and lightnings, and a thick cloud upon the mount, and the voice of the trumpet exceeding loud '', and the people assembled at the base of the mount. After `` the LORD came down upon mount Sinai '', Moses went up briefly and returned and prepared the people, and then in Exodus 20 `` God spoke '' to all the people the words of the covenant, that is, the `` ten commandments '' as it is written. Modern biblical scholarship differs as to whether Exodus 19 - 20 describes the people of Israel as having directly heard all or some of the decalogue, or whether the laws are only passed to them through Moses.

['troian avery bellisario']

ta ni ọlọ́run sọ òfin mẹ́wàá fún

No

['Àwọn Ọ̀fin Mẹ́wàá jẹ́ àkòjọ àwọn òfin mẹ́wàá ìwùwà tí Bíbélì sọ pé Ọlọ́run fún Mose lórí Òkè Sinai nínú pátákó òkúta méjí.']

['Àwọn Ọ̀fin Mẹ́wàá jẹ́ àkòjọ àwọn òfin mẹ́wàá ìwùwà tí Bíbélì sọ pé Ọlọ́run fún Mose lórí Òkè Sinai nínú pátákó òkúta méjí.']

['P1']

Òfin Mẹ́wàá Àwọn Ọ̀fin Mẹ́wàá jẹ́ àkòjọ àwọn òfin mẹ́wàá ìwùwà tí Bíbélì sọ pé Ọlọ́run fún Mose lórí Òkè Sinai nínú pátákó òkúta méjí. Àwọn òfin mẹ́wàá [ àtúnṣe | àtúnṣe àmìọ̀rọ̀ ] Àwọn ẹsẹ òfin mẹ́wàá bí wọn ṣe wà nínú ìwé Eksodu àti Deuteronomi . Òfin Mẹ́wàá Eksodu 20:2–17 Deuteronomi 5:6–21 2 Èmi ni Olúwa Ọlọ́run rẹ, tí ó mú ọ jáde láti ilẹ̀ Egipti, láti okoẹrú jáde wá; 3 Ìwọ kò gbọdọ̀ ní Ọlọ́run míràn pẹ̀lú mi. 4 Ìwọ kò gbọdọ̀ ya ère fún ara rẹ, tàbí àwòrán ohun kan tí nbẹ lókè ọ̀run, tàbí ti ohun kan tí nbẹ ní ìsàlẹ̀ ilẹ̀, tàbí ti ohun kan tí nbẹ nínú omi ní ìsàlẹ̀ ilẹ̀. 5 You shall not bow down to them or worship them; for I the Lord your God am a jealous God, punishing children for the iniquity of parents, to the third and the fourth generation of those who reject me, 6 but showing steadfast love to the thousandth generation of those who love me and keep my commandments. 7 You shall not make wrongful use of the name of the Lord your God, for the Lord will not acquit anyone who misuses his name. 8 Remember the Sabbath day and keep it holy. 9 For six days you shall labour and do all your work. 10 But the seventh day is a Sabbath to the Lord your God; you shall not do any work—you, your son or your daughter, your male or female slave, your livestock, or the alien resident in your towns. 11 For in six days the Lord made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that is in them, but rested the seventh day; therefore the Lord blessed the Sabbath day and consecrated it. 12 Honor your father and your mother, so that your days may be long in the land that the Lord your God is giving you. 13 You shall not murder. 14 You shall not commit adultery. 15 You shall not steal. 16 You shall not bear false witness against your neighbour. 17 You shall not covet your neighbour’s house; you shall not covet your neighbour’s wife, or male or female slave, or ox, or donkey, or anything that belongs to your neighbour. 6 I am the Lord your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of slavery; 7 you shall have no other gods before me. 8 You shall not make for yourself an idol, whether in the form of anything that is in heaven above, or that is on the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth. 9 You shall not bow down to them or worship them; for I the Lord your God am a jealous God, punishing children for the iniquity of parents, to the third and fourth generation of those who reject me, 10 but showing steadfast love to the thousandth generation of those who love me and keep my commandments. 11 You shall not make wrongful use of the name of the Lord your God, for the Lord will not acquit anyone who misuses his name. 12 Observe the sabbath day and keep it holy, as the Lord your God commanded you. 13 For six days you shall labour and do all your work. 14 But the seventh day is a sabbath to the Lord your God; you shall not do any work—you, or your son or your daughter, or your male or female slave, or your ox or your donkey, or any of your livestock, or the resident alien in your towns, so that your male and female slave may rest as well as you. 15 Remember that you were a slave in the land of Egypt, and the Lord your God brought you out from there with a mighty hand and an outstretched arm; therefore the Lord your God commanded you to keep the sabbath day. 16 Honor your father and your mother, as the Lord your God commanded you, so that your days may be long and that it may go well with you in the land that the Lord your God is giving you. 17 You shall not murder. 18 Neither shall you commit adultery. 19 Neither shall you steal. 20 Neither shall you bear false witness against your neighbour. 21 Neither shall you covet your neighbour’s wife. Neither shall you desire your neighbour’s house, or field, or male or female slave, or ox, or donkey, or anything that belongs to your neighbour.

For other uses, see Ten Commandments (disambiguation) . "Decalogue" redirects here. For other uses, see Decalogue (disambiguation) . Part of a series on The Ten Commandments I am the L ORD thy God No other gods before me No graven images or likenesses Not take the L ORD 's name in vain Remember the sabbath day Honour thy father and thy mother Thou shalt not kill Thou shalt not commit adultery Thou shalt not steal Thou shalt not bear false witness Thou shalt not covet Related articles Tablets of Stone Ritual Decalogue Catholic theology v t e This 1768 parchment (612×502 mm) by Jekuthiel Sofer emulated the 1675 Ten Commandments at the Amsterdam Esnoga synagogue . The Ten Commandments ( Hebrew : עֲשֶׂרֶת הַדִּבְּרוֹת ‬, Aseret ha'Dibrot ), also known as the Decalogue , are a set of biblical principles relating to ethics and worship , which play a fundamental role in Judaism and Christianity . The commandments include instructions to worship only God , to honour one's parents , and to keep the sabbath , as well as prohibitions against idolatry , blasphemy , murder , adultery , theft , dishonesty , and coveting . Different religious groups follow different traditions for interpreting and numbering them. The Ten Commandments appear twice in the Hebrew Bible , in the books of Exodus and Deuteronomy . Modern scholarship has found likely influences in Hittite and Mesopotamian laws and treaties, but is divided over exactly when the Ten Commandments were written and who wrote them. Contents [ hide ] 1 Terminology 2 Passages in Exodus and Deuteronomy 3 Traditions for numbering 4 The Ten Commandments 5 Religious interpretations 5.1 Judaism 5.1.1 Two tablets 5.1.2 Use in Jewish ritual 5.2 Samaritan 5.3 Christianity 5.3.1 References in the New Testament 5.3.2 Roman Catholicism 5.3.3 Orthodox 5.3.4 Protestantism 5.3.4.1 Lutheranism 5.3.4.2 Reformed 5.3.4.3 Methodist 5.3.5 The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints 5.4 Main points of interpretative difference 5.4.1 Sabbath day 5.4.2 Killing or murder 5.4.3 Theft 5.4.4 Idolatry 5.4.5 Adultery 6 Critical historical analysis 6.1 Early theories 6.2 Hittite treaties 6.3 Dating 6.4 The Ritual Decalogue 7 United States debate over display on public property 8 Cultural references 9 See also 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links Terminology Part of the All Souls Deuteronomy , containing one of the oldest extant copies of the Decalogue In biblical Hebrew , the Ten Commandments are called עשרת הדברים ‬ ( transliterated aseret ha-d'varîm ) and in Rabbinical Hebrew עשרת הדברות ‬ (transliterated aseret ha-dibrot ), both translatable as "the ten words", "the ten sayings", or "the ten matters". The Tyndale and Coverdale English translations used "ten verses". The Geneva Bible used "tenne commandements", which was followed by the Bishops' Bible and the Authorized Version (the "King James" version) as "ten commandments". Most major English versions use "commandments." The English name "Decalogue" is derived from Greek δεκάλογος , dekalogos , the latter meaning and referring to the Greek translation (in accusative ) δέκα λόγους , deka logous , "ten words", found in the Septuagint (or LXX) at Exodus 34:28 and Deuteronomy 10:4. The stone tablets, as opposed to the commandments inscribed on them, are called לוחות הברית ‬, Lukhot HaBrit , meaning "the tablets of the covenant ". Passages in Exodus and Deuteronomy The biblical narrative of the revelation at Sinai begins in Exodus 19 after the arrival of the children of Israel at Mount Sinai (also called Horeb ). On the morning of the third day of their encampment, "there were thunders and lightnings, and a thick cloud upon the mount, and the voice of the trumpet exceeding loud", and the people assembled at the base of the mount. After "the L ORD came down upon mount Sinai", Moses went up briefly and returned and prepared the people, and then in Exodus 20 "God spoke" to all the people the words of the covenant, that is, the "ten commandments" as it is written. Modern biblical scholarship differs as to whether Exodus 19-20 describes the people of Israel as having directly heard all or some of the decalogue, or whether the laws are only passed to them through Moses. The people were afraid to hear more and moved "afar off", and Moses responded with "Fear not." Nevertheless, he drew near the "thick darkness" where "the presence of the Lord" was to hear the additional statutes and "judgments", all which he "wrote" in the " book of the covenant " which he read to the people the next morning, and they agreed to be obedient and do all that the L ORD had said. Moses escorted a select group consisting of Aaron , Nadab and Abihu , and "seventy of the elders of Israel" to a location on the mount where they worshipped "afar off" and they "saw the God of Israel" above a "paved work" like clear sapphire stone. And the L ORD said unto Moses, Come up to me into the mount, and be there: and I will give thee tablets of stone, and a law, and commandments which I have written; that thou mayest teach them. 13 And Moses rose up, and his minister Joshua: and Moses went up into the mount of God. — First mention of the tablets in Exodus 24:12–13 Moses Breaking the Tablets of the Law (1659) by Rembrandt. ( Gemäldegalerie, Berlin ) The mount was covered by the cloud for six days, and on the seventh day Moses went into the midst of the cloud and was "in the mount forty days and forty nights ." And Moses said, "the L ORD delivered unto me two tablets of stone written with the finger of God; and on them was written according to all the words, which the L ORD spake with you in the mount out of the midst of the fire in the day of the assembly." Before the full forty days expired, the children of Israel collectively decided that something had happened to Moses, and compelled Aaron to fashion a golden calf , and he "built an altar before it" and the people "worshipped" the calf. After the full forty days, Moses and Joshua came down from the mountain with the tablets of stone : "And it came to pass, as soon as he came nigh unto the camp, that he saw the calf, and the dancing: and Moses' anger waxed hot, and he cast the tablets out of his hands, and brake them beneath the mount." After the events in chapters 32 and 33, the L ORD told Moses, "Hew thee two tablets of stone like unto the first: and I will write upon these tablets the words that were in the first tablets, which thou brakest." "And he wrote on the tablets, according to the first writing, the ten commandments, which the L ORD spake unto you in the mount out of the midst of the fire in the day of the assembly: and the L ORD gave them unto me." According to Jewish tradition, Exodus 20:1–17 constitutes God's first recitation and inscription of the ten commandments on the two tablets, which Moses broke in anger with his rebellious nation, and were later rewritten on replacement stones and placed in the ark of the covenant ; and Deuteronomy 5:4–25 consists of God's re-telling of the Ten Commandments to the younger generation who were to enter the Promised Land. The passages in Exodus 20 and Deuteronomy 5 contain more than ten imperative statements, totalling 14 or 15 in all. Traditions for numbering Different religious traditions divide the seventeen verses of Exodus 20:1–17 and their parallels at Deuteronomy 5:4–21 into ten "commandments" or "sayings" in different ways, shown in the table below. Some suggest that the number ten is a choice to aid memorization rather than a matter of theology. Traditions: LXX : Septuagint , generally followed by Orthodox Christians. P : Philo , same as the Septuagint, but with the prohibitions on killing and adultery reversed. S : Samaritan Pentateuch , with an additional commandment about Mount Gerizim as 10th. T : Jewish Talmud , makes the "prologue" the first "saying" or "matter" and combines the prohibition on worshiping deities other than Yahweh with the prohibition on idolatry. A : Augustine follows the Talmud in combining verses 3–6, but omits the prologue as a commandment and divides the prohibition on coveting in two and following the word order of Deuteronomy 5:21 rather than Exodus 20:17. C : Catechism of the Catholic Church , largely follows Augustine. L : Lutherans follow Luther's Large Catechism , which follows Augustine but omits the prohibition of images and uses the word order of Exodus 20:17 rather than Deuteronomy 5:21 for the ninth and tenth commandments. R : Reformed Christians follow John Calvin 's Institutes of the Christian Religion , which follows the Septuagint; this system is also used in the Anglican Book of Common Prayer . The Ten Commandments The Ten Commandments LXX P S T A C L R Main article Exodus 20:1-17 Deuteronomy 5:4-21 — — — 1 — 1 — (1) I am the Lord thy God , which have brought thee out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage. 2 6 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 Thou shalt have no other gods before me 3 7 2 2 1 2 1 1 1 2 Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image 4–6 8–10 3 3 2 3 2 2 2 3 Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain 7 11 4 4 3 4 3 3 3 4 Remember the sabbath day, to keep it holy 8–11 12–15 5 5 4 5 4 4 4 5 Honour thy father and thy mother 12 16 6 7 5 6 5 5 5 6 Thou shalt not kill 13 17 7 6 6 7 6 6 6 7 Thou shalt not commit adultery 14 18 8 8 7 8 7 7 7 8 Thou shalt not steal 15 19 9 9 8 9 8 8 8 9 Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbour 16 20 10 10 9 10 10 10 9 10 Thou shalt not covet (neighbour's house) 17a 21b 10 10 9 10 9 9 10 10 Thou shalt not covet (neighbour's wife) 17b 21a 10 10 9 10 10 10 10 10 Thou shalt not covet (neighbour's servants, animals, or anything else) 17c 21c — — 10 — — — — — Ye shall erect these stones which I command thee upon Mount Gerizim [ citation needed ] [ citation needed ] All scripture quotes above are from the King James Version . Click on verses at top of columns for other versions. Religious interpretations The Ten Commandments concern matters of fundamental importance in Judaism and Christianity: the greatest obligation (to worship only God), the greatest injury to a person (murder), the greatest injury to family bonds (adultery), the greatest injury to commerce and law (bearing false witness), the greatest inter-generational obligation (honour to parents), the greatest obligation to community (truthfulness), the greatest injury to moveable property (theft). The Ten Commandments are written with room for varying interpretation, reflecting their role as a summary of fundamental principles. They are not as explicit or detailed as rules or many other biblical laws and commandments, because they provide guiding principles that apply universally, across changing circumstances. They do not specify punishments for their violation. Their precise import must be worked out in each separate situation. The Bible indicates the special status of the Ten Commandments among all other Torah laws in several ways: They have a uniquely terse style. Of all the biblical laws and commandments, the Ten Commandments alone are said to have been "written with the finger of God" ( Exodus 31:18 ). The stone tablets were placed in the Ark of the Covenant ( Exodus 25:21 , Deuteronomy 10:2,5 ). Judaism The Ten Commandments form the basis of Jewish law, stating God's universal and timeless standard of right and wrong – unlike the rest of the 613 commandments in the Torah, which include, for example, various duties and ceremonies such as the kashrut dietary laws, and now unobservable rituals to be performed by priests in the Holy Temple . Jewish tradition considers the Ten Commandments the theological basis for the rest of the commandments; a number of works, starting with Rabbi Saadia Gaon , have made groupings of the commandments according to their links with the Ten Commandments. [ citation needed ] A conservative rabbi, Louis Ginzberg , stated in his book Legends of the Jews , that Ten Commandments are virtually entwined, that the breaking of one leads to the breaking of another. There is also a great bond of union between the first five commandments and the last five. The first commandment: "I am the Lord, thy God," corresponds to the sixth: "Thou shalt not kill," for the murderer slays the image of God. The second: "Thou shalt have no strange gods before me," corresponds to the seventh: "Thou shalt not commit adultery," for conjugal faithlessness is as grave a sin as idolatry, which is faithlessness to God. The third commandment: "Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord in vain," corresponds to the eighth: "Thou shalt not steal," for stealing result in false oath in God's name. The fourth: "Remember the Sabbath day, to keep it holy," corresponds to the ninth: "Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbor," for he who bears false witness against his neighbor commits as grave a sin as if he had borne false witness against God, saying that He had not created the world in six days and rested on the seventh day (the holy Sabbath). The fifth commandment: "Honor thy father and thy mother," corresponds to the tenth: "Covet not thy neighbor's wife," for one who indulges this lust produces children who will not honor their true father, but will consider a stranger their father. The traditional Rabbinical Jewish belief is that the observance of these commandments and the other mitzvot are required solely of the Jewish people and that the laws incumbent on humanity in general are outlined in the seven Noahide laws , several of which overlap with the Ten Commandments. In the era of the Sanhedrin transgressing any one of six of the Ten Commandments theoretically carried the death penalty , the exceptions being the First Commandment, honouring your father and mother, saying God's name in vain, and coveting, though this was rarely enforced due to a large number of stringent evidentiary requirements imposed by the oral law . Two tablets Main article: Tablets of Stone The arrangement of the commandments on the two tablets is interpreted in different ways in the classical Jewish tradition. Rabbi Hanina ben Gamaliel says that each tablet contained five commandments, "but the Sages say ten on one tablet and ten on the other", that is, that the tablets were duplicates. This can be compared to diplomatic treaties of the ancient Near East, in which a copy was made for each party. According to the Talmud , the compendium of traditional Rabbinic Jewish law, tradition, and interpretation, one interpretation of the biblical verse "the tablets were written on both their sides", is that the carving went through the full thickness of the tablets, yet was miraculously legible from both sides. Use in Jewish ritual The Ten Commandments on a glass plate The Mishna records that during the period of the Second Temple , the Ten Commandments were recited daily, before the reading of the Shema Yisrael (as preserved, for example, in the Nash Papyrus , a Hebrew manuscript fragment from 150–100 BCE found in Egypt, containing a version of the ten commandments and the beginning of the Shema); but that this practice was abolished in the synagogues so as not to give ammunition to heretics who claimed that they were the only important part of Jewish law, or to dispute a claim by early Christians that only the Ten Commandments were handed down at Mount Sinai rather than the whole Torah. In later centuries rabbis continued to omit the Ten Commandments from daily liturgy in order to prevent a confusion among Jews that they are only bound by the Ten Commandments, and not also by many other biblical and Talmudic laws, such as the requirement to observe holy days other than the sabbath. Today, the Ten Commandments are heard in the synagogue three times a year: as they come up during the readings of Exodus and Deuteronomy, and during the festival of Shavuot . The Exodus version is read in parashat Yitro around late January–February, and on the festival of Shavuot, and the Deuteronomy version in parashat Va'etchanan in August–September. In some traditions, worshipers rise for the reading of the Ten Commandments to highlight their special significance though many rabbis, including Maimonides , have opposed this custom since one may come to think that the Ten Commandments are more important than the rest of the Mitzvot . In printed Chumashim , as well as in those in manuscript form, the Ten Commandments carry two sets of cantillation marks. The ta'am 'elyon (upper accentuation), which makes each Commandment into a separate verse, is used for public Torah reading, while the ta'am tachton (lower accentuation), which divides the text into verses of more even length, is used for private reading or study. The verse numbering in Jewish Bibles follows the ta'am tachton . In Jewish Bibles the references to the Ten Commandments are therefore Exodus 20:2–14 and Deuteronomy 5:6–18 . Samaritan The Samaritan Pentateuch varies in the Ten Commandments passages, both in that the Samaritan Deuteronomical version of the passage is much closer to that in Exodus, and in that Samaritans count as nine commandments what others count as ten. The Samaritan tenth commandment is on the sanctity of Mount Gerizim . The text of the Samaritan tenth commandment follows: And it shall come to pass when the Lord thy God will bring thee into the land of the Canaanites whither thou goest to take possession of it, thou shalt erect unto thee large stones, and thou shalt cover them with lime, and thou shalt write upon the stones all the words of this Law, and it shall come to pass when ye cross the Jordan, ye shall erect these stones which I command thee upon Mount Gerizim , and thou shalt build there an altar unto the Lord thy God, an altar of stones, and thou shalt not lift upon them iron, of perfect stones shalt thou build thine altar, and thou shalt bring upon it burnt offerings to the Lord thy God, and thou shalt sacrifice peace offerings, and thou shalt eat there and rejoice before the Lord thy God. That mountain is on the other side of the Jordan at the end of the road towards the going down of the sun in the land of the Canaanites who dwell in the Arabah facing Gilgal close by Elon Moreh facing Shechem. Christianity See also: Christian views on the Old Covenant Most traditions of Christianity hold that the Ten Commandments have divine authority and continue to be valid, though they have different interpretations and uses of them. The Apostolic Constitutions , which implore believers to "always remember the ten commands of God," reveal the importance of the Decalogue in the early Church . Through most of Christian history the decalogue was considered a summary of God's law and standard of behaviour, central to Christian life, piety, and worship. References in the New Testament See also: Matthew 5 § Antitheses During his Sermon on the Mount , Jesus explicitly referenced the prohibitions against murder and adultery. In Matthew 19:16-19 Jesus repeated five of the Ten Commandments, followed by that commandment called "the second" ( Matthew 22:34-40 ) after the first and great commandment . And, behold, one came and said unto him, Good Master, what good thing shall I do, that I may have eternal life? And he said unto him, Why callest thou me good? there is none good but one, that is , God: but if thou wilt enter into life, keep the commandments. He saith unto him, Which? Jesus said, Thou shalt do no murder, Thou shalt not commit adultery, Thou shalt not steal, Thou shalt not bear false witness, Honour thy father and thy mother: and, Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself. — Matthew 19:16-19 In his Epistle to the Romans , Paul the Apostle also mentioned five of the Ten Commandments and associated them with the neighbourly love commandment. Romans 13:8 Owe no man any thing, but to love one another: for he that loveth another hath fulfilled the law. 9 For this, Thou shalt not commit adultery, Thou shalt not kill, Thou shalt not steal, Thou shalt not bear false witness, Thou shalt not covet; and if there be any other commandment, it is briefly comprehended in this saying, namely, Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself. 10 Love worketh no ill to his neighbour: therefore love is the fulfilling of the law. — Romans 13:8-10 KJV Roman Catholicism Main article: Ten Commandments in Catholic theology In Roman Catholicism, Jesus freed Christians from the rest of Jewish religious law , but not from their obligation to keep the Ten Commandments. It has been said that they are to the moral order what the creation story is to the natural order. According to the Catechism of the Catholic Church —the official exposition of the Catholic Church 's Christian beliefs—the Commandments are considered essential for spiritual good health and growth, and serve as the basis for social justice . Church teaching of the Commandments is largely based on the Old and New Testaments and the writings of the early Church Fathers . In the New Testament, Jesus acknowledged their validity and instructed his disciples to go further, demanding a righteousness exceeding that of the scribes and Pharisees . Summarized by Jesus into two " great commandments " that teach the love of God and love of neighbour, they instruct individuals on their relationships with both. Orthodox The Eastern Orthodox Church holds its moral truths to be chiefly contained in the Ten Commandments. A confession begins with the Confessor reciting the Ten Commandments and asking the penitent which of them he has broken. Protestantism See also: Law and Gospel After rejecting the Roman Catholic moral theology, giving more importance to biblical law and the gospel , early Protestant theologians continued to take the Ten Commandments as the starting point of Christian moral life. Different versions of Christianity have varied in how they have translated the bare principles into the specifics that make up a full Christian ethic . A Christian school in India displays the Ten Commandments Lutheranism The Lutheran division of the commandments follows the one established by St. Augustine , following the then current synagogue scribal division. The first three commandments govern the relationship between God and humans, the fourth through eighth govern public relationships between people, and the last two govern private thoughts. See Luther's Small Catechism and Large Catechism. Reformed The Articles of the Church of England , Revised and altered by the Assembly of Divines, at Westminster , in the year 1643 state that "no Christian man whatsoever is free from the obedience of the commandments which are called moral. By the moral law, we understand all the Ten Commandments taken in their full extent." The Westminster Confession , held by Presbyterian Churches , holds that the moral law contained in the Ten Commandments "does forever bind all, as well justified persons as others, to the obedience thereof". Methodist The moral law contained in the Ten Commandments, according to the founder of the Methodist movement John Wesley , was instituted from the beginning of the world and is written on the hearts of all people. As with the Reformed view, Wesley held that the moral law, which is contained in the Ten Commandments, stands today: Every part of this law must remain in force upon all mankind in all ages, as not depending either on time or place, nor on any other circumstances liable to change; but on the nature of God and the nature of man, and their unchangeable relation to each other" (Wesley's Sermons , Vol. I, Sermon 25). In keeping with Wesleyan covenant theology , "while the ceremonial law was abolished in Christ and the whole Mosaic dispensation itself was concluded upon the appearance of Christ, the moral law remains a vital component of the covenant of grace, having Christ as its perfecting end." As such, in Methodism, an "important aspect of the pursuit of sanctification is the careful following" of the Ten Commandments. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints According to The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS) doctrine, Jesus completed rather than rejected the Mosaic Law. The Ten Commandments are considered eternal gospel principles necessary for exaltation . They appear in the Book of Mosiah 12:34–36, 13:15–16, 13:21–24 and Doctrine and Covenants . According to the Book of Mosiah, a prophet named Abinadi taught the Ten Commandments in the court of King Noah and was martyred for his righteousness. Abinadi knew the Ten Commandments from the brass plates . In an October 2010 address, LDS president and prophet Thomas S. Monson taught "The Ten Commandments are just that—commandments. They are not suggestions." The Strangite denomination has different views of the Decalogue . [ citation needed ] Main points of interpretative difference Sabbath day See also: Remember the sabbath day, to keep it holy ; Shabbat ; and Judaizers All Abrahamic religions observe a weekly day of rest, often called the Sabbath, although the actual day of the week ranges from Friday in Islam, Saturday in Judaism (both reckoned from dusk to dusk), and Sunday, from midnight to midnight, in Christianity. Sabbath in Christianity is a day of rest from work, often dedicated to religious observance, derived from the Biblical Sabbath . Non-Sabbatarianism is the principle of Christian liberty from being bound to physical sabbath observance. Most dictionaries provide both first-day and seventh-day definitions for "sabbath" and "Sabbatarian", among other related uses. Observing the Sabbath on Sunday, the day of resurrection, gradually became the dominant Christian practice from the Jewish-Roman wars onward. [ citation needed ] The Church's general repudiation of Jewish practices during this period is apparent in the Council of Laodicea (4th century AD) where Canons 37–38 state: "It is not lawful to receive portions sent from the feasts of Jews or heretics, nor to feast together with them" and "It is not lawful to receive unleavened bread from the Jews, nor to be partakers of their impiety". Canon 29 of the Laodicean council specifically refers to the sabbath: "Christians must not judaize by resting on the [Jewish] Sabbath, but must work on that day, rather honouring the Lord's Day; and, if they can, resting then as Christians. But if any shall be found to be judaizers, let them be anathema from Christ." Killing or murder Main article: Thou shalt not kill The Sixth Commandment, as translated by the Book of Common Prayer (1549). The image is from the altar screen of the Temple Church near the Law Courts in London. Multiple translations exist of the fifth/sixth commandment; the Hebrew words לא תרצח ‬ (lo tirtzach) are variously translated as "thou shalt not kill" or "thou shalt not murder". The imperative is against unlawful killing resulting in bloodguilt . The Hebrew Bible contains numerous prohibitions against unlawful killing, but does not prohibit killing in the context of warfare ( 1Kings 2:5–6 ), capital punishment ( Leviticus 20:9–16 ) and self-defence ( Exodus 22:2–3 ), which are considered justified. The New Testament is in agreement that murder is a grave moral evil, and references the Old Testament view of bloodguilt. Theft Main article: Thou shalt not steal Some academic theologians, including German Old Testament scholar Albrecht Alt : Das Verbot des Diebstahls im Dekalog (1953), suggest that the commandment translated as "thou shalt not steal" was originally intended against stealing people—against abductions and slavery, in agreement with the Talmudic interpretation of the statement as "thou shalt not kidnap" (Sanhedrin 86a). Idolatry Main articles: Idolatry , Idolatry in Judaism , and Idolatry in Christianity Idolatry is forbidden in all Abrahamic religions. In Judaism there is a prohibition against worshipping an idol or a representation of God, but there is no restriction on art or simple depictions . Islam has a stronger prohibition, banning representations of God, and in some cases of Muhammad, humans and, in some interpretations, any living creature. In Gospel of Barnabas , Jesus stated that idolatry is the greatest sin as it divests a man fully of faith, and hence of God. In his time, Idolatry is not only worshipping statues of wood or stone; but also statues of flesh. All which a man loves, for which he leaves everything else but that, is his god, thus the glutton and drunkard has for his idol his own flesh, the fornicator has for his idol the harlot and the greedy has for his idol silver and gold, and so the same for every other sinner. In Christianity's earliest centuries, some Christians had informally adorned their homes and places of worship with images of Christ and the saints, which others thought inappropriate. No church council had ruled on whether such practices constituted idolatry. The controversy reached crisis level in the 8th century, during the period of iconoclasm : the smashing of icons. In 726 Emperor Leo III ordered all images removed from all churches; in 730 a council forbade veneration of images, citing the Second Commandment; in 787 the Seventh Ecumenical Council reversed the preceding rulings, condemning iconoclasm and sanctioning the veneration of images; in 815 Leo V called yet another council, which reinstated iconoclasm; in 843 Empress Theodora again reinstated veneration of icons. This mostly settled the matter until the Protestant Reformation , when John Calvin declared that the ruling of the Seventh Ecumenical Council "emanated from Satan". Protestant iconoclasts at this time destroyed statues, pictures, stained glass, and artistic masterpieces. The Eastern Orthodox Church celebrates Theodora's restoration of the icons every year on the First Sunday of Great Lent . Eastern Orthodox tradition teaches that while images of God, the Father, remain prohibited, depictions of Jesus as the incarnation of God as a visible human are permissible. To emphasize the theological importance of the incarnation, the Orthodox Church encourages the use of icons in church and private devotions, but prefers a two-dimensional depiction as a reminder of this theological aspect. Icons depict the spiritual dimension of their subject rather than attempting a naturalistic portrayal. In modern use (usually as a result of Roman Catholic influence), more naturalistic images and images of the Father, however, also appear occasionally in Orthodox churches, but statues, i.e. three-dimensional depictions, continue to be banned. The Roman Catholic Church holds that one may build and use "likenesses", as long as the object is not worshipped. Many Roman Catholic Churches and services feature images; some feature statues. For Roman Catholics, this practice is understood as fulfilling the Second Commandment, as they understand that these images are not being worshipped. [ citation needed ] Some Protestants will picture Jesus in his human form, while refusing to make any image of God or Jesus in Heaven. [ citation needed ] Strict Amish people forbid any sort of image, such as photographs. [ citation needed ] Adultery Originally this commandment forbade male Israelites from having sexual intercourse with the wife of another Israelite; the prohibition did not extend to their own slaves. Sexual intercourse between an Israelite man, married or not, and a woman who was neither married nor betrothed was not considered adultery. This concept of adultery stems from the economic aspect of Israelite marriage whereby the husband has an exclusive right to his wife, whereas the wife, as the husband's possession, did not have an exclusive right to her husband. Louis Ginzberg argued that the tenth commandment ( Covet not thy neighbor's wife ) is directed against a sin which may lead to a trespassing of all Ten Commandments. Critical historical analysis Early theories Critical scholarship is divided over its interpretation of the ten commandment texts. Julius Wellhausen 's influential hypothesis regarding the formation of the Pentateuch suggests that Exodus 20-23 and 34 "might be regarded as the document which formed the starting point of the religious history of Israel." Deuteronomy 5 then reflects King Josiah's attempt to link the document produced by his court to the older Mosaic tradition. In a 2002 analysis of the history of this position, Bernard M. Levinson argued that this reconstruction assumes a Christian perspective, and dates back to Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 's polemic against Judaism, which asserted that religions evolve from the more ritualistic to the more ethical . Goethe thus argued that the Ten Commandments revealed to Moses at Mt. Sinai would have emphasized rituals, and that the "ethical" Decalogue Christians recite in their own churches was composed at a later date, when Israelite prophets had begun to prophesy the coming of the messiah, Jesus Christ. Levinson points out that there is no evidence, internal to the Hebrew Bible or in external sources, to support this conjecture. He concludes that its vogue among later critical historians represents the persistence of the idea that the supersession of Judaism by Christianity is part of a longer history of progress from the ritualistic to the ethical. By the 1930s, historians who accepted the basic premises of multiple authorship had come to reject the idea of an orderly evolution of Israelite religion. Critics instead began to suppose that law and ritual could be of equal importance, while taking different form, at different times. This means that there is no longer any a priori reason to believe that Exodus 20:2–17 and Exodus 34:10–28 were composed during different stages of Israelite history. For example, critical historian John Bright also dates the Jahwist texts to the tenth century BCE, but believes that they express a theology that "had already been normalized in the period of the Judges" (i.e., of the tribal alliance). He concurs about the importance of the decalogue as "a central feature in the covenant that brought together Israel into being as a people" but views the parallels between Exodus 20 and Deuteronomy 5, along with other evidence, as reason to believe that it is relatively close to its original form and Mosaic in origin. Hittite treaties According to John Bright, however, there is an important distinction between the Decalogue and the "book of the covenant" (Exodus 21-23 and 34:10–24). The Decalogue, he argues, was modelled on the suzerainty treaties of the Hittites (and other Mesopotamian Empires), that is, represents the relationship between God and Israel as a relationship between king and vassal, and enacts that bond. "The prologue of the Hittite treaty reminds his vassals of his benevolent acts.. (compare with Exodus 20:2 "I am the L ORD your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of slavery"). The Hittite treaty also stipulated the obligations imposed by the ruler on his vassals, which included a prohibition of relations with peoples outside the empire, or enmity between those within." (Exodus 20:3: "You shall have no other gods before Me"). Viewed as a treaty rather than a law code, its purpose is not so much to regulate human affairs as to define the scope of the king's power. Julius Morgenstern argued that Exodus 34 is distinct from the Jahwist document, identifying it with king Asa's reforms in 899 BCE. Bright, however, believes that like the Decalogue this text has its origins in the time of the tribal alliance. The book of the covenant, he notes, bears a greater similarity to Mesopotamian law codes (e.g. the Code of Hammurabi which was inscribed on a stone stele ). He argues that the function of this "book" is to move from the realm of treaty to the realm of law: "The Book of the Covenant (Ex., chs. 21 to 23; cf. ch. 34), which is no official state law, but a description of normative Israelite judicial procedure in the days of the Judges, is the best example of this process." According to Bright, then, this body of law too predates the monarchy. Hilton J. Blik writes that the phrasing in the Decalogue's instructions suggests that it was conceived in a mainly polytheistic milieu, evident especially in the formulation of the henotheistic "no-other-gods-before-me" commandment. [ self-published source ] Dating If the Ten Commandments are based on Hittite forms, it would date them to somewhere between the 14th-12th century BCE. Archaeologists Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher Silberman argue that "the astonishing composition came together … in the seventh century BCE". Critical scholar Yehezkel Kaufmann (1960) dates the oral form of the covenant to the time of Josiah . An even later date (after 586 BCE) is suggested by David H. Aaron. The Ritual Decalogue Main article: Ritual Decalogue Some proponents of the Documentary hypothesis have argued that the biblical text in Exodus 34:28 identifies a different list as the ten commandments, that of Exodus 34:11–27. Since this passage does not prohibit murder, adultery, theft, etc., but instead deals with the proper worship of Yahweh , some scholars call it the " Ritual Decalogue ", and disambiguate the ten commandments of traditional understanding as the "Ethical Decalogue". According to these scholars the Bible includes multiple versions of events. On the basis of many points of analysis including linguistic it is shown as a patchwork of sources sometimes with bridging comments by the editor (Redactor) but otherwise left intact from the original, frequently side by side. Richard Elliott Friedman argues that the Ten Commandments at Exodus 20:1–17 "does not appear to belong to any of the major sources. It is likely to be an independent document, which was inserted here by the Redactor." In his view, the Covenant Code follows that version of the Ten Commandments in the northern Israel E narrative. In the J narrative in Exodus 34 the editor of the combined story known as the Redactor (or RJE), adds in an explanation that these are a replacement for the earlier tablets which were shattered. "In the combined JE text, it would be awkward to picture God just commanding Moses to make some tablets, as if there were no history to this matter, so RJE adds the explanation that these are a replacement for the earlier tablets that were shattered." He writes that Exodus 34:14–26 is the J text of the Ten Commandments: "The first two commandments and the sabbath commandment have parallels in the other versions of the Ten Commandments. (Exodus 20 and Deuteronomy 5). … The other seven commandments here are completely different." He suggests that differences in the J and E versions of the Ten Commandments story are a result of power struggles in the priesthood. The writer has Moses smash the tablets "because this raised doubts about the Judah's central religious shrine". According to Kaufmann, the Decalogue and the book of the covenant represent two ways of manifesting God's presence in Israel: the Ten Commandments taking the archaic and material form of stone tablets kept in the ark of the covenant , while the book of the covenant took oral form to be recited to the people. United States debate over display on public property Further information: Accommodationism See also: Roy Moore , Van Orden v. Perry , and Separation of church and state in the United States Ten Commandments display at the Texas State Capitol in Austin . European Protestants replaced some visual art in their churches with plaques of the Ten Commandments after the Reformation. In England, such "Decalogue boards" also represented the English monarch's emphasis on rule of royal law within the churches. The United States Constitution forbids establishment of religion by law; however images of Moses holding the tablets of the Decalogue, along other religious figures including Solomon, Confucius, and Mohamed holding the Qur'an, are sculpted on the north and south friezes of the pediment of the Supreme Court building in Washington . Images of the Ten Commandments have long been contested symbols for the relationship of religion to national law. In the 1950s and 1960s the Fraternal Order of Eagles placed possibly thousands of Ten Commandments displays in courthouses and school rooms, including many stone monuments on courthouse property. Because displaying the commandments can reflect a sectarian position if they are numbered (see above), the Eagles developed an ecumenical version that omitted the numbers, as on the monument at the Texas capitol (shown here). Hundreds of monuments were also placed by director Cecil B. DeMille as a publicity stunt to promote his 1956 film The Ten Commandments . Placing the plaques and monuments to the Ten Commandments in and around government buildings was another expression of mid-twentieth century U.S. civil religion , along with adding the phrase "under God" to the Pledge of Allegiance . By the beginning of the twenty-first century in the U.S., however, Decalogue monuments and plaques in government spaces had become a legal battleground between religious as well as political liberals and conservatives. Organizations such as the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) and Americans United for Separation of Church and State launched lawsuits challenging the posting of the ten commandments in public buildings. The ACLU has been supported by a number of religious groups (such as the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) , and the American Jewish Congress ), both because they do not want government to be issuing religious doctrine and because they feel strongly that the commandments are inherently religious. Many commentators see this issue as part of a wider culture war between liberal and conservative elements in American society. In response to the perceived attacks on traditional society, other legal organizations, such as the Liberty Counsel , have risen to advocate the conservative interpretation. Many Christian conservatives have taken the banning of officially sanctioned prayer from public schools by the U.S. Supreme Court as a threat to the expression of religion in public life. In response, they have successfully lobbied many state and local governments to display the ten commandments in public buildings. Those who oppose the posting of the ten commandments on public property argue that it violates the establishment clause of the First Amendment to the Constitution of the United States . In contrast, groups like the Fraternal Order of Eagles who support the public display of the ten commandments claim that the commandments are not necessarily religious but represent the moral and legal foundation of society, and are appropriate to be displayed as a historical source of present-day legal codes. Also, some argue like Judge Roy Moore that prohibiting the public practice of religion is a violation of the first amendment's guarantee of freedom of religion . The Ten Commandments by Lucas Cranach the Elder in the townhall of Wittenberg , (detail) U.S. courts have often ruled against displays of the Ten Commandments on government property. They conclude that the ten commandments are derived from Judeo-Christian religions, to the exclusion of others: the statement "Thou shalt have no other gods before me" excludes non-monotheistic religions like Hinduism , for example. Whether the Constitution prohibits the posting of the commandments or not, there are additional political and civil rights issues regarding the posting of what is construed as religious doctrine. Excluding religions that have not accepted the ten commandments creates the appearance of impropriety . The courts have been more accepting, however, of displays that place the Ten Commandments in a broader historical context of the development of law. One result of these legal cases has been that proponents of displaying the Ten Commandments have sometimes surrounded them with other historical texts to portray them as historical, rather than religious. Another result has been that other religious organizations have tried to put monuments to their laws on public lands. For example, an organization called Summum has won court cases against municipalities in Utah for refusing to allow the group to erect a monument of Summum aphorisms next to the ten commandments. The cases were won on the grounds that Summum's right to freedom of speech was denied and the governments had engaged in discrimination . Instead of allowing Summum to erect its monument, the local governments chose to remove their ten commandments. Cultural references Two famous films of this name were directed by Cecil B. DeMille : a silent movie released in 1923 starring Theodore Roberts as Moses and a colour VistaVision version of 1956 , starring Charlton Heston as Moses. Both Dekalog , a 1989 Polish film series directed by Krzysztof Kieślowski , and The Ten , a 2007 American film, use the ten commandments as a structure for 10 smaller stories. The receipt of the Ten Commandments by Moses was satirized in Mel Brooks 's movie History of the World Part I (1981), which shows Moses (played by Brooks, in a similar costume to Charlton Heston 's Moses in the 1956 film ), receiving three tablets containing fifteen commandments, but before he can present them to his people, he stumbles and drops one of the tablets, shattering it. He then presents the remaining tablets, proclaiming Ten Commandments. In The Prince of Egypt , a 1998 animated film that depicted the early life of Moses (voiced by Val Kilmer ), the ending depicts him with the Ten Commandments at Mount Sinai, accompanied by a reprise of Deliver Us . See also Bible portal Book of Mormon portal Alternatives to the Ten Commandments – Secular and humanist alternatives to the biblical lists Code of Hammurabi (1772 BCE) Code of Ur-Nammu (2050 BCE) Five Precepts Five Precepts (Taoism) Maat , 42 confessions, ' The negative confession ' (1500 BCE) of Papyrus of Ani , also known as The declaration of innocence before the Gods of the tribunal from The book of going forth by day, also Book of the dead The Ten Commandments (2007 film) K10C: Kids' Ten Commandments Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics Ten Conditions of Bai'at Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ten Commandments . References Further reading Aaron, David H (2006). Etched in Stone: The Emergence of the Decalogue . Continuum. ISBN 0-567-02791-0 . Abdrushin (2009). The Ten Commandments of God and the Lord's Prayer . Grail Foundation Press. ISBN 1-57461-004-X . https://web.archive.org/web/20100523082204/http://the10com.org/index.html Peter Barenboim, Biblical Roots of Separation of Powers , Moscow, 2005 , ISBN 5-94381-123-0 . Boltwood, Emily (2012). 10 Simple Rules of the House of Gloria . Tate Publishing. ISBN 978-1-62024-840-9 . Freedman, David Noel (2000). The Nine Commandments. Uncovering a Hidden Pattern of Crime and Punishment in the Hebrew Bible . Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-49986-8 . Friedman, Richard Elliott (1987). Who Wrote the Bible? . Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-671-63161-6 . Hazony, David (2010). The Ten Commandments: How Our Most Ancient Moral Text Can Renew Modern Life . New York: Scribner. ISBN 1-4165-6235-4 . Kaufmann, Yehezkel (1960). The Religion of Israel, From Its Beginnings To the Babylonian Exile . Translated by Moshe Greenberg. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Kuntz, Paul Grimley (2004). The Ten Commandments in History: Mosaic Paradigms for a Well-Ordered Society . Wm B Eerdmans Publishing, Emory University Studies in Law and Religion. ISBN 0-8028-2660-1 . Markl, Dominik (2012): "The Decalogue in History: A Preliminary Survey of the Fields and Genres of its Reception", in: Zeitschrift für Altorientalische und Biblische Rechtsgeschichte – vol. 18, nº., pp. 279–293. ( pdf ) Markl, Dominik (ed.) (2013). The Decalogue and its Cultural Influence . Sheffield: Sheffield Phoenix Press. ISBN 978-1-909697-06-5 . CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list ( link ) Mendenhall, George E (1973). The Tenth Generation: The Origins of the Biblical Tradition . Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-1267-4 . Mendenhall, George E (2001). Ancient Israel's Faith and History: An Introduction To the Bible In Context . Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 0-664-22313-3 . Watts, James W. (2004). "Ten Commandments Monuments and the Rivalry of Iconic Texts" (PDF) . Journal of Religion and Society . 6 . Retrieved 2014-08-27 . External links Ten Commandments: Ex. 20 version ( text , mp3 ), Deut. 5 version ( text , mp3 ) in The Hebrew Bible in English by Jewish Publication Society, 1917 ed.

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who wrote the ten commandments the first time

The Ten Commandments appear twice in the Hebrew Bible, in the books of Exodus and Deuteronomy. Modern scholarship has found likely influences in Hittite and Mesopotamian laws and treaties, but is divided over exactly when the Ten Commandments were written and who wrote them.

['pyeongchang, south korea']

Taló kọ àwọn òfin mẹ́wàá nígbà àkọ́kọ́

No

['Àwọn Ọ̀fin Mẹ́wàá jẹ́ àkòjọ àwọn òfin mẹ́wàá ìwùwà tí Bíbélì sọ pé Ọlọ́run fún Mose lórí Òkè Sinai nínú pátákó òkúta méjí.']

['Ọlọ́run fún Mose lórí Òkè Sinai nínú pátákó òkúta méjí.']

['P1']

Òfin Mẹ́wàá Àwọn Ọ̀fin Mẹ́wàá jẹ́ àkòjọ àwọn òfin mẹ́wàá ìwùwà tí Bíbélì sọ pé Ọlọ́run fún Mose lórí Òkè Sinai nínú pátákó òkúta méjí. Àwọn òfin mẹ́wàá [ àtúnṣe | àtúnṣe àmìọ̀rọ̀ ] Àwọn ẹsẹ òfin mẹ́wàá bí wọn ṣe wà nínú ìwé Eksodu àti Deuteronomi . Òfin Mẹ́wàá Eksodu 20:2–17 Deuteronomi 5:6–21 2 Èmi ni Olúwa Ọlọ́run rẹ, tí ó mú ọ jáde láti ilẹ̀ Egipti, láti okoẹrú jáde wá; 3 Ìwọ kò gbọdọ̀ ní Ọlọ́run míràn pẹ̀lú mi. 4 Ìwọ kò gbọdọ̀ ya ère fún ara rẹ, tàbí àwòrán ohun kan tí nbẹ lókè ọ̀run, tàbí ti ohun kan tí nbẹ ní ìsàlẹ̀ ilẹ̀, tàbí ti ohun kan tí nbẹ nínú omi ní ìsàlẹ̀ ilẹ̀. 5 You shall not bow down to them or worship them; for I the Lord your God am a jealous God, punishing children for the iniquity of parents, to the third and the fourth generation of those who reject me, 6 but showing steadfast love to the thousandth generation of those who love me and keep my commandments. 7 You shall not make wrongful use of the name of the Lord your God, for the Lord will not acquit anyone who misuses his name. 8 Remember the Sabbath day and keep it holy. 9 For six days you shall labour and do all your work. 10 But the seventh day is a Sabbath to the Lord your God; you shall not do any work—you, your son or your daughter, your male or female slave, your livestock, or the alien resident in your towns. 11 For in six days the Lord made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that is in them, but rested the seventh day; therefore the Lord blessed the Sabbath day and consecrated it. 12 Honor your father and your mother, so that your days may be long in the land that the Lord your God is giving you. 13 You shall not murder. 14 You shall not commit adultery. 15 You shall not steal. 16 You shall not bear false witness against your neighbour. 17 You shall not covet your neighbour’s house; you shall not covet your neighbour’s wife, or male or female slave, or ox, or donkey, or anything that belongs to your neighbour. 6 I am the Lord your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of slavery; 7 you shall have no other gods before me. 8 You shall not make for yourself an idol, whether in the form of anything that is in heaven above, or that is on the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth. 9 You shall not bow down to them or worship them; for I the Lord your God am a jealous God, punishing children for the iniquity of parents, to the third and fourth generation of those who reject me, 10 but showing steadfast love to the thousandth generation of those who love me and keep my commandments. 11 You shall not make wrongful use of the name of the Lord your God, for the Lord will not acquit anyone who misuses his name. 12 Observe the sabbath day and keep it holy, as the Lord your God commanded you. 13 For six days you shall labour and do all your work. 14 But the seventh day is a sabbath to the Lord your God; you shall not do any work—you, or your son or your daughter, or your male or female slave, or your ox or your donkey, or any of your livestock, or the resident alien in your towns, so that your male and female slave may rest as well as you. 15 Remember that you were a slave in the land of Egypt, and the Lord your God brought you out from there with a mighty hand and an outstretched arm; therefore the Lord your God commanded you to keep the sabbath day. 16 Honor your father and your mother, as the Lord your God commanded you, so that your days may be long and that it may go well with you in the land that the Lord your God is giving you. 17 You shall not murder. 18 Neither shall you commit adultery. 19 Neither shall you steal. 20 Neither shall you bear false witness against your neighbour. 21 Neither shall you covet your neighbour’s wife. Neither shall you desire your neighbour’s house, or field, or male or female slave, or ox, or donkey, or anything that belongs to your neighbour.

train

what is the average depth of the red sea

The Red Sea has a surface area of roughly 438,000 km (169,100 mi), is about 2250 km (1398 mi) long and, at its widest point, 355 km (220.6 mi) wide. It has a maximum depth of 3,040 m (9,970 ft) in the central Suakin Trough, and an average depth of 490 m (1,608 ft). However, there are also extensive shallow shelves, noted for their marine life and corals. The sea is the habitat of over 1,000 invertebrate species, and 200 soft and hard corals. It is the world 's northernmost tropical sea.

['vaal river']

báwo ni òkun pupa ṣe jìn tó

Yes

['O ni ijinle ti o ga julọ ti 3,040 m (9,970 ft) ni Central Suakin Trough, ati iwọn ijinle 490 m (1,608 ft).']

['O ni ijinle ti o ga julọ ti 3,040 m (9,970 ft) ni Central Suakin Trough, ati iwọn ijinle 490 m (1,608 ft).']

['P1']

Òkun Pupa Òkun Pupa (tun Okun Erythraean) j? orisun omi omi ti Okun India, ti o dubul? laarin Afirika ati Asia. Isop? si okun j? ni guusu nipas? Babeli Mandeb ati aw?n Òkun Adén. Ni ariwa ni Okun Sinai, Òkun Aqaba, ati Gulf ti Suez (eyiti o yori si Odò Suez) ni ariwa. Òkun Okun Pupa j? i?iro ti Agbaye ti o ni agbaye. Okun ti wa ni ab? nipas? okun Rift Sea ti o j? apakan ti Agbegbe Nla Rift. Òkun Okun pupa ni agbegbe ti o ni iw?n 438,000 km2 (169,100 mi2), [1] [2] j? nipa 2250 km (1398 mi) gun ati, ni aaye ti o tobi jul?, 355 km (220.6 mi) ni ibiti o tobi. O ni ijinle ti o ga jul? ti 3,040 m (9,970 ft) ni Central Suakin Trough, [3] ati iw?n ijinle 490 m (1,608 ft). Sib?sib?, tun wa aw?n ab? ijinl? ti o jinna, ti o ?e akiyesi fun igbesi-aye okun w?n ati aw?n aw?. Okun j? ibugbe ti o ju 1,000 aw?n eya invertebrate, ati aw?n aw? okuta adura 200 ati lile. O j? okun ti okun Tropical North.

This article is about the body of water between Arabia and Africa. For other uses, see Red Sea (disambiguation) . Red Sea Coordinates 22°N 38°E  /  22°N 38°E  / 22; 38 Coordinates : 22°N 38°E  /  22°N 38°E  / 22; 38 Primary inflows Barka River , Haddas River , Anseba River , Wadi Gasus Primary outflows Bab el Mandeb Max. length 2,250 km (1,400 mi) Max. width 355 km (221 mi) Surface area 438,000 km 2 (169,000 sq mi) Average depth 490 m (1,610 ft) Max. depth 3,040 m (9,970 ft) Water volume 233,000 km 3 (56,000 cu mi) Play media This video over the south-eastern Mediterranean Sea and down the coastline of the Red Sea was taken by the crew of Expedition 29 on board the International Space Station . The Red Sea (also the Erythraean Sea ) is a seawater inlet of the Indian Ocean , lying between Africa and Asia . The connection to the ocean is in the south through the Bab el Mandeb strait and the Gulf of Aden . To the north lie the Sinai Peninsula , the Gulf of Aqaba , and the Gulf of Suez (leading to the Suez Canal ). The Red Sea is a Global 200 ecoregion . The sea is underlain by the Red Sea Rift which is part of the Great Rift Valley . The Red Sea has a surface area of roughly 438,000 km 2 (169,100 mi 2 ), is about 2250 km (1398 mi) long and, at its widest point, 355 km (220.6 mi) wide. It has a maximum depth of 3,040 m (9,970 ft) in the central Suakin Trough , and an average depth of 490 m (1,608 ft). However, there are also extensive shallow shelves, noted for their marine life and corals . The sea is the habitat of over 1,000 invertebrate species, and 200 soft and hard corals. It is the world's northernmost tropical sea. Contents 1 Extent 2 Names 3 History 3.1 Ancient era 3.2 Middle Ages and modern era 4 Oceanography 4.1 Salinity 4.2 Tidal range 4.3 Current 4.4 Wind regime 5 Geology 5.1 Mineral resources 6 Ecosystem 7 Desalination plants 8 Security 9 Facts and figures 10 Tourism 11 Bordering countries 12 Towns and cities 13 See also 14 References 15 Further reading 16 External links Extent [ edit ] The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Red Sea as follows: On the North. The Southern limits of the Gulfs of Suez [A line running from Ràs Muhammed (27°43'N) to the South point of Shadwan Island (34°02'E) and thence Westward on a parallel (27°27'N) to the coast of Africa ] and Aqaba [A line running from Ràs al Fasma Southwesterly to Requin Island ( 27°57′N 34°36′E  /  27.950°N 34.600°E  / 27.950; 34.600 ) through Tiran Island to the Southwest point thereof and thence Westward on a parallel (27°54'N) to the coast of the Sinai Peninsula ]. On the South. A line joining Husn Murad ( 12°40′N 43°30′E  /  12.667°N 43.500°E  / 12.667; 43.500 ) and Ras Siyyan ( 12°29′N 43°20′E  /  12.483°N 43.333°E  / 12.483; 43.333 ). Names [ edit ] Tihama on the Red Sea near Khaukha, Yemen Red Sea is a direct translation of the Greek Erythra Thalassa ( Ερυθρὰ Θάλασσα ), Latin Mare Rubrum (alternatively Sinus Arabicus , literally "Arabian Gulf"), Arabic : البحر الأحمر ‎, translit. Al-Baḥr Al-Aḥmar (alternatively بحر القلزم Baḥr Al-Qulzum , literally "the Sea of Clysma "), Somali Badda Cas and Tigrinya Qeyyiḥ bāḥrī (ቀይሕ ባሕሪ). The name of the sea may signify the seasonal blooms of the red-coloured Trichodesmium erythraeum near the water's surface. A theory favored by some modern scholars is that the name red is referring to the direction south, just as the Black Sea 's name may refer to north. The basis of this theory is that some Asiatic languages used color words to refer to the cardinal directions . Herodotus on one occasion uses Red Sea and Southern Sea interchangeably. Historically, it was also known to western geographers as Mare Mecca (Sea of Mecca), and Sinus Arabicus (Gulf of Arabia). Some ancient geographers called the Red Sea the Arabian Gulf or Gulf of Arabia. The association of the Red Sea with the biblical account of the Israelites crossing the Red Sea is ancient, and was made explicit in the Septuagint translation of the Book of Exodus from Hebrew to Koine Greek in approximately the third century B.C. In that version, the Yam Suph ( Hebrew : ים סוף ‎, lit. 'Sea of Reeds') is translated as Erythra Thalassa (Red Sea). The Red Sea is one of four seas named in English after common color terms — the others being the Black Sea , the White Sea and the Yellow Sea . The direct rendition of the Greek Erythra thalassa in Latin as Mare Erythraeum refers to the north-western part of the Indian Ocean , and also to a region on Mars . History [ edit ] Ancient era [ edit ] Ancient Egyptian expedition to the Land of Punt on the Red Sea coast during the reign of Queen Hatshepsut The earliest known exploration of the Red Sea was conducted by ancient Egyptians , as they attempted to establish commercial routes to Punt . One such expedition took place around 2500 BC, and another around 1500 BC (by Hatshepsut ). Both involved long voyages down the Red Sea. Historically, scholars argued whether these trips were possible. The biblical Book of Exodus tells the tale of the Israelites ' crossing of a body of water , which the Hebrew text calls Yam Suph ( Hebrew : יַם סוּף ‬). Yam Suph was traditionally identified as the Red Sea. Rabbi Saadia Gaon (882‒942), in his Judeo-Arabic translation of the Pentateuch, identifies the crossing place of the Red Sea as Baḥar al-Qulzum , meaning the Gulf of Suez . Settlements and commercial centers in the vicinity of the Red Sea involved in the spice trade , as described in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea In the 6th century BC, Darius the Great of Persia sent reconnaissance missions to the Red Sea, improving and extending navigation by locating many hazardous rocks and currents. A canal was built between the Nile and the northern end of the Red Sea at Suez . In the late 4th century BC, Alexander the Great sent Greek naval expeditions down the Red Sea to the Indian Ocean. Greek navigators continued to explore and compile data on the Red Sea. Agatharchides collected information about the sea in the 2nd century BC. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea ("Periplus of the Red Sea"), a Greek periplus written by an unknown author around the 1st century AD, contains a detailed description of the Red Sea's ports and sea routes. The Periplus also describes how Hippalus first discovered the direct route from the Red Sea to India. The Red Sea was favored for Roman trade with India starting with the reign of Augustus , when the Roman Empire gained control over the Mediterranean, Egypt , and the northern Red Sea. The route had been used by previous states but grew in the volume of traffic under the Romans. From Indian ports goods from China were introduced to the Roman world. Contact between Rome and China depended on the Red Sea, but the route was broken by the Aksumite Empire around the 3rd century AD. Middle Ages and modern era [ edit ] During the Middle Ages , the Red Sea was an important part of the spice trade route. In 1513, trying to secure that channel to Portugal, Afonso de Albuquerque laid siege to Aden but was forced to retreat. They cruised the Red Sea inside the Bab al-Mandab , as the first European fleet to have sailed these waters. In 1798, France ordered General Napoleon to invade Egypt and take control of the Red Sea. Although he failed in his mission, the engineer Jean-Baptiste Lepère , who took part in it, revitalised the plan for a canal which had been envisaged during the reign of the Pharaohs . Several canals were built in ancient times from the Nile to the Red Sea along or near the line of the present Sweet Water Canal , but none lasted for long. The Suez Canal was opened in November 1869. At the time, the British, French, and Italians shared the trading posts but these were gradually dismantled following the First World War . After the Second World War , the Americans and Soviets exerted their influence whilst the volume of oil tanker traffic intensified. However, the Six-Day War culminated in the closure of the Suez Canal from 1967 to 1975. Today, in spite of patrols by the major maritime fleets in the waters of the Red Sea, the Suez Canal has never recovered its supremacy over the Cape route, which is believed to be less vulnerable to piracy. Oceanography [ edit ] Annotated view of the Nile and Red Sea, with a dust storm The Red Sea is between arid land, desert and semi-desert . Reef systems are better developed along the Red Sea mainly because of its greater depths and an efficient water circulation pattern. The Red Sea water mass-exchanges its water with the Arabian Sea , Indian Ocean via the Gulf of Aden . These physical factors reduce the effect of high salinity caused by evaporation in the north and relatively hot water in the south. The climate of the Red Sea is the result of two monsoon seasons; a northeasterly monsoon and a southwesterly monsoon. Monsoon winds occur because of differential heating between the land and the sea. Very high surface temperatures and high salinities make this one of the warmest and saltiest bodies of seawater in the world. The average surface water temperature of the Red Sea during the summer is about 26 °C (79 °F ) in the north and 30 °C (86 °F) in the south, with only about 2 °C (3.6 °F) variation during the winter months. The overall average water temperature is 22 °C (72 °F). Temperature and visibility remain good to around 200 m (656 ft). The sea is known for its strong winds and unpredictable local currents. The rainfall over the Red Sea and its coasts is extremely low, averaging 0.06 m (2.36 in) per year. The rain is mostly short showers, often with thunderstorms and occasionally with dust storms . The scarcity of rainfall and no major source of fresh water to the Red Sea result in excess evaporation as high as 205 cm (81 in) per year and high salinity with minimal seasonal variation. A recent underwater expedition to the Red Sea offshore from Sudan and Eritrea found surface water temperatures 28 °C in winter and up to 34 °C in the summer, but despite that extreme heat the coral was healthy with much fish life with very little sign of coral bleaching , with only 9% infected by Thalassomonas loyana , the 'white plague' agent. Favia favus coral there harbours a virus, BA3, which kills T. loyana . Plans are afoot to use samples of these corals' apparently heat-adapted commensal algae to salvage bleached coral elsewhere. Salinity [ edit ] The Red Sea is one of the saltiest bodies of water in the world, owing to high evaporation. Salinity ranges from between ~36 ‰ in the southern part because of the effect of the Gulf of Aden water and 41 ‰ in the northern part, owing mainly to the Gulf of Suez water and the high evaporation. The average salinity is 40 ‰. (Average salinity for the world's seawater is ~35 ‰ on the Practical Salinity Scale, or PSU; that translates to 3.5% of actual dissolved salts.) The salinity of the Red Sea is greater than the world average, by approximately 4 percent. This is due to several factors: High rate of evaporation and very little precipitation. Lack of significant rivers or streams draining into the sea. Limited connection with the Indian Ocean, which has lower water salinity. Tidal range [ edit ] In general tide ranges between 0.6 m (2.0 ft) in the north, near the mouth of the Gulf of Suez and 0.9 m (3.0 ft) in the south near the Gulf of Aden but it fluctuates between 0.20 m (0.66 ft) and 0.30 m (0.98 ft) away from the nodal point. The central Red Sea (Jeddah area) is therefore almost tideless, and as such the annual water level changes are more significant. Because of the small tidal range the water during high tide inundates the coastal sabkhas as a thin sheet of water up to a few hundred metres rather than flooding the sabkhas through a network of channels. However, south of Jeddah in the Shoiaba area the water from the lagoon may cover the adjoining sabkhas as far as 3 km (2 mi), whereas, north of Jeddah in the Al-Kharrar area the sabkhas are covered by a thin sheet of water as far as 2 km (1.2 mi). The prevailing north and northeast winds influence the movement of water in the coastal inlets to the adjacent sabkhas, especially during storms. Winter mean sea level is 0.5 m (1.6 ft) higher than in summer. Tidal velocities passing through constrictions caused by reefs, sand bars and low islands commonly exceed 1–2 m/s (3–6.5 ft/s). Coral reefs in the Red Sea are near Egypt, Eritrea, Israel, Saudi Arabia, and Sudan. Current [ edit ] Detailed information regarding current data is lacking, partially because the currents are weak and both spatially and temporally variable. The variation of temporal and spatial currents is as low as 0.5 m (1.6 ft) and are governed all by wind. During the summer, NW winds drive surface water south for about four months at a velocity of 15–20 cm/s (6–8 in/s), whereas in winter the flow is reversed resulting in the inflow of water from the Gulf of Aden into the Red Sea. The net value of the latter predominates, resulting in an overall drift to the north end of the Red Sea. Generally, the velocity of the tidal current is between 50–60 cm/s (20–23.6 in/s) with a maximum of 1 m/s (3.3 ft/s) at the mouth of the al-Kharrar Lagoon. However, the range of the north-northeast current along the Saudi coast is 8–29 cm/s (3–11.4 in/s). Wind regime [ edit ] The north part of the Red Sea is dominated by persistent north-west winds , with speeds ranging between 7 km/h (4.3 mph) and 12 km/h (7.5 mph). The rest of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden are subjected to regular and seasonally reversible winds. The wind regime is characterized by seasonal and regional variations in speed and direction with average speed generally increasing northward. Wind is the driving force in the Red Sea to transport material as suspension or as bedload. Wind-induced currents play an important role in the Red Sea in resuspending bottom sediments and transferring materials from sites of dumping to sites of burial in quiescent environment of deposition. Wind-generated current measurement is therefore important in order to determine the sediment dispersal pattern and its role in the erosion and accretion of the coastal rock exposure and the submerged coral beds. Geology [ edit ] Dust storm over the Red Sea The Red Sea was formed by the Arabian peninsula being split from the Horn of Africa by movement of the Red Sea Rift . This split started in the Eocene and accelerated during the Oligocene . The sea is still widening, and it is considered that it will become an ocean in time (as proposed in the model of John Tuzo Wilson ). In 1949, a deep water survey reported anomalously hot brines in the central portion of the Red Sea. Later work in the 1960s confirmed the presence of hot, 60 °C (140 °F), saline brines and associated metalliferous muds. The hot solutions were emanating from an active subseafloor rift . The high salinity of the waters was not hospitable to living organisms. Sometime during the Tertiary period, the Bab el Mandeb closed and the Red Sea evaporated to an empty hot dry salt-floored sink. Effects causing this would have been: A "race" between the Red Sea widening and Perim Island erupting filling the Bab el Mandeb with lava . The lowering of world sea level during the Ice Ages because of much water being locked up in the ice caps . A number of volcanic islands rise from the center of the sea. Most are dormant. However, in 2007, Jabal al-Tair island in the Bab el Mandeb strait erupted violently. Two new islands were formed in 2011 and 2013 in the Zubair Archipelago , a small chain of islands owned by Yemen. The first island, Sholan Island, emerged in an eruption in December 2011, the second island, Jadid, emerged in September 2013. Mineral resources [ edit ] Red Sea coast in Taba , Egypt In terms of mineral resources the major constituents of the Red Sea sediments are as follows: Biogenic constituents: Nanofossils, foraminifera , pteropods , siliceous fossils Volcanogenic constituents: Tuffites , volcanic ash , montmorillonite , cristobalite , zeolites Terrigenous constituents: Quartz , feldspars , rock fragments, mica , heavy minerals, clay minerals Authigenic minerals: Sulfide minerals , aragonite , Mg- calcite , protodolomite, dolomite , quartz, chalcedony . Evaporite minerals: Magnesite , gypsum , anhydrite , halite , polyhalite Brine precipitate: Fe-montmorillonite, goethite , hematite , siderite , rhodochrosite , pyrite , sphalerite , anhydrite. Ecosystem [ edit ] See also: Persian Gulf § Wildlife Hawksbill sea turtle in the Elphinstone Reef The Red Sea is a rich and diverse ecosystem . More than 1200 species of fish have been recorded in the Red Sea, and around 10% of these are found nowhere else. This also includes 42 species of deepwater fish . Red Sea coral and marine fish The rich diversity is in part due to the 2,000 km (1,240 mi) of coral reef extending along its coastline ; these fringing reefs are 5000–7000 years old and are largely formed of stony acropora and porites corals. The reefs form platforms and sometimes lagoons along the coast and occasional other features such as cylinders (such as the Blue Hole (Red Sea) at Dahab ). These coastal reefs are also visited by pelagic species of Red Sea fish, including some of the 44 species of shark . The Red Sea also contains many offshore reefs including several true atolls. Many of the unusual offshore reef formations defy classic (i.e., Darwinian) coral reef classification schemes, and are generally attributed to the high levels of tectonic activity that characterize the area. The special biodiversity of the area is recognized by the Egyptian government, who set up the Ras Mohammed National Park in 1983. The rules and regulations governing this area protect local marine life, which has become a major draw for diving enthusiasts. Divers and snorkellers should be aware that although most Red Sea species are innocuous, a few are hazardous to humans: see Red Sea species hazardous to humans . Other marine habitats include sea grass beds, salt pans , mangroves and salt marshes . Desalination plants [ edit ] There is extensive demand for desalinated water to meet the needs of the population and the industries along the Red Sea. There are at least 18 desalination plants along the Red Sea coast of Saudi Arabia which discharge warm brine and treatment chemicals ( chlorine and anti-scalants ) that bleach and kill corals and cause diseases to the fish. This is only localized, but it may intensify with time and profoundly impact the fishing industry. The water from the Red Sea is also used by oil refineries and cement factories for cooling. Used water drained back into the coastal zones may harm the nearshore environment of the Red Sea. Security [ edit ] The Red Sea is part of the sea roads between Europe , the Persian Gulf and East Asia , and as such has heavy shipping traffic . Government-related bodies with responsibility to police the Red Sea area include the Port Said Port Authority , Suez Canal Authority and Red Sea Ports Authority of Egypt , Jordan Maritime Authority , Israel Port Authority , Saudi Ports Authority and Sea Ports Corporation of Sudan . Facts and figures [ edit ] Length: ~2,250 km (1,398.1 mi) - 79% of the eastern Red Sea with numerous coastal inlets Maximum Width: ~ 306–355 km (190–220 mi)– Massawa (Eritrea) Minimum Width: ~ 26–29 km (16–18 mi)- Bab el Mandeb Strait (Yemen) Average Width: ~ 280 km (174.0 mi) Average Depth: ~ 490 m (1,607.6 ft) Maximum Depth: ~2,211 m (7,253.9 ft) Surface Area: 438-450 x 10 2 km 2 (16,900–17,400 sq mi) Volume: 215–251 x 10 3 km 3 (51,600–60,200 cu mi) Approximately 40% of the Red Sea is quite shallow (under 100 m/330 ft), and about 25% is under 50 m (164 ft) deep. About 15% of the Red Sea is over 1,000 m (3,300 ft) depth that forms the deep axial trough. Shelf breaks are marked by coral reefs Continental slope has an irregular profile (series of steps down to ~500 m or 1,640 ft) Centre of Red Sea has a narrow trough ( Suakin Trough ) (~ 1,000 m or 3,281 ft; with maximum depth 3,040 m or 9,974 ft) Tourism [ edit ] Hotels in Eilat , Israel The sea is known for its recreational diving sites, such as Ras Mohammed , SS Thistlegorm (shipwreck), Elphinstone Reef , The Brothers , Daedalus Reef , St.John's Reef , Rocky Island in Egypt and less known sites in Sudan such as Sanganeb , Abington , Angarosh and Shaab Rumi . The Red Sea became a popular destination for diving after the expeditions of Hans Hass in the 1950s, and later by Jacques-Yves Cousteau . Popular tourist resorts include El Gouna , Hurghada , Safaga , Marsa Alam , on the west shore of the Red Sea, and Sharm-el-Sheikh , Dahab , and Taba on the Egyptian side of Sinaï , as well as Aqaba in Jordan and Eilat in Israel in an area known as the Red Sea Riviera . The popular tourist beach of Sharm el-Sheikh was closed to all swimming in December 2010 due to several serious shark attacks , including a fatality. As of December 2010, scientists are investigating the attacks and have identified, but not verified, several possible causes including over-fishing which causes large sharks to hunt closer to shore, tourist boat operators who chum offshore for shark-photo opportunities, and reports of ships throwing dead livestock overboard. The sea's narrowness, significant depth, and sharp drop-offs, all combine to form a geography where large deep-water sharks can roam in hundreds of meters of water, yet be within a hundred meters of swimming areas. See also: 2016 Hurghada attack , 2017 Hurghada attack , 2006 Dahab bombings , 2005 Sharm El Sheikh bombings , 2004 Sinai bombings , and Metrojet Flight 9268 Tourism to the region has been threatened by occasional terrorist attacks, and by incidents related to food safety standards. Bordering countries [ edit ] The Red Sea may be geographically divided into three sections: the Red Sea proper, and in the north, the Gulf of Aqaba and the Gulf of Suez. The six countries bordering the Red Sea proper are: Eastern shore: Saudi Arabia Yemen Western shore: Egypt Sudan Eritrea Djibouti The Gulf of Suez is entirely bordered by Egypt. The Gulf of Aqaba borders Egypt, Israel , Jordan and Saudi Arabia. In addition to the standard geographical definition of the six countries bordering the Red Sea cited above, areas such as Somalia are sometimes also described as Red Sea territories. This is primarily due to their proximity to and geological similarities with the nations facing the Red Sea and/or political ties with said areas. Towns and cities [ edit ] Towns and cities on the Red Sea coast (including the coasts of the Gulfs of Aqaba and Suez) include: Al Hudaydah (الحديدة) Al Lith (الليِّث) Al Qunfudhah (القنفذة) Al-Qusair (القصير) Al Wajh (الوجه) Aqaba (العقبة) Asseb (ዓሳብ) Dahab (دهب) Duba (ضباء) Eilat (אילת ، ايلات) El Gouna (الجونة) El Suweis (السويس) / Hala'ib (حلايب) (disputed) Haql (حقل) Hirgigo (ሕርጊጎ) Hurghada (الغردقة) Jeddah (جدة) Jazan (جازان) Marsa Alam (مرسى علم) Massawa (ምጽዋ) Moulhoule (مول هولة ) Nuweiba (نويبع) Port Safaga (ميناء سفاجا) Port Sudan (بورت سودان) Rabigh (رابغ) Sharm el Sheikh (شرم الشيخ) Soma Bay (سوما باي) Suakin (سواكن) Taba (طابا) Thuwal (ثول) Yanbu (ينبع) See also [ edit ] Benjamin Kahn MS al-Salam Boccaccio 98 ferry disaster Red Sea Dam Robert Moresby References [ edit ] Further reading [ edit ] Hamblin, W. Kenneth & Christiansen, Eric H. (1998). Earth's Dynamic Systems (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-745373-6 . Miran, Jonathan. (2018). "The Red Sea," in David Armitage, Alison Bashford and Sujit Sivasundaram (eds.), Oceanic Histories (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), pp. 156-181. External links [ edit ] Red Sea Coral Reefs Red Sea Photography Potts, D., R. Talbert, T. Elliott, S. Gillies. "Places: 39290 (Arabicus Sinus/Erythr(ae)um/Rubrum Mare)" . Pleiades . Retrieved March 8, 2012 . CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list ( link )

train

where is red sea located in the world

The Red Sea (also the Erythraean Sea) is a seawater inlet of the Indian Ocean, lying between Africa and Asia. The connection to the ocean is in the south through the Bab el Mandeb strait and the Gulf of Aden. To the north lie the Sinai Peninsula, the Gulf of Aqaba, and the Gulf of Suez (leading to the Suez Canal). The Red Sea is a Global 200 ecoregion. The sea is underlain by the Red Sea Rift which is part of the Great Rift Valley.

['slav’sya, otechestvo nashe svobodnoye!']

ibo ni òkun pupa wà lágbàáyé

Yes

['Òkun Pupa (tun Okun Erythraean) jẹ orisun omi omi ti Okun India, ti o dubulẹ laarin Afirika ati Asia.']

['Òkun Pupa jẹ orisun omi ti Okun India, ti o dubulẹ laarin Afirika ati Asia.']

['P1']

Òkun Pupa Òkun Pupa (tun Okun Erythraean) j? orisun omi omi ti Okun India, ti o dubul? laarin Afirika ati Asia. Isop? si okun j? ni guusu nipas? Babeli Mandeb ati aw?n Òkun Adén. Ni ariwa ni Okun Sinai, Òkun Aqaba, ati Gulf ti Suez (eyiti o yori si Odò Suez) ni ariwa. Òkun Okun Pupa j? i?iro ti Agbaye ti o ni agbaye. Okun ti wa ni ab? nipas? okun Rift Sea ti o j? apakan ti Agbegbe Nla Rift. Òkun Okun pupa ni agbegbe ti o ni iw?n 438,000 km2 (169,100 mi2), [1] [2] j? nipa 2250 km (1398 mi) gun ati, ni aaye ti o tobi jul?, 355 km (220.6 mi) ni ibiti o tobi. O ni ijinle ti o ga jul? ti 3,040 m (9,970 ft) ni Central Suakin Trough, [3] ati iw?n ijinle 490 m (1,608 ft). Sib?sib?, tun wa aw?n ab? ijinl? ti o jinna, ti o ?e akiyesi fun igbesi-aye okun w?n ati aw?n aw?. Okun j? ibugbe ti o ju 1,000 aw?n eya invertebrate, ati aw?n aw? okuta adura 200 ati lile. O j? okun ti okun Tropical North.

This article is about the body of water between Arabia and Africa. For other uses, see Red Sea (disambiguation) . Red Sea Coordinates 22°N 38°E  /  22°N 38°E  / 22; 38 Coordinates : 22°N 38°E  /  22°N 38°E  / 22; 38 Primary inflows Barka River , Haddas River , Anseba River , Wadi Gasus Primary outflows Bab el Mandeb Max. length 2,250 km (1,400 mi) Max. width 355 km (221 mi) Surface area 438,000 km 2 (169,000 sq mi) Average depth 490 m (1,610 ft) Max. depth 3,040 m (9,970 ft) Water volume 233,000 km 3 (56,000 cu mi) Play media This video over the south-eastern Mediterranean Sea and down the coastline of the Red Sea was taken by the crew of Expedition 29 on board the International Space Station . The Red Sea (also the Erythraean Sea ) is a seawater inlet of the Indian Ocean , lying between Africa and Asia . The connection to the ocean is in the south through the Bab el Mandeb strait and the Gulf of Aden . To the north lie the Sinai Peninsula , the Gulf of Aqaba , and the Gulf of Suez (leading to the Suez Canal ). The Red Sea is a Global 200 ecoregion . The sea is underlain by the Red Sea Rift which is part of the Great Rift Valley . The Red Sea has a surface area of roughly 438,000 km 2 (169,100 mi 2 ), is about 2250 km (1398 mi) long and, at its widest point, 355 km (220.6 mi) wide. It has a maximum depth of 3,040 m (9,970 ft) in the central Suakin Trough , and an average depth of 490 m (1,608 ft). However, there are also extensive shallow shelves, noted for their marine life and corals . The sea is the habitat of over 1,000 invertebrate species, and 200 soft and hard corals. It is the world's northernmost tropical sea. Contents [ hide ] 1 Extent 2 Names 3 History 3.1 Ancient era 3.2 Middle Ages and modern era 4 Oceanography 4.1 Salinity 4.2 Tidal range 4.3 Current 4.4 Wind regime 5 Geology 5.1 Mineral resources 6 Ecosystem 7 Desalination plants 8 Security 9 Facts and figures 10 Tourism 11 Bordering countries 12 Towns and cities 13 See also 14 References 15 Further reading 16 External links Extent The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Red Sea as follows: On the North. The Southern limits of the Gulfs of Suez [A line running from Ràs Muhammed (27°43'N) to the South point of Shadwan Island (34°02'E) and thence Westward on a parallel (27°27'N) to the coast of Africa ] and Aqaba [A line running from Ràs al Fasma Southwesterly to Requin Island ( 27°57′N 34°36′E  /  27.950°N 34.600°E  / 27.950; 34.600 ) through Tiran Island to the Southwest point thereof and thence Westward on a parallel (27°54'N) to the coast of the Sinaï Peninsula ]. On the South. A line joining Husn Murad ( 12°40′N 43°30′E  /  12.667°N 43.500°E  / 12.667; 43.500 ) and Ras Siyyan ( 12°29′N 43°20′E  /  12.483°N 43.333°E  / 12.483; 43.333 ). Names Tihama on the Red Sea near Khaukha, Yemen Red Sea is a direct translation of the Greek Erythra Thalassa ( Ερυθρὰ Θάλασσα ), Latin Mare Rubrum (alternatively Sinus Arabicus , literally "Arabian Gulf"), Arabic : البحر الأحمر ‎, translit. Al-Baḥr Al-Aḥmar ‎ (alternatively بحر القلزم Baḥr Al-Qulzum , literally "the Sea of Clysma "), Somali Badda Cas and Tigrinya Qeyyiḥ bāḥrī (ቀይሕ ባሕሪ). The name of the sea may signify the seasonal blooms of the red-coloured Trichodesmium erythraeum near the water's surface. A theory favored by some modern scholars is that the name red is referring to the direction south, just as the Black Sea 's name may refer to north. The basis of this theory is that some Asiatic languages used color words to refer to the cardinal directions . Herodotus on one occasion uses Red Sea and Southern Sea interchangeably. Historically, it was also known to western geographers as Mare Mecca (Sea of Mecca), and Sinus Arabicus (Gulf of Arabia). Some ancient geographers called the Red Sea the Arabian Gulf or Gulf of Arabia. The association of the Red Sea with the biblical account of the Israelites crossing the Red Sea is ancient, and was made explicit in the Septuagint translation of the Book of Exodus from Hebrew to Koine Greek in approximately the third century B.C. In that version, the Yam Suph ( Hebrew : ים סוף ‎, lit. 'Sea of Reeds'‎) is translated as Erythra Thalassa (Red Sea). The Red Sea is one of four seas named in English after common color terms — the others being the Black Sea , the White Sea and the Yellow Sea . The direct rendition of the Greek Erythra thalassa in Latin as Mare Erythraeum refers to the north-western part of the Indian Ocean , and also to a region on Mars . History Ancient era Ancient Egyptian expedition to the Land of Punt on the Red Sea coast during the reign of Queen Hatshepsut The earliest known exploration of the Red Sea was conducted by ancient Egyptians , as they attempted to establish commercial routes to Punt . One such expedition took place around 2500 BC, and another around 1500 BC (by Hatshepsut ). Both involved long voyages down the Red Sea. Historically, scholars argued whether these trips were possible. The biblical Book of Exodus tells the tale of the Israelites ' crossing of a body of water , which the Hebrew text calls Yam Suph ( Hebrew : יַם סוּף ‎). Yam Suph was traditionally identified as the Red Sea. Rabbi Saadia Gaon (882‒942 CE), in his Judeo-Arabic translation of the Pentateuch, identifies the crossing place of the Red Sea as Baḥar al-Qulzum , meaning the Gulf of Suez . (The story is part of the larger biblical lore about an Exodus of Israelites under Moses ). Yam Suph can also been translated as Sea of Reeds . [ citation needed ] Settlements and commercial centers in the vicinity of the Red Sea involved in the spice trade , as described in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea In the 6th century BC, Darius the Great of Persia sent reconnaissance missions to the Red Sea, improving and extending navigation by locating many hazardous rocks and currents. A canal was built between the Nile and the northern end of the Red Sea at Suez . In the late 4th century BC, Alexander the Great sent Greek naval expeditions down the Red Sea to the Indian Ocean. Greek navigators continued to explore and compile data on the Red Sea. Agatharchides collected information about the sea in the 2nd century BC. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea ("Periplus of the Red Sea"), a Greek periplus written by an unknown author around the 1st century AD, contains a detailed description of the Red Sea's ports and sea routes. The Periplus also describes how Hippalus first discovered the direct route from the Red Sea to India. The Red Sea was favored for Roman trade with India starting with the reign of Augustus , when the Roman Empire gained control over the Mediterranean, Egypt , and the northern Red Sea. The route had been used by previous states but grew in the volume of traffic under the Romans. From Indian ports goods from China were introduced to the Roman world. Contact between Rome and China depended on the Red Sea, but the route was broken by the Aksumite Empire around the 3rd century AD. Middle Ages and modern era During the Middle Ages , the Red Sea was an important part of the spice trade route. In 1513, trying to secure that channel to Portugal, Afonso de Albuquerque laid siege to Aden but was forced to retreat. They cruised the Red Sea inside the Bab al-Mandab , as the first European fleet to have sailed these waters. In 1798, France ordered General Napoleon to invade Egypt and take control of the Red Sea. Although he failed in his mission, the engineer Jean-Baptiste Lepère , who took part in it, revitalised the plan for a canal which had been envisaged during the reign of the Pharaohs . Several canals were built in ancient times from the Nile to the Red Sea along or near the line of the present Sweet Water Canal , but none lasted for long. The Suez Canal was opened in November 1869. At the time, the British, French, and Italians shared the trading posts. The posts were gradually dismantled following the First World War . After the Second World War , the Americans and Soviets exerted their influence whilst the volume of oil tanker traffic intensified. However, the Six Day War culminated in the closure of the Suez Canal from 1967 to 1975. Today, in spite of patrols by the major maritime fleets in the waters of the Red Sea, the Suez Canal has never recovered its supremacy over the Cape route, which is believed to be less vulnerable. Oceanography Annotated view of the Nile and Red Sea, with a dust storm The Red Sea is between arid land, desert and semi-desert . Reef systems are better developed along the Red Sea mainly because of its greater depths and an efficient water circulation pattern. The Red Sea water mass-exchanges its water with the Arabian Sea , Indian Ocean via the Gulf of Aden . These physical factors reduce the effect of high salinity caused by evaporation in the north and relatively hot water in the south. The climate of the Red Sea is the result of two monsoon seasons; a northeasterly monsoon and a southwesterly monsoon. Monsoon winds occur because of differential heating between the land and the sea. Very high surface temperatures and high salinities make this one of the warmest and saltiest bodies of seawater in the world. The average surface water temperature of the Red Sea during the summer is about 26 °C (79 °F ) in the north and 30 °C (86 °F) in the south, with only about 2 °C (3.6 °F) variation during the winter months. The overall average water temperature is 22 °C (72 °F). Temperature and visibility remain good to around 200 m (656 ft). The sea is known for its strong winds and unpredictable local currents. The rainfall over the Red Sea and its coasts is extremely low, averaging 0.06 m (2.36 in) per year. The rain is mostly short showers, often with thunderstorms and occasionally with dust storms . The scarcity of rainfall and no major source of fresh water to the Red Sea result in excess evaporation as high as 205 cm (81 in) per year and high salinity with minimal seasonal variation. A recent underwater expedition to the Red Sea offshore from Sudan and Eritrea found surface water temperatures 28 °C in winter and up to 34 °C in the summer, but despite that extreme heat the coral was healthy with much fish life with very little sign of coral bleaching , with only 9% infected by Thalassomonas loyana , the 'white plague' agent. Favia favus coral there harbours a virus, BA3, which kills T. loyana. Plans are afoot to use samples of these corals' apparently heat-adapted commensal algae to salvage bleached coral elsewhere. Salinity The Red Sea is one of the saltiest bodies of water in the world, owing to high evaporation. Salinity ranges from between ~36 ‰ in the southern part because of the effect of the Gulf of Aden water and reaches 41 ‰ in the northern part, owing mainly to the Gulf of Suez water and the high evaporation. The average salinity is 40 ‰. (Average salinity for the world's seawater is ~35 ‰ on the Practical Salinity Scale, or PPS; that translates to 3.5% actual dissolved salts.) The salinity of the Red Sea is greater than the world average, approximately 4 percent. This is due to several factors: High rate of evaporation and very little precipitation. Lack of significant rivers or streams draining into the sea. Limited connection with the Indian Ocean, which has lower water salinity. Tidal range In general tide ranges between 0.6 m (2.0 ft) in the north, near the mouth of the Gulf of Suez and 0.9 m (3.0 ft) in the south near the Gulf of Aden but it fluctuates between 0.20 m (0.66 ft) and 0.30 m (0.98 ft) away from the nodal point. The central Red Sea (Jeddah area) is therefore almost tideless, and as such the annual water level changes are more significant. Because of the small tidal range the water during high tide inundates the coastal sabkhas as a thin sheet of water up to a few hundred metres rather than flooding the sabkhas through a network of channels. However, south of Jeddah in the Shoiaba area the water from the lagoon may cover the adjoining sabkhas as far as 3 km (2 mi), whereas, north of Jeddah in the Al-Kharrar area the sabkhas are covered by a thin sheet of water as far as 2 km (1.2 mi). The prevailing north and northeast winds influence the movement of water in the coastal inlets to the adjacent sabkhas, especially during storms. Winter mean sea level is 0.5 m (1.6 ft) higher than in summer. Tidal velocities passing through constrictions caused by reefs, sand bars and low islands commonly exceed 1–2 m/s (3–6.5 ft/s). Coral reefs in the Red Sea are near Egypt, Eritrea, Israel, Saudi Arabia, and Sudan. Current In the Red Sea detailed current data is lacking, partially because they are weak and variable both spatially and temporally. Temporal and spatial currents variation is as low as 0.5 m (1.6 ft) and are governed all by wind. During the summer, NW winds drive surface water south for about four months at a velocity of 15–20 cm/s (6–8 in/s), whereas in winter the flow is reversed resulting in the inflow of water from the Gulf of Aden into the Red Sea. The net value of the latter predominates, resulting in an overall drift to the north end of the Red Sea. Generally, the velocity of the tidal current is between 50–60 cm/s (20–23.6 in/s) with a maximum of 1 m/s (3.3 ft/s) at the mouth of the al-Kharrar Lagoon. However, the range of the north-northeast current along the Saudi coast is 8–29 cm/s (3–11.4 in/s). Wind regime The north part of the Red Sea is dominated by persistent north-west winds , with speeds ranging between 7 km/h (4.3 mph) and 12 km/h (7.5 mph). The rest of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden are subjected to regular and seasonally reversible winds. The wind regime is characterized by seasonal and regional variations in speed and direction with average speed generally increasing northward. Wind is the driving force in the Red Sea to transport material as suspension or as bedload. Wind-induced currents play an important role in the Red Sea in resuspending bottom sediments and transferring materials from sites of dumping to sites of burial in quiescent environment of deposition. Wind-generated current measurement is therefore important in order to determine the sediment dispersal pattern and its role in the erosion and accretion of the coastal rock exposure and the submerged coral beds. Geology Dust storm over the Red Sea The Red Sea was formed by the Arabian peninsula being split from the Horn of Africa by movement of the Red Sea Rift . This split started in the Eocene and accelerated during the Oligocene . The sea is still widening, and it is considered that it will become an ocean in time (as proposed in the model of John Tuzo Wilson ). In 1949, a deep water survey reported anomalously hot brines in the central portion of the Red Sea. Later work in the 1960s confirmed the presence of hot, 60 °C (140 °F), saline brines and associated metalliferous muds. The hot solutions were emanating from an active subseafloor rift . The high salinity of the waters was not hospitable to living organisms. Sometime during the Tertiary period, the Bab el Mandeb closed and the Red Sea evaporated to an empty hot dry salt-floored sink. Effects causing this would have been: A "race" between the Red Sea widening and Perim Island erupting filling the Bab el Mandeb with lava . The lowering of world sea level during the Ice Ages because of much water being locked up in the ice caps . A number of volcanic islands rise from the center of the sea. Most are dormant. However, in 2007, Jabal al-Tair island in the Bab el Mandeb strait erupted violently. Two new islands were formed in 2011 and 2013 in the Zubair Archipelago , a small chain of islands owned by Yemen. The first island, Sholan Island, emerged in an eruption in December 2011, the second island, Jadid, emerged in September 2013. Mineral resources Red Sea coast in Taba , Egypt In terms of mineral resources the major constituents of the Red Sea sediments are as follows: Biogenic constituents: Nanofossils, foraminifera , pteropods , siliceous fossils Volcanogenic constituents: Tuffites , volcanic ash , montmorillonite , cristobalite , zeolites Terrigenous constituents: Quartz , feldspars , rock fragments, mica , heavy minerals, clay minerals Authigenic minerals: Sulfide minerals , aragonite , Mg- calcite , protodolomite, dolomite , quartz, chalcedony . Evaporite minerals: Magnesite , gypsum , anhydrite , halite , polyhalite Brine precipitate: Fe-montmorillonite, goethite , hematite , siderite , rhodochrosite , pyrite , sphalerite , anhydrite. Ecosystem See also: Persian Gulf § Wildlife Ain Sukhna beach, Suez - Mollusca collection The Red Sea is a rich and diverse ecosystem . More than 1200 species of fish have been recorded in the Red Sea, and around 10% of these are found nowhere else. This also includes 42 species of deepwater fish . Red Sea coral and marine fish The rich diversity is in part due to the 2,000 km (1,240 mi) of coral reef extending along its coastline ; these fringing reefs are 5000–7000 years old and are largely formed of stony acropora and porites corals. The reefs form platforms and sometimes lagoons along the coast and occasional other features such as cylinders (such as the Blue Hole (Red Sea) at Dahab ). These coastal reefs are also visited by pelagic species of Red Sea fish, including some of the 44 species of shark . The Red Sea also contains many offshore reefs including several true atolls. Many of the unusual offshore reef formations defy classic (i.e., Darwinian) coral reef classification schemes, and are generally attributed to the high levels of tectonic activity that characterize the area. The special biodiversity of the area is recognized by the Egyptian government, who set up the Ras Mohammed National Park in 1983. The rules and regulations governing this area protect local marine life, which has become a major draw for diving enthusiasts. Divers and snorkellers should be aware that although most Red Sea species are innocuous, a few are hazardous to humans: see Red Sea species hazardous to humans . Other marine habitats include sea grass beds, salt pans , mangroves and salt marshes . Desalination plants There is extensive demand for desalinated water to meet the needs of the population and the industries along the Red Sea. There are at least 18 desalination plants along the Red Sea coast of Saudi Arabia which discharge warm brine and treatment chemicals ( chlorine and anti-scalants ) that bleach and kill corals and cause diseases to the fish. This is only localized, but it may intensify with time and profoundly impact the fishing industry. The water from the Red Sea is also used by oil refineries and cement factories for cooling. Used water drained back into the coastal zones may harm the nearshore environment of the Red Sea. Security The Red Sea is part of the sea roads between Europe , the Persian Gulf and East Asia , and as such has heavy shipping traffic . Government-related bodies with responsibility to police the Red Sea area include the Port Said Port Authority , Suez Canal Authority and Red Sea Ports Authority of Egypt , Jordan Maritime Authority , Israel Port Authority , Saudi Ports Authority and Sea Ports Corporation of Sudan . Facts and figures Length: ~2,250 km (1,398.1 mi) - 79% of the eastern Red Sea with numerous coastal inlets Maximum Width: ~ 306–355 km (190–220 mi)– Massawa (Eritrea) Minimum Width: ~ 26–29 km (16–18 mi)- Bab el Mandeb Strait (Yemen) Average Width: ~ 280 km (174.0 mi) Average Depth: ~ 490 m (1,607.6 ft) Maximum Depth: ~2,211 m (7,253.9 ft) Surface Area: 438-450 x 10 2 km 2 (16,900–17,400 sq mi) Volume: 215–251 x 10 3 km 3 (51,600–60,200 cu mi) Approximately 40% of the Red Sea is quite shallow (under 100 m/330 ft), and about 25% is under 50 m (164 ft) deep. About 15% of the Red Sea is over 1,000 m (3,300 ft) depth that forms the deep axial trough. Shelf breaks are marked by coral reefs Continental slope has an irregular profile (series of steps down to ~500 m or 1,640 ft) Centre of Red Sea has a narrow trough ( Suakin Trough ) (~ 1,000 m or 3,281 ft; with maximum depth 3,040 m or 9,974 ft) Tourism Hotels in Eilat , Israel The sea is known for its spectacular recreational diving sites, such as Ras Mohammed , SS Thistlegorm (shipwreck), Elphinstone Reef , The Brothers , Daedalus Reef , St.John's Reef , Rocky Island in Egypt and less known sites in Sudan such as Sanganeb , Abington , Angarosh and Shaab Rumi . The Red Sea became a sought-after diving destination after the expeditions of Hans Hass in the 1950s, and later by Jacques-Yves Cousteau . Popular tourist resorts include El Gouna , Hurghada , Safaga , Marsa Alam , on the west shore of the Red Sea, and Sharm-el-Sheikh , Dahab , and Taba on the Egyptian side of Sinaï , as well as Aqaba in Jordan and Eilat in Israel in an area known as the Red Sea Riviera . The popular tourist beach of Sharm el-Sheikh was closed to all swimming in December 2010 due to several serious shark attacks , including a fatality. As of December 2010, scientists are investigating the attacks and have identified, but not verified, several possible causes including over-fishing which causes large sharks to hunt closer to shore, tourist boat operators who chum offshore for shark-photo opportunities, and reports of ships throwing dead livestock overboard. The sea's narrowness, significant depth, and sharp drop-offs, all combine to form a geography where large deep-water sharks can roam in hundreds of meters of water, yet be within a hundred meters of swimming areas. Bordering countries The Red Sea may be geographically divided into three sections: the Red Sea proper, and in the north, the Gulf of Aqaba and the Gulf of Suez. The six countries bordering the Red Sea proper are: Eastern shore: Saudi Arabia Yemen Western shore: Egypt Sudan Eritrea Djibouti The Gulf of Suez is entirely bordered by Egypt. The Gulf of Aqaba borders Egypt, Israel , Jordan and Saudi Arabia. In addition to the standard geographical definition of the six countries bordering the Red Sea cited above, areas such as Somalia are sometimes also described as Red Sea territories. This is primarily due to their proximity to and geological similarities with the nations facing the Red Sea and/or political ties with said areas. Towns and cities Towns and cities on the Red Sea coast (including the coasts of the Gulfs of Aqaba and Suez) include: Al Hudaydah (الحديدة) Al Lith (الليِّث) Al Qunfudhah (القنفذة) Al-Qusair (القصير) Al Wajh (الوجه) Aqaba (العقبة) Asseb (ዓሳብ) Dahab (دهب) Duba (ضباء) Eilat (אילת ، ايلات) El Gouna (الجونة) El Suweis (السويس) / Hala'ib (حلايب) (disputed) Haql (حقل) Hirgigo (ሕርጊጎ) Hurghada (الغردقة) Jeddah (جدة) Jazan (جازان) Marsa Alam (مرسى علم) Massawa (ምጽዋ) Moulhoule (مول هولة ) Nuweiba (نويبع) Port Safaga (ميناء سفاجا) Port Sudan (بورت سودان) Rabigh (رابغ) Sharm el Sheikh (شرم الشيخ) Soma Bay (سوما باي) Suakin (سواكن) Taba (طابا) Thuwal (ثول) Yanbu (ينبع) See also Benjamin Kahn MS al-Salam Boccaccio 98 ferry disaster Red Sea Dam Robert Moresby References Further reading Hamblin, W. Kenneth & Christiansen, Eric H. (1998). Earth's Dynamic Systems (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-745373-6 . External links Red Sea Coral Reefs Red Sea Photography Potts, D., R. Talbert, T. Elliott, S. Gillies. "Places: 39290 (Arabicus Sinus/Erythr(ae)um/Rubrum Mare)" . Pleiades . Retrieved March 8, 2012 . CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list ( link )

train

where did the nobel peace prize come from

The Nobel Peace Prize (Swedish, Norwegian : Nobels fredspris) is one of the five Nobel Prizes created by the Swedish industrialist, inventor, and armaments manufacturer Alfred Nobel, along with the prizes in Chemistry, Physics, Physiology or Medicine, and Literature. Since March 1901, it has been awarded annually (with some exceptions) to those who have `` done the most or the best work for fraternity between nations, for the abolition or reduction of standing armies and for the holding and promotion of peace congresses ''.

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níbo ni ẹ̀bùn nobel fún àlàáfíà ti wá

Yes

['Ẹ̀bùn Àláfíà Nobel (ede Scandinavia: Nobels fredspris) je ikan ninu awon Ebun Nobel marun ti Alfred Nobel fi lole ki oto ku.']

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['P1']

??bùn Àláfíà Nobel ??bùn Àláfíà Nobel (ede Scandinavia: Nobels fredspris) je ikan ninu awon Ebun Nobel marun ti Alfred Nobel fi lole ki oto ku.

Nobel Peace Prize 2017 Nobel Peace Prize Awarded for Outstanding contributions in peace Location Oslo , Norway Presented by Norwegian Nobel Committee on behalf of the estate of Alfred Nobel Reward(s) 9 million SEK (2017) First awarded 10 December 1901 ; 116 years ago ( 1901-12-10 ) Currently held by International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons (2017) Most awards International Committee of the Red Cross (3) Website Nobelprize.org The Nobel Peace Prize ( Swedish , Norwegian : Nobels fredspris ) is one of the five Nobel Prizes created by the Swedish industrialist, inventor, and armaments manufacturer Alfred Nobel , along with the prizes in Chemistry , Physics , Physiology or Medicine , and Literature . Since March 1901, it has been awarded annually (with some exceptions) to those who have "done the most or the best work for fraternity between nations, for the abolition or reduction of standing armies and for the holding and promotion of peace congresses ". As per Alfred Nobel's will, the recipient is selected by the Norwegian Nobel Committee , a five-member committee appointed by the Parliament of Norway . Since 1990, the prize is awarded on 10 December in Oslo City Hall each year. The prize was formerly awarded in the Atrium of the University of Oslo Faculty of Law (1947–1989), the Norwegian Nobel Institute (1905–1946), and the Parliament (1901–1904). Due to its political ideology and interferences, the Nobel Peace Prize has, for most of its history, been the subject of controversies . Contents 1 Background 2 Nomination and selection 2.1 Nomination 2.2 Selection 3 Awarding the prize 4 Criticism 4.1 Criticism of individual conferments 4.2 Notable omissions 5 List of Nobel Peace Prize laureates 6 See also 7 References 8 External links Background [ edit ] Alfred Nobel According to Nobel's will, the Peace Prize shall be awarded to the person who in the preceding year "shall have done the most or the best work for fraternity between nations, for the abolition or reduction of standing armies and for the holding and promotion of peace congresses". Alfred Nobel's will further specified that the prize be awarded by a committee of five people chosen by the Norwegian Parliament. Nobel died in 1896 and he did not leave an explanation for choosing peace as a prize category. As he was a trained chemical engineer, the categories for chemistry and physics were obvious choices. The reasoning behind the peace prize is less clear. According to the Norwegian Nobel Committee, his friendship with Bertha von Suttner , a peace activist and later recipient of the prize, profoundly influenced his decision to include peace as a category. Some Nobel scholars suggest it was Nobel's way to compensate for developing destructive forces. His inventions included dynamite and ballistite , both of which were used violently during his lifetime. Ballistite was used in war and the Irish Republican Brotherhood , an Irish nationalist organization, carried out dynamite attacks in the 1880s. Nobel was also instrumental in turning Bofors from an iron and steel producer into an armaments company. It is unclear why Nobel wished the Peace Prize to be administered in Norway, which was ruled in union with Sweden at the time of Nobel's death. The Norwegian Nobel Committee speculates that Nobel may have considered Norway better suited to awarding the prize, as it did not have the same militaristic traditions as Sweden . It also notes that at the end of the 19th century, the Norwegian parliament had become closely involved in the Inter-Parliamentary Union 's efforts to resolve conflicts through mediation and arbitration. Nomination and selection [ edit ] The Norwegian Nobel Institute in Oslo, Norway The Norwegian Parliament appoints the Norwegian Nobel Committee , which selects the Nobel Peace Prize laureate . Nomination [ edit ] Each year, the Norwegian Nobel Committee specifically invites qualified people to submit nominations for the Nobel Peace Prize. The statutes of the Nobel Foundation specify categories of individuals who are eligible to make nominations for the Nobel Peace Prize. These nominators are: Members of national assemblies and governments and members of the Inter-Parliamentary Union Members of the Permanent Court of Arbitration and the International Court of Justice at the Hague Members of Institut de Droit International University professors of history, social sciences , philosophy, law, and theology, university presidents, and directors of peace research and international affairs institutes Former recipients , including board members of organizations that have previously received the prize Present and past members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee Former permanent advisers to the Norwegian Nobel Institute The 14th Dalai Lama and Archbishop Desmond Tutu , Nobel Peace Prize laureates Nominations must usually be submitted to the Committee by the beginning of February in the award year. Nominations by committee members can be submitted up to the date of the first Committee meeting after this deadline. In 2009, a record 205 nominations were received, but the record was broken again in 2010 with 237 nominations; in 2011, the record was broken once again with 241 nominations. The statutes of the Nobel Foundation do not allow information about nominations, considerations, or investigations relating to awarding the prize to be made public for at least 50 years after a prize has been awarded. Over time, many individuals have become known as "Nobel Peace Prize Nominees", but this designation has no official standing, and means only that one of the thousands of eligible nominators suggested the person's name for consideration. Indeed, in 1939, Adolf Hitler received a satirical nomination from a member of the Swedish parliament, mocking the (serious but unsuccessful) nomination of Neville Chamberlain . Nominations from 1901 to 1956, however, have been released in a database. Selection [ edit ] Nominations are considered by the Nobel Committee at a meeting where a short list of candidates for further review is created. This short list is then considered by permanent advisers to the Nobel institute, which consists of the Institute's Director and the Research Director and a small number of Norwegian academics with expertise in subject areas relating to the prize. Advisers usually have some months to complete reports, which are then considered by the Committee to select the laureate. The Committee seeks to achieve a unanimous decision, but this is not always possible. The Nobel Committee typically comes to a conclusion in mid-September, but occasionally the final decision has not been made until the last meeting before the official announcement at the beginning of October. Awarding the prize [ edit ] Obverse of the Nobel Peace Prize Medal presented to Sir Ralph Norman Angell in 1933; the Imperial War Museum , London The Chairman of the Norwegian Nobel Committee presents the Nobel Peace Prize in the presence of the King of Norway on 10 December each year (the anniversary of Nobel's death). The Peace Prize is the only Nobel Prize not presented in Stockholm . The Nobel laureate receives a diploma, a medal, and a document confirming the prize amount. As of 2013 [update] , the prize was worth 10 million SEK (about US$1.5 million). Since 1990, the Nobel Peace Prize Ceremony is held at Oslo City Hall . From 1947 to 1989, the Nobel Peace Prize ceremony was held in the Atrium of the University of Oslo Faculty of Law , a few hundred metres from Oslo City Hall. Between 1905 and 1946, the ceremony took place at the Norwegian Nobel Institute . From 1901 to 1904, the ceremony took place in the Storting (Parliament). Criticism [ edit ] It has been expressed that the Peace Prize has been awarded in politically motivated ways for more recent or immediate achievements, or with the intention of encouraging future achievements. Some commentators have suggested that to award a peace prize on the basis of unquantifiable contemporary opinion is unjust or possibly erroneous, especially as many of the judges cannot themselves be said to be impartial observers. In 2011, a feature story in the Norwegian newspaper Aftenposten contended that major criticisms of the award were that the Norwegian Nobel Committee ought to recruit members from professional and international backgrounds, rather than retired members of parliament; that there is too little openness about the criteria that the committee uses when they choose a recipient of the prize; and that the adherence to Nobel's will should be more strict. In the article, Norwegian historian Øivind Stenersen argues that Norway has been able to use the prize as an instrument for nation building and furthering Norway's foreign policy and economic interests. In another 2011 Aftenposten opinion article, the grandson of one of Nobel's two brothers, Michael Nobel, also criticised what he believed to be the politicisation of the award, claiming that the Nobel Committee has not always acted in accordance with Nobel's will. Norwegian lawyer Fredrik S. Heffermehl has criticized the management of the Peace Prize. Criticism of individual conferments [ edit ] Main article: Nobel Prize controversies Barack Obama with Thorbjørn Jagland at the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize ceremony From left-to-right, Yasser Arafat, Shimon Peres and Yitzhak Rabin receiving the 1994 Nobel Peace Prize following the Oslo Accords Nobel Peace Prize 2001 United Nations - diploma in the lobby of the United Nations Headquarters in New York City The awards given to Mikhail Gorbachev , Yitzhak Rabin , Shimon Peres , Menachem Begin and Yasser Arafat , Lê Đức Thọ , Henry Kissinger , Jimmy Carter , Al Gore , IPCC , Liu Xiaobo , Aung San Suu Kyi Barack Obama , and the European Union have all been the subject of controversy. The awards given to Lê Đức Thọ and Henry Kissinger prompted two dissenting Committee members to resign. Thọ refused to accept the prize, on the grounds that such "bourgeois sentimentalities" were not for him and that peace had not actually been achieved in Vietnam. Kissinger donated his prize money to charity, did not attend the award ceremony and would later offer to return his prize medal after the fall of South Vietnam to North Vietnamese forces 18 months later. Notable omissions [ edit ] Foreign Policy has listed Mahatma Gandhi , Eleanor Roosevelt , U Thant , Václav Havel , Ken Saro-Wiwa , Fazle Hasan Abed and Corazon Aquino as people who "never won the prize, but should have". Many believe that the prize should have gone to Pope John Paul II , Hélder Câmara , , Zilda Arns and Dorothy Day . Both Eleanor Roosevelt and Dorothy Day were recipients of the Gandhi Peace Award . The omission of Mahatma Gandhi has been particularly widely discussed, including in public statements by various members of the Nobel Committee. The Committee has confirmed that Gandhi was nominated in 1937, 1938, 1939, 1947, and, finally, a few days before his assassination in January 1948. The omission has been publicly regretted by later members of the Nobel Committee. Geir Lundestad , Secretary of Norwegian Nobel Committee in 2006 said, "The greatest omission in our 106-year history is undoubtedly that Mahatma Gandhi never received the Nobel Peace prize. Gandhi could do without the Nobel Peace prize, whether Nobel committee can do without Gandhi is the question". In 1948, following Gandhi's death, the Nobel Committee declined to award a prize on the ground that "there was no suitable living candidate" that year. Later, when the Dalai Lama was awarded the Peace Prize in 1989, the chairman of the committee said that this was "in part a tribute to the memory of Mahatma Gandhi". List of Nobel Peace Prize laureates [ edit ] Main article: List of Nobel Peace Prize laureates As of 2016 [update] , the Peace Prize has been awarded to 104 individuals and 23 organizations. Sixteen women have won the Nobel Peace Prize, more than any other Nobel Prize. Only two recipients have won multiple Prizes: the International Committee of the Red Cross has won three times (1917, 1944, and 1963) and the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees has won twice (1954 and 1981). Lê Đức Thọ is the only person who refused to accept the Nobel Peace Prize. See also [ edit ] List of peace prizes List of Nobel laureates Nobel Foundation Nobel Museum Nobel Peace Center Nobel Peace Prize Concert Nobel Prize effect Nobel Women's Initiative World Summit of Nobel Peace Laureates List of peace activists Ramon Magsaysay Award Indira Gandhi Peace Prize Confucius Peace Prize References [ edit ] External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Nobel Peace Prize . "The Nobel Peace Prize" – Official webpage of the Norwegian Nobel Committee "The Nobel Peace Prize" at the official site of the Nobel Prize "All Nobel Laureates in Peace" "The Nobel Prize Award Ceremonies" World Summit of Nobel Peace Laureates , official site with information on annual summits beginning in 1999 "National Peace Nobel Prize shares 1901–2009 by citizenship (or home of organization) at the time of the award." – From J. Schmidhuber (2010): Evolution of National Nobel Prize Shares in the 20th Century at arXiv:1009.2634v1 " South Africa is one of the most unequal societies in the world ", article published in Global Education Magazine , by Mr. Frederik Willem de Klerk, Nobel Peace Prize 1993, in the special edition of International Day for the Eradication of Poverty (17 October 2012) Martin Luther King, Jr.'s Nobel Peace Prize , Civil Rights Digital Library The Nobel Peace Prize Watch , the main project of The Lay Down your Arms Association

train

who invented nobel peace prize and for which reasons

The Nobel Peace Prize (Swedish : Nobels fredspris) is one of the five Nobel Prizes created by the Swedish industrialist, inventor, and armaments manufacturer Alfred Nobel, along with the prizes in Chemistry, Physics, Physiology or Medicine, and Literature. Since March 1901, it has been awarded annually (with some exceptions) to those who have `` done the most or the best work for fraternity between nations, for the abolition or reduction of standing armies and for the holding and promotion of peace congresses ''.

['nickel']

taló dá ẹ̀bùn nobel fún àlàáfíà sílẹ̀ àti kíni ìdí tó fi dá sílẹ̀

Yes

['Ẹ̀bùn Àláfíà Nobel (ede Scandinavia: Nobels fredspris) je ikan ninu awon Ebun Nobel marun ti Alfred Nobel fi lole ki oto ku.']

['Ẹ̀bùn Àláfíà Nobel (ede Scandinavia: Nobels fredspris) je ikan ninu awon Ebun Nobel marun ti Alfred Nobel fi lole ki oto ku.']

['P1']

??bùn Àláfíà Nobel ??bùn Àláfíà Nobel (ede Scandinavia: Nobels fredspris) je ikan ninu awon Ebun Nobel marun ti Alfred Nobel fi lole ki oto ku.

Nobel Peace Prize Awarded for Outstanding contributions in peace Location Oslo , Norway Presented by Norwegian Nobel Committee on behalf of the estate of Alfred Nobel Reward(s) 9 million SEK (2017) First awarded 10 December 1901 ; 116 years ago ( 1901-12-10 ) Currently held by International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons (2017) Most awards International Committee of the Red Cross (3) Website Nobelprize.org The Nobel Peace Prize ( Swedish : Nobels fredspris ) is one of the five Nobel Prizes created by the Swedish industrialist, inventor, and armaments manufacturer Alfred Nobel , along with the prizes in Chemistry , Physics , Physiology or Medicine , and Literature . Since March 1901, it has been awarded annually (with some exceptions) to those who have "done the most or the best work for fraternity between nations, for the abolition or reduction of standing armies and for the holding and promotion of peace congresses ". As per Alfred Nobel's will, the recipient is selected by the Norwegian Nobel Committee , a five-member committee appointed by the Parliament of Norway . Since 1990, the prize is awarded on 10 December in Oslo City Hall each year. The prize was formerly awarded in the Atrium of the University of Oslo Faculty of Law (1947–89), the Norwegian Nobel Institute (1905–46), and the Parliament (1901–04). Due to its political ideology and interferences, the Nobel Peace Prize has, for most of its history, been the subject of controversies . Contents [ hide ] 1 Background 2 Nomination and selection 2.1 Nomination 2.2 Selection 3 Awarding the prize 4 Criticism 4.1 Criticism of individual conferments 4.2 Notable omissions 5 List of Nobel Peace Prize laureates 6 See also 7 References 8 External links Background [ edit ] Alfred Nobel According to Nobel's will, the Peace Prize shall be awarded to the person who in the preceding year "shall have done the most or the best work for fraternity between nations, for the abolition or reduction of standing armies and for the holding and promotion of peace congresses". Alfred Nobel's will further specified that the prize be awarded by a committee of five people chosen by the Norwegian Parliament. Nobel died in 1896 and he did not leave an explanation for choosing peace as a prize category. As he was a trained chemical engineer, the categories for chemistry and physics were obvious choices. The reasoning behind the peace prize is less clear. According to the Norwegian Nobel Committee, his friendship with Bertha von Suttner , a peace activist and later recipient of the prize, profoundly influenced his decision to include peace as a category. Some Nobel scholars suggest it was Nobel's way to compensate for developing destructive forces. His inventions included dynamite and ballistite , both of which were used violently during his lifetime. Ballistite was used in war and the Irish Republican Brotherhood , an Irish nationalist organization, carried out dynamite attacks in the 1880s. Nobel was also instrumental in turning Bofors from an iron and steel producer into an armaments company. It is unclear why Nobel wished the Peace Prize to be administered in Norway, which was ruled in union with Sweden at the time of Nobel's death. The Norwegian Nobel Committee speculates that Nobel may have considered Norway better suited to awarding the prize, as it did not have the same militaristic traditions as Sweden . It also notes that at the end of the 19th century, the Norwegian parliament had become closely involved in the Inter-Parliamentary Union 's efforts to resolve conflicts through mediation and arbitration. Nomination and selection [ edit ] The Norwegian Nobel Institute in Oslo, Norway The Norwegian Parliament appoints the Norwegian Nobel Committee , which selects the Nobel Peace Prize laureate . Nomination [ edit ] Each year, the Norwegian Nobel Committee specifically invites qualified people to submit nominations for the Nobel Peace Prize. The statutes of the Nobel Foundation specify categories of individuals who are eligible to make nominations for the Nobel Peace Prize. These nominators are: Members of national assemblies and governments and members of the Inter-Parliamentary Union Members of the Permanent Court of Arbitration and the International Court of Justice at the Hague Members of Institut de Droit International University professors of history, social sciences , philosophy, law, and theology, university presidents, and directors of peace research and international affairs institutes Former recipients , including board members of organizations that have previously received the prize Present and past members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee Former permanent advisers to the Norwegian Nobel Institute The 14th Dalai Lama and Archbishop Desmond Tutu , Nobel Peace Prize laureates Nominations must usually be submitted to the Committee by the beginning of February in the award year. Nominations by committee members can be submitted up to the date of the first Committee meeting after this deadline. In 2009, a record 205 nominations were received, but the record was broken again in 2010 with 237 nominations; in 2011, the record was broken once again with 241 nominations. The statutes of the Nobel Foundation do not allow information about nominations, considerations, or investigations relating to awarding the prize to be made public for at least 50 years after a prize has been awarded. Over time, many individuals have become known as "Nobel Peace Prize Nominees", but this designation has no official standing, and means only that one of the thousands of eligible nominators suggested the person's name for consideration. Indeed, in 1939, Adolf Hitler received a satirical nomination from a member of the Swedish parliament, mocking the (serious but unsuccessful) nomination of Neville Chamberlain .Nominations from 1901 to 1956, however, have been released in a database. Selection [ edit ] Nominations are considered by the Nobel Committee at a meeting where a short list of candidates for further review is created. This short list is then considered by permanent advisers to the Nobel institute, which consists of the Institute's Director and the Research Director and a small number of Norwegian academics with expertise in subject areas relating to the prize. Advisers usually have some months to complete reports, which are then considered by the Committee to select the laureate. The Committee seeks to achieve a unanimous decision, but this is not always possible. The Nobel Committee typically comes to a conclusion in mid-September, but occasionally the final decision has not been made until the last meeting before the official announcement at the beginning of October. Awarding the prize [ edit ] Obverse of the Nobel Peace Prize Medal presented to Sir Ralph Norman Angell in 1933; the Imperial War Museum , London The Chairman of the Norwegian Nobel Committee presents the Nobel Peace Prize in the presence of the King of Norway on 10 December each year (the anniversary of Nobel's death). The Peace Prize is the only Nobel Prize not presented in Stockholm . The Nobel laureate receives a diploma, a medal, and a document confirming the prize amount. As of 2013 [update] , the prize was worth 10 million SEK (about US$1.5 million). Since 1990, the Nobel Peace Prize Ceremony is held at Oslo City Hall . From 1947 to 1989, the Nobel Peace Prize ceremony was held in the Atrium of the University of Oslo Faculty of Law , a few hundred metres from Oslo City Hall. Between 1905 and 1946, the ceremony took place at the Norwegian Nobel Institute . From 1901 to 1904, the ceremony took place in the Storting (Parliament). Criticism [ edit ] It has been expressed that the Peace Prize has been awarded in politically motivated ways for more recent or immediate achievements, or with the intention of encouraging future achievements. Some commentators have suggested that to award a peace prize on the basis of unquantifiable contemporary opinion is unjust or possibly erroneous, especially as many of the judges cannot themselves be said to be impartial observers. In 2011, a feature story in the Norwegian newspaper Aftenposten contended that major criticisms of the award were that the Norwegian Nobel Committee ought to recruit members from professional and international backgrounds, rather than retired members of parliament; that there is too little openness about the criteria that the committee uses when they choose a recipient of the prize; and that the adherence to Nobel's will should be more strict. In the article, Norwegian historian Øivind Stenersen argues that Norway has been able to use the prize as an instrument for nation building and furthering Norway's foreign policy and economic interests. In another 2011 Aftenposten opinion article, the grandson of one of Nobel's two brothers, Michael Nobel, also criticised what he believed to be the politicisation of the award, claiming that the Nobel Committee has not always acted in accordance with Nobel's will. Norwegian lawyer Fredrik S. Heffermehl has criticized the management of the Peace Prize. Criticism of individual conferments [ edit ] Main article: Nobel Prize controversies Barack Obama with Thorbjørn Jagland at the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize ceremony From left-to-right, Yasser Arafat, Shimon Peres and Yitzhak Rabin receiving the 1994 Nobel Peace Prize following the Oslo Accords Nobel Peace Prize 2001 United Nations - diploma in the lobby of the United Nations Headquarters in New York City The awards given to Mikhail Gorbachev , Yitzhak Rabin , Shimon Peres , Menachem Begin and Yasser Arafat , Lê Đức Thọ , Henry Kissinger , Jimmy Carter , Al Gore , IPCC , Liu Xiaobo , Aung San Suu Kyi Barack Obama , and the European Union have all been the subject of controversy. The awards given to Lê Đức Thọ and Henry Kissinger prompted two dissenting Committee members to resign. Thọ refused to accept the prize, on the grounds that such "bourgeois sentimentalities" were not for him and that peace had not actually been achieved in Vietnam. Kissinger donated his prize money to charity, did not attend the award ceremony and would later offer to return his prize medal after the fall of South Vietnam to North Vietnamese forces 18 months later. Notable omissions [ edit ] Foreign Policy has listed Mahatma Gandhi , Eleanor Roosevelt , U Thant , Václav Havel , Ken Saro-Wiwa , Fazle Hasan Abed , Sari Nusseibeh , and Corazon Aquino as people who "never won the prize, but should have". Other notable omissions that have drawn criticism include Pope John Paul II , Hélder Câmara , and Dorothy Day . Both Eleanor Roosevelt and Dorothy Day were recipients of the Gandhi Peace Award . The omission of Mahatma Gandhi has been particularly widely discussed, including in public statements by various members of the Nobel Committee. The Committee has confirmed that Gandhi was nominated in 1937, 1938, 1939, 1947, and, finally, a few days before his assassination in January 1948. The omission has been publicly regretted by later members of the Nobel Committee. Geir Lundestad , Secretary of Norwegian Nobel Committee in 2006 said, "The greatest omission in our 106-year history is undoubtedly that Mahatma Gandhi never received the Nobel Peace prize. Gandhi could do without the Nobel Peace prize, whether Nobel committee can do without Gandhi is the question". In 1948, following Gandhi's death, the Nobel Committee declined to award a prize on the ground that "there was no suitable living candidate" that year. Later, when the Dalai Lama was awarded the Peace Prize in 1989, the chairman of the committee said that this was "in part a tribute to the memory of Mahatma Gandhi". List of Nobel Peace Prize laureates [ edit ] Main article: List of Nobel Peace Prize laureates As of 2016 [update] , the Peace Prize has been awarded to 104 individuals and 23 organizations. Sixteen women have won the Nobel Peace Prize, more than any other Nobel Prize. Only two recipients have won multiple Prizes: the International Committee of the Red Cross has won three times (1917, 1944, and 1963) and the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees has won twice (1954 and 1981). Lê Đức Thọ is the only person who refused to accept the Nobel Peace Prize. See also [ edit ] List of peace prizes List of Nobel laureates Nobel Foundation Nobel Museum Nobel Peace Center Nobel Peace Prize Concert Nobel Women's Initiative World Summit of Nobel Peace Laureates List of peace activists Ramon Magsaysay Award Indira Gandhi Peace Prize Confucius Peace Prize References [ edit ] External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Nobel Peace Prize . "The Nobel Peace Prize" – Official webpage of the Norwegian Nobel Committee "The Nobel Peace Prize" at the official site of the Nobel Prize "All Nobel Laureates in Peace" "The Nobel Prize Award Ceremonies" World Summit of Nobel Peace Laureates , official site with information on annual summits beginning in 1999 "National Peace Nobel Prize shares 1901–2009 by citizenship (or home of organization) at the time of the award." – From J. Schmidhuber (2010): Evolution of National Nobel Prize Shares in the 20th Century at arXiv:1009.2634v1 " South Africa is one of the most unequal societies in the world ", article published in Global Education Magazine , by Mr. Frederik Willem de Klerk, Nobel Peace Prize 1993, in the special edition of International Day for the Eradication of Poverty (17 October 2012) Martin Luther King, Jr.'s Nobel Peace Prize , Civil Rights Digital Library The Nobel Peace Prize Watch , the main project of The Lay Down your Arms Association

train

when is the nobel prize for literature awarded

The laureate is also invited to give a lecture during `` Nobel Week '' in Stockholm ; the highlight is the prize - giving ceremony and banquet on 10 December. It is the richest literary prize in the world by a large margin.

['progress']

ìgbà wo ni wọ́n máa ń fúnni ní ẹ̀bùn nobel fún ìwé kíkọ

Yes

['Ẹ̀bùn Nobel nínú Lítíréṣọ̀ (Àdàkọ:Lang-sv) jẹ́ ẹ̀bùn ọlọ́dọọdún, láti 1901, tí wọ́n máa ń fun àwọn oǹkọ̀wé láti orílẹ̀-èdè yìówù tí wá, gẹ́gẹ́ bí ogun Alfred Nobel ṣe sọ, o se "ninu papa litireso ise pataki lona to daa" (ni ede Sweden: den som inom litteraturen har producerat det utmärktaste i idealisk riktning). Akademi Swidin lo n pinnu tani, ti onitoun ba wa, yio gba ebun na ninu odun kan, won si n sekede oruko onitoun ninu osu kewa odun.']

['Ẹ̀bùn Nobel nínú Lítíréṣọ̀ (Àdàkọ:Lang-sv) jẹ́ ẹ̀bùn ọlọ́dọọdún, láti 1901, won si n sekede oruko onitoun ninu osu kewa odun.']

['P1']

??bùn Nobel nínú Lítíré??? ??bùn Nobel nínú Lítíré??? j?? ??bùn ?l??d??dún, láti o?du?n 1901, tí w??n máa ? fun àw?n o?k??wé láti oríl??-èdè yìówù tí wá, g??g?? bí ogun Alfred Nobel ?e s?, o se "ninu papa litireso ise pataki lona to daa".[1][2] Akademi Swidin lo n pinnu tani, ti onitoun ba wa, yio gba ebun na ninu odun kan, won si n sekede oruko onitoun ninu osu kewa odun.[3]

Nobel Prize in Literature Announcement of the Nobel Prize laureate in literature, 2008 Awarded for Outstanding contributions in literature Country Sweden Presented by Swedish Academy Reward(s) 9 million SEK (2017) First awarded 1901 Currently held by Kazuo Ishiguro (2017) Website nobelprize.org ← 2016 The Nobel Prize in Literature ( Swedish : Nobelpriset i litteratur ) has been awarded annually, since 1901, to an author from any country who has, in the words of the will of Alfred Nobel , produced "in the field of literature the most outstanding work in an ideal direction" (original Swedish: den som inom litteraturen har producerat det mest framstående verket i en idealisk riktning ). Though individual works are sometimes cited as being particularly noteworthy, here "work" refers to an author's work as a whole. The Swedish Academy decides who, if anyone, will receive the prize in any given year. The academy announces the name of the chosen laureate in early October. It is one of the five Nobel Prizes established by the will of Alfred Nobel in 1895; the others are the Nobel Prize in Chemistry , Nobel Prize in Physics , Nobel Peace Prize , and Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine . Although the Nobel Prize in Literature has become the world's most prestigious literature prize, the Swedish Academy has attracted significant criticism for its handling of the award. Many authors who have won the prize have fallen into obscurity, while others rejected by the jury remain widely studied and read. The prize has "become widely seen as a political one - a peace prize in literary disguise", whose judges are prejudiced against authors with different political tastes to them. Tim Parks has expressed skepticism that it is possible for "Swedish professors ... [to] compar[e] a poet from Indonesia, perhaps translated into English with a novelist from Cameroon, perhaps available only in French, and another who writes in Afrikaans but is published in German and Dutch...". As of 2016, 16 of the 113 recipients have been of Scandinavian origin. The Academy has often been alleged to be biased towards European, and in particular Swedish, authors. Some, such as Indian academic Sabaree Mitra, have noted that, though the Nobel Prize in Literature is significant and tends to overshadow other awards, it is "not the only benchmark of literary excellence." Nobel's "vague" wording for the criteria for the prize has led to recurrent controversy. In the original Swedish, the word idealisk translates as either "idealistic" or "ideal". The Nobel Committee 's interpretation has varied over the years. In recent years, this means a kind of idealism championing human rights on a broad scale. Contents [ hide ] 1 Background 2 Nomination procedure 3 Prizes 3.1 Nobel Prize Medals 3.2 Nobel Prize Diplomas 4 Laureates 4.1 Potential candidates 5 Criticism 5.1 Controversies about Nobel Laureate selections 5.2 Nationality-based criticism 5.3 Overlooked literary achievements 6 Similar international prizes 7 See also 8 References 9 External links Background [ edit ] In 1901, French poet and essayist Sully Prudhomme (1839–1907) was the first person to be awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, "in special recognition of his poetic composition, which gives evidence of lofty idealism, artistic perfection and a rare combination of the qualities of both heart and intellect." Alfred Nobel stipulated in his last will and testament that his money be used to create a series of prizes for those who confer the "greatest benefit on mankind" in physics , chemistry , peace , physiology or medicine , and literature . Though Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime, the last was written a little over a year before he died, and signed at the Swedish-Norwegian Club in Paris on 27 November 1895. Nobel bequeathed 94% of his total assets, 31 million Swedish kronor ( US $198 million, € 176 million in 2016), to establish and endow the five Nobel Prizes. Due to the level of scepticism surrounding the will, it was not until 26 April 1897 that the Storting (Norwegian Parliament) approved it. The executors of his will were Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, who formed the Nobel Foundation to take care of Nobel's fortune and organize the prizes. The members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee that were to award the Peace Prize were appointed shortly after the will was approved. The prize-awarding organisations followed: the Karolinska Institutet on 7 June, the Swedish Academy on 9 June, and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences on 11 June. The Nobel Foundation then reached an agreement on guidelines for how the Nobel Prize should be awarded. In 1900, the Nobel Foundation's newly created statutes were promulgated by King Oscar II . According to Nobel's will, the Royal Swedish Academy was to award the Prize in Literature. Nomination procedure [ edit ] Each year, the Swedish Academy sends out requests for nominations of candidates for the Nobel Prize in Literature . Members of the Academy, members of literature academies and societies, professors of literature and language, former Nobel literature laureates, and the presidents of writers' organizations are all allowed to nominate a candidate. It is not permitted to nominate oneself. Thousands of requests are sent out each year, and as of 2011 [update] about 220 proposals are returned. These proposals must be received by the Academy by 1 February, after which they are examined by the Nobel Committee. By April, the Academy narrows the field to around twenty candidates. By May, a short list of five names is approved by the Committee. The subsequent four months are then spent in reading and reviewing the works of the five candidates. In October, members of the Academy vote and the candidate who receives more than half of the votes is named the Nobel laureate in Literature. No one can get the prize without being on the list at least twice, thus many of the same authors reappear and are reviewed repeatedly over the years. The academy is master of thirteen languages, but when a candidate is shortlisted from an unknown language, they call on translators and oath-sworn experts to provide samples of that writer. Other elements of the process are similar to that of other Nobel Prizes. Prizes [ edit ] A Literature Nobel Prize laureate earns a gold medal , a diploma bearing a citation , and a sum of money. The amount of money awarded depends on the income of the Nobel Foundation that year. If a prize is awarded to more than one laureate, the money is either split evenly among them or, for three laureates, it may be divided into a half and two quarters. If a prize is awarded jointly to two or more laureates, the money is split among them. The prize money of the Nobel Prize has been fluctuating since its inauguration but as of 2012 [update] it stood at kr 8,000,000 (about US$ 1,100,000), previously it was kr 10,000,000. This was not the first time the prize-amount was decreased—beginning with a nominal value of kr 150,782 in 1901 (worth 8,123,951 in 2011 SEK) the nominal value has been as low as kr 121,333 (2,370,660 in 2011 SEK) in 1945—but it has been uphill or stable since then, peaking at an SEK-2011 value of 11,659,016 in 2001. The laureate is also invited to give a lecture during "Nobel Week" in Stockholm ; the highlight is the prize-giving ceremony and banquet on 10 December. It is the richest literary prize in the world by a large margin. Nobel Prize Medals [ edit ] The Nobel Prize medals, minted by Myntverket in Sweden and the Mint of Norway since 1902, are registered trademarks of the Nobel Foundation. Each medal features an image of Alfred Nobel in left profile on the obverse (front side of the medal). The Nobel Prize medals for Physics, Chemistry, Physiology or Medicine, and Literature have identical obverses, showing the image of Alfred Nobel and the years of his birth and death (1833–1896). Nobel's portrait also appears on the obverse of the Nobel Peace Prize medal and the Medal for the Prize in Economics, but with a slightly different design. The image on the reverse of a medal varies according to the institution awarding the prize. The reverse sides of the Nobel Prize medals for Chemistry and Physics share the same design. The medal for the Nobel Prize in Literature was designed by Erik Lindberg . Nobel Prize Diplomas [ edit ] Nobel laureates receive a Diploma directly from the King of Sweden. Each Diploma is uniquely designed by the prize-awarding institutions for the laureate that receives it. The Diploma contains a picture and text that states the name of the laureate and normally a citation of why they received the prize. Laureates [ edit ] Main article: List of Nobel laureates in Literature Potential candidates [ edit ] Potential recipients of the Nobel Prize in Literature are difficult to predict as nominations are kept secret for fifty years until they are publicly available at The Nomination Database for the Nobel Prize in Literature. Currently, only nominations submitted between 1901 and 1965 are available for public viewing. This secrecy has led to speculation about the next Nobel laureate. What about the rumours circling around the world about certain people being nominated for the Nobel Prize this year? - Well, either it's just a rumour, or someone among the invited nominators has leaked information. Since the nominations are kept secret for 50 years, you'll have to wait until then to find out. — www.nobelprize.org , in Nomination FAQ - Frequently Asked Questions about the Nomination and Selection of Nobel Laureates According to Professor Göran Malmqvist of the Swedish Academy , Chinese writer Shen Congwen was to have been awarded the 1988 Nobel Prize in Literature, had he not suddenly died that year. Criticism [ edit ] Controversies about Nobel Laureate selections [ edit ] Selma Lagerlöf , the first female writer to be awarded a Nobel Prize in literature, faced major controversies. Illustration from Svenska Dagbladet , 11 December 1909 From 1901 to 1912, the committee, headed by the conservative Carl David af Wirsén , weighed the literary quality of a work against its contribution towards humanity's struggle 'toward the ideal'. Tolstoy , Ibsen , Zola , and Mark Twain were rejected in favor of authors little read today. Also, many believe Sweden's historic antipathy towards Russia is the reason neither Tolstoy nor Anton Chekhov were awarded the prize. [ citation needed ] During World War I and its immediate aftermath, the committee adopted a policy of neutrality, favouring writers from non-combatant countries. August Strindberg was repeatedly bypassed by the committee, but holds the singular distinction of being awarded an Anti-Nobel Prize, conferred by popular acclaim and national subscription and presented to him in 1912 by future prime minister Hjalmar Branting . James Joyce wrote the books that rank 1st and 3rd on the Modern Library 100 Best Novels – Ulysses and Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man – but Joyce never won; as biographer Gordon Bowker wrote, "That prize was just out of Joyce's reach." The academy considered Czech writer Karel Čapek 's War With the Newts too offensive to the German government. He also declined to suggest some noncontroversial publication that could be cited as an example of his work, stating "Thank you for the good will, but I have already written my doctoral dissertation". He was thus denied the prize. The choice of Selma Lagerlöf (Sweden 1858–1940) as Nobel Laureate in 1909 (for the 'lofty idealism, vivid imagination and spiritual perception that characterizes her writings' ) followed fierce debate because of her writing style and subject matter, which broke literary decorums of the time. According to Swedish Academy archives studied by the newspaper Le Monde on their opening in 2008, French novelist and intellectual André Malraux was seriously considered for the prize in the 1950s. Malraux was competing with Albert Camus but was rejected several times, especially in 1954 and 1955, "so long as he does not come back to novel". Thus, Camus was awarded the prize in 1957. Some attribute W. H. Auden 's not being awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature to errors in his translation of 1961 Peace Prize laureate Dag Hammarskjöld 's Vägmärken (Markings) and to statements that Auden made during a Scandinavian lecture tour suggesting that Hammarskjöld was, like Auden, homosexual . In 1962, John Steinbeck received the Nobel Prize for Literature. The selection was heavily criticized, and described as "one of the Academy's biggest mistakes" in one Swedish newspaper. The New York Times asked why the Nobel committee gave the award to an author whose "limited talent is, in his best books, watered down by tenth-rate philosophising", adding, "we think it interesting that the laurel was not awarded to a writer ... whose significance, influence and sheer body of work had already made a more profound impression on the literature of our age". Steinbeck himself, when asked if he deserved the Nobel on the day of the announcement, replied: "Frankly, no." In 2012 (50 years later), the Nobel Prize opened its archives and it was revealed that Steinbeck was a "compromise choice" among a shortlist consisting of Steinbeck, British authors Robert Graves and Lawrence Durrell , French dramatist Jean Anouilh and Danish author Karen Blixen . The declassified documents showed that he was chosen as the best of a bad lot: "There aren't any obvious candidates for the Nobel prize and the prize committee is in an unenviable situation," wrote committee member Henry Olsson. In 1964, Jean-Paul Sartre was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, but he declined it, stating that "It is not the same thing if I sign Jean-Paul Sartre or if I sign Jean-Paul Sartre, Nobel Prize laureate. A writer must refuse to allow himself to be transformed into an institution, even if it takes place in the most honorable form." Soviet dissident writer Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn , the 1970 prize laureate, did not attend the Nobel Prize ceremony in Stockholm for fear that the USSR would prevent his return afterwards (his works there were circulated in samizdat —clandestine form). After the Swedish government refused to honor Solzhenitsyn with a public award ceremony and lecture at its Moscow embassy, Solzhenitsyn refused the award altogether, commenting that the conditions set by the Swedes (who preferred a private ceremony) were "an insult to the Nobel Prize itself." Solzhenitsyn did not accept the award and prize money until 10 December 1974, after he was deported from the Soviet Union. In 1974, Graham Greene , Vladimir Nabokov , and Saul Bellow were considered but rejected in favor of a joint award for Swedish authors Eyvind Johnson and Harry Martinson , both members of the Swedish Academy at the time, and unknown outside their home country. Bellow received the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1976; neither Greene nor Nabokov was awarded it. Argentine writer Jorge Luis Borges was nominated for the Prize several times but, as Edwin Williamson, Borges's biographer, states, the Academy did not award it to him, most likely because of his support of certain Argentine and Chilean right-wing military dictators, including Augusto Pinochet , which, according to Tóibín's review of Williamson's Borges: A Life , had complex social and personal contexts. Borges' failure to receive the Nobel Prize for his support of these right-wing dictators contrasts with the Committee honoring writers who openly supported controversial left-wing dictatorships, including Joseph Stalin , in the cases of Sartre and Pablo Neruda , Also, controversially, Gabriel García Márquez supported the Cuban Revolutionary and President Fidel Castro . The award to Italian performance artist Dario Fo in 1997 was initially considered "rather lightweight" by some critics, as he was seen primarily as a performer, and Catholic organizations saw the award to Fo as controversial as he had previously been censured by the Roman Catholic Church . The Vatican newspaper L'Osservatore Romano expressed surprise at Fo's selection for the prize commenting that "Giving the prize to someone who is also the author of questionable works is beyond all imagination." Salman Rushdie and Arthur Miller had been strongly favoured to receive the Prize, but the Nobel organisers were later quoted as saying that they would have been "too predictable, too popular." Camilo José Cela willingly offered his services as an informer for Franco 's regime and had moved voluntarily from Madrid to Galicia during the Spanish Civil War in order to join the rebel forces there; an article by Miguel Angel Villena, Between Fear and Impunity which compiled commentaries by Spanish novelists on the noteworthy silence of the older generation of Spanish novelists on the Francoist pasts of public intellectuals, appeared below a photograph of Cela during the Nobel ceremony in Stockholm in 1989. The choice of the 2004 laureate, Elfriede Jelinek , was protested by a member of the Swedish Academy, Knut Ahnlund , who had not played an active role in the Academy since 1996; Ahnlund resigned, alleging that selecting Jelinek had caused "irreparable damage" to the reputation of the award. The selection of Harold Pinter for the Prize in 2005 was delayed for a couple of days, apparently due to Ahnlund's resignation, and led to renewed speculations about there being a "political element" in the Swedish Academy's awarding of the Prize. Although Pinter was unable to give his controversial Nobel Lecture in person because of ill health, he delivered it from a television studio on video projected on screens to an audience at the Swedish Academy , in Stockholm . His comments have been the source of much commentary and debate. The issue of their "political stance" was also raised in response to the awards of the Nobel Prize in Literature to Orhan Pamuk and Doris Lessing in 2006 and 2007, respectively. The 2016 choice of Bob Dylan was the first time a musician and song-writer won the Nobel for Literature. The award caused some controversy, particularly among writers arguing that the literary merits of Dylan’s work are not equal to those of some of his peers. Lebanese novelist Rabih Alameddine tweeted that "Bob Dylan winning a Nobel in Literature is like Mrs Fields being awarded 3 Michelin stars." The French Moroccan writer Pierre Assouline described the decision "contemptuous of writers". In a live webchat hosted by The Guardian , Norwegian writer Karl Ove Knausgård said that "I’m very divided. I love that the novel committee opens up for other kinds of literature – lyrics and so on. I think that’s brilliant. But knowing that Dylan is the same generation as Thomas Pynchon , Philip Roth , Cormac McCarthy , makes it very difficult for me to accept it." Scottish novelist Irvine Welsh said "I'm a Dylan fan, but this is an ill conceived nostalgia award wrenched from the rancid prostates of senile, gibbering hippies." Dylan's songwriting peer and friend Leonard Cohen said that no prizes were necessary to recognize the greatness of the man who transformed pop music with records like Highway 61 Revisited . "To me," Cohen said, "[the Nobel] is like pinning a medal on Mount Everest for being the highest mountain." Writer and commentator Will Self wrote that the award "cheapened" Dylan whilst hoping the laureate would "follow Sartre in rejecting the award". Nationality-based criticism [ edit ] French author Albert Camus was the first African-born writer to receive the award. The prize's focus on European men, and Swedes in particular, has been the subject of criticism, even from Swedish newspapers. The majority of laureates have been European, with Sweden itself receiving more prizes (8) than all of Asia (7, if Orhan Pamuk is included), as well as all of Latin America (7, if Derek Walcott is included). In 2009, Horace Engdahl , then the permanent secretary of the Academy, declared that "Europe still is the center of the literary world" and that "the US is too isolated, too insular. They don't translate enough and don't really participate in the big dialogue of literature." In 2009, Engdahl's replacement, Peter Englund , rejected this sentiment ("In most language areas ... there are authors that really deserve and could get the Nobel Prize and that goes for the United States and the Americas, as well") and acknowledged the Eurocentric nature of the award, saying that, "I think that is a problem. We tend to relate more easily to literature written in Europe and in the European tradition." American critics are known to object that those from their own country, like Philip Roth , Thomas Pynchon , and Cormac McCarthy , have been overlooked, as have Latin Americans such as Jorge Luis Borges , Julio Cortázar , and Carlos Fuentes , while in their place Europeans lesser-known to that continent have triumphed. The 2009 award to Herta Müller , previously little-known outside Germany but many times named favorite for the Nobel Prize, re-ignited the viewpoint that the Swedish Academy was biased and Eurocentric . However, the 2010 prize was awarded to Mario Vargas Llosa , a native of Peru in South America . When the 2011 prize was awarded to the eminent Swedish poet Tomas Tranströmer , permanent secretary of the Swedish Academy Peter Englund said the prize was not decided based on politics, describing such a notion as "literature for dummies". The Swedish Academy awarded the next two prizes to non-Europeans, Chinese author Mo Yan and Canadian short story writer Alice Munro . French writer Patrick Modiano 's win in 2014 renewed questions of Eurocentrism; when asked by The Wall Street Journal "So no American this year, yet again. Why is that?", Englund reminded Americans of the Canadian origins of the previous year's winner, the Academy's desire for literary quality and the impossibility of rewarding everyone who deserves the prize. Overlooked literary achievements [ edit ] In the history of the Nobel Prize in Literature, many literary achievements were overlooked. The literary historian Kjell Espmark admitted that "as to the early prizes, the censure of bad choices and blatant omissions is often justified. Tolstoy , Ibsen , and Henry James should have been rewarded instead of, for instance, Sully Prudhomme , Eucken , and Heyse ". There are omissions which are beyond the control of the Nobel Committee such as the early death of an author as was the case with Marcel Proust , Italo Calvino , and Roberto Bolaño . According to Kjell Espmark "the main works of Kafka , Cavafy , and Pessoa were not published until after their deaths and the true dimensions of Mandelstam's poetry were revealed above all in the unpublished poems that his wife saved from extinction and gave to the world long after he had perished in his Siberian exile". British novelist Tim Parks ascribed the never-ending controversy surrounding the decisions of the Nobel Committee to the "essential silliness of the prize and our own foolishness at taking it seriously" and noted that "eighteen (or sixteen) Swedish nationals will have a certain credibility when weighing up works of Swedish literature, but what group could ever really get its mind round the infinitely varied work of scores of different traditions. And why should we ask them to do that?" Similar international prizes [ edit ] The Nobel Prize in Literature is not the only literary prize for which all nationalities are eligible. Other notable international literary prizes include the Neustadt International Prize for Literature , the Franz Kafka Prize , the Man Booker International Prize , and the recently reinstated Formentor Prize . In contrast to the other prizes mentioned, the Neustadt International Prize is awarded biennially. The journalist Hephzibah Anderson has noted that the Man Booker International Prize "is fast becoming the more significant award, appearing an ever more competent alternative to the Nobel". The Man Booker International Prize "highlights one writer's overall contribution to fiction on the world stage" and "has literary excellence as its sole focus". Established in 2005, it is not yet possible to analyze its importance on potential future Nobel Prize in Literature laureates. Only Alice Munro (2009) has been awarded with both. However, some winners of the Man Booker International Prize, such as Ismail Kadare (2005) and Philip Roth (2011) are considered contenders for the Nobel Prize in Literature. [ citation needed ] The Neustadt International Prize for Literature is regarded as one of the most prestigious international literary prizes, often referred to as the American equivalent to the Nobel Prize. Like the Nobel or the Man Booker International Prize, it is awarded not for any one work, but for an entire body of work. It is frequently seen as an indicator of who may be awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature. Gabriel García Márquez (1972 Neustadt, 1982 Nobel), Czesław Miłosz (1978 Neustadt, 1980 Nobel), Octavio Paz (1982 Neustadt, 1990 Nobel), Tomas Tranströmer (1990 Neustadt, 2011 Nobel) were first awarded the Neustadt International Prize for Literature before being awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature. Another award of note is the Spanish Princess of Asturias Award (formerly Prince of Asturias Award) in Letters. During the first years of its existence it was almost exclusively awarded to writers in the Spanish language, but in more recent times writers in other languages have been awarded as well. Writers who have won both the Asturias Award in Letters and the Nobel Prize in Literature include Camilo José Cela , Günter Grass , Doris Lessing , and Mario Vargas Llosa . The America Award in Literature , which does not include a monetary prize, presents itself as an alternative to the Nobel Prize in Literature. To date, Harold Pinter and José Saramago are the only writers to have received both the America Award and the Nobel Prize in Literature. There are also prizes for honouring the lifetime achievement of writers in specific languages, like the Miguel de Cervantes Prize (for Spanish language, established in 1976) and the Camões Prize (for Portuguese language, established in 1989). Nobel laureates who were also awarded the Miguel de Cervantes Prize include Octavio Paz (1981 Cervantes, 1990 Nobel); Mario Vargas Llosa (1994 Cervantes, 2010 Nobel); and Camilo José Cela (1995 Cervantes, 1989 Nobel). José Saramago is the only author to receive both the Camões Prize (1995) and the Nobel Prize (1998) to date. The Hans Christian Andersen Award is sometimes referred to as "the Little Nobel." The award has earned this appellation since, in a similar manner to the Nobel Prize in Literature, it recognizes the lifetime achievement of writers, though the Andersen Award focuses on a single category of literary works ( children's literature ). See also [ edit ] List of literary awards List of Nobel laureates List of Nobel laureates in Literature Nobel Library Swedish Academy Nordic Prize World literature References [ edit ] External links [ edit ] Wikisource has original works on the topic: Nobel Prize in Literature Wikimedia Commons has media related to Nobel Prize in Literature . The Nobel Prize Medal for Literature – Official webpage of the Nobel Foundation. Graphics: National Literature Nobel Prize shares 1901-2009 by citizenship at the time of the award and by country of birth . From J. Schmidhuber (2010), Evolution of National Nobel Prize Shares in the 20th Century at arXiv:1009.2634v1 What the Nobel Laureates Receive – Featured link in "The Nobel Prize Award Ceremonies" on the official site of the Nobel Foundation. "The rise of the Prize" - Article by Nilanjana S. Roy dealing with the history of the award by decade, from the 1900s to the 2000s.

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why is the nobel prize for literature awarded

The Nobel Prize in Literature (Swedish : Nobelpriset i litteratur) has been awarded annually, since 1901, to an author from any country who has, in the words of the will of Alfred Nobel, produced `` in the field of literature the most outstanding work in an ideal direction '' (original Swedish : den som inom litteraturen har producerat det mest framstående verket i en idealisk riktning). Though individual works are sometimes cited as being particularly noteworthy, here `` work '' refers to an author 's work as a whole. The Swedish Academy decides who, if anyone, will receive the prize in any given year. The academy announces the name of the chosen laureate in early October. It is one of the five Nobel Prizes established by the will of Alfred Nobel in 1895 ; the others are the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, Nobel Prize in Physics, Nobel Peace Prize, and Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.

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kíni ìdí tí wọ́n fi ń fúnni ní ẹ̀bùn nobel fún ìwé kíkọ

Yes

['Ẹ̀bùn Nobel nínú Lítíréṣọ̀ (Àdàkọ:Lang-sv) jẹ́ ẹ̀bùn ọlọ́dọọdún, láti 1901, tí wọ́n máa ń fun àwọn oǹkọ̀wé láti orílẹ̀-èdè yìówù tí wá, gẹ́gẹ́ bí ogun Alfred Nobel ṣe sọ, o se "ninu papa litireso ise pataki lona to daa" (ni ede Sweden: den som inom litteraturen har producerat det utmärktaste i idealisk riktning). Akademi Swidin lo n pinnu tani, ti onitoun ba wa, yio gba ebun na ninu odun kan, won si n sekede oruko onitoun ninu osu kewa odun.']

['Ẹ̀bùn Nobel nínú Lítíréṣọ̀ (Àdàkọ:Lang-sv) jẹ́ ẹ̀bùn ọlọ́dọọdún, láti 1901, tí wọ́n máa ń fun àwọn oǹkọ̀wé láti orílẹ̀-èdè yìówù tí wá, gẹ́gẹ́ bí ogun Alfred Nobel ṣe sọ, o se "ninu papa litireso ise pataki lona to daa" ', 'Ẹ̀bùn Nobel nínú Lítíréṣọ̀ jẹ́ ẹ̀bùn ọlọ́dọọdún, láti 1901, tí wọ́n máa ń fun àwọn oǹkọ̀wé láti orílẹ̀-èdè yìówù tí wá, gẹ́gẹ́ bí ogun Alfred Nobel ṣe sọ, o se "ninu papa litireso ise pataki lona to daa"']

['P1']

??bùn Nobel nínú Lítíré??? ??bùn Nobel nínú Lítíré??? j?? ??bùn ?l??d??dún, láti o?du?n 1901, tí w??n máa ? fun àw?n o?k??wé láti oríl??-èdè yìówù tí wá, g??g?? bí ogun Alfred Nobel ?e s?, o se "ninu papa litireso ise pataki lona to daa".[1][2] Akademi Swidin lo n pinnu tani, ti onitoun ba wa, yio gba ebun na ninu odun kan, won si n sekede oruko onitoun ninu osu kewa odun.[3]

Nobel Prize in Literature Announcement of the Nobel Prize laureate in literature, 2008 Awarded for Outstanding contributions in literature Country Sweden Presented by Swedish Academy Reward(s) 9 million SEK (2017) First awarded 1901 Currently held by Kazuo Ishiguro (2017) Website nobelprize.org ← 2016 The Nobel Prize in Literature ( Swedish : Nobelpriset i litteratur ) has been awarded annually, since 1901, to an author from any country who has, in the words of the will of Alfred Nobel , produced "in the field of literature the most outstanding work in an ideal direction" (original Swedish: den som inom litteraturen har producerat det mest framstående verket i en idealisk riktning ). Though individual works are sometimes cited as being particularly noteworthy, here "work" refers to an author's work as a whole. The Swedish Academy decides who, if anyone, will receive the prize in any given year. The academy announces the name of the chosen laureate in early October. It is one of the five Nobel Prizes established by the will of Alfred Nobel in 1895; the others are the Nobel Prize in Chemistry , Nobel Prize in Physics , Nobel Peace Prize , and Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine . Although the Nobel Prize in Literature has become the world's most prestigious literature prize, the Swedish Academy has attracted significant criticism for its handling of the award. Many authors who have won the prize have fallen into obscurity, while others rejected by the jury remain widely studied and read. The prize has "become widely seen as a political one - a peace prize in literary disguise", whose judges are prejudiced against authors with different political tastes to them. Tim Parks has expressed skepticism that it is possible for "Swedish professors ... [to] compar[e] a poet from Indonesia, perhaps translated into English with a novelist from Cameroon, perhaps available only in French, and another who writes in Afrikaans but is published in German and Dutch...". As of 2016, 16 of the 113 recipients have been of Scandinavian origin. The Academy has often been alleged to be biased towards European, and in particular Swedish, authors. Some, such as Indian academic Sabaree Mitra, have noted that, though the Nobel Prize in Literature is significant and tends to overshadow other awards, it is "not the only benchmark of literary excellence." Nobel's "vague" wording for the criteria for the prize has led to recurrent controversy. In the original Swedish, the word idealisk translates as either "idealistic" or "ideal". The Nobel Committee 's interpretation has varied over the years. In recent years, this means a kind of idealism championing human rights on a broad scale. Contents [ hide ] 1 Background 2 Nomination procedure 3 Prizes 3.1 Nobel Prize Medals 3.2 Nobel Prize Diplomas 4 Laureates 4.1 Potential candidates 5 Criticism 5.1 Controversies about Nobel Laureate selections 5.2 Nationality-based criticism 5.3 Overlooked literary achievements 6 Similar international prizes 7 See also 8 References 9 External links Background [ edit ] In 1901, French poet and essayist Sully Prudhomme (1839–1907) was the first person to be awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, "in special recognition of his poetic composition, which gives evidence of lofty idealism, artistic perfection and a rare combination of the qualities of both heart and intellect." Alfred Nobel stipulated in his last will and testament that his money be used to create a series of prizes for those who confer the "greatest benefit on mankind" in physics , chemistry , peace , physiology or medicine , and literature . Though Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime, the last was written a little over a year before he died, and signed at the Swedish-Norwegian Club in Paris on 27 November 1895. Nobel bequeathed 94% of his total assets, 31 million Swedish kronor ( US $198 million, € 176 million in 2016), to establish and endow the five Nobel Prizes. Due to the level of scepticism surrounding the will, it was not until 26 April 1897 that the Storting (Norwegian Parliament) approved it. The executors of his will were Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, who formed the Nobel Foundation to take care of Nobel's fortune and organize the prizes. The members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee that were to award the Peace Prize were appointed shortly after the will was approved. The prize-awarding organisations followed: the Karolinska Institutet on 7 June, the Swedish Academy on 9 June, and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences on 11 June. The Nobel Foundation then reached an agreement on guidelines for how the Nobel Prize should be awarded. In 1900, the Nobel Foundation's newly created statutes were promulgated by King Oscar II . According to Nobel's will, the Royal Swedish Academy was to award the Prize in Literature. Nomination procedure [ edit ] Each year, the Swedish Academy sends out requests for nominations of candidates for the Nobel Prize in Literature . Members of the Academy, members of literature academies and societies, professors of literature and language, former Nobel literature laureates, and the presidents of writers' organizations are all allowed to nominate a candidate. It is not permitted to nominate oneself. Thousands of requests are sent out each year, and as of 2011 [update] about 220 proposals are returned. These proposals must be received by the Academy by 1 February, after which they are examined by the Nobel Committee. By April, the Academy narrows the field to around twenty candidates. By May, a short list of five names is approved by the Committee. The subsequent four months are then spent in reading and reviewing the works of the five candidates. In October, members of the Academy vote and the candidate who receives more than half of the votes is named the Nobel laureate in Literature. No one can get the prize without being on the list at least twice, thus many of the same authors reappear and are reviewed repeatedly over the years. The academy is master of thirteen languages, but when a candidate is shortlisted from an unknown language, they call on translators and oath-sworn experts to provide samples of that writer. Other elements of the process are similar to that of other Nobel Prizes. Prizes [ edit ] A Literature Nobel Prize laureate earns a gold medal , a diploma bearing a citation , and a sum of money. The amount of money awarded depends on the income of the Nobel Foundation that year. If a prize is awarded to more than one laureate, the money is either split evenly among them or, for three laureates, it may be divided into a half and two quarters. If a prize is awarded jointly to two or more laureates, the money is split among them. The prize money of the Nobel Prize has been fluctuating since its inauguration but as of 2012 [update] it stood at kr 8,000,000 (about US$ 1,100,000), previously it was kr 10,000,000. This was not the first time the prize-amount was decreased—beginning with a nominal value of kr 150,782 in 1901 (worth 8,123,951 in 2011 SEK) the nominal value has been as low as kr 121,333 (2,370,660 in 2011 SEK) in 1945—but it has been uphill or stable since then, peaking at an SEK-2011 value of 11,659,016 in 2001. The laureate is also invited to give a lecture during "Nobel Week" in Stockholm ; the highlight is the prize-giving ceremony and banquet on 10 December. It is the richest literary prize in the world by a large margin. Nobel Prize Medals [ edit ] The Nobel Prize medals, minted by Myntverket in Sweden and the Mint of Norway since 1902, are registered trademarks of the Nobel Foundation. Each medal features an image of Alfred Nobel in left profile on the obverse (front side of the medal). The Nobel Prize medals for Physics, Chemistry, Physiology or Medicine, and Literature have identical obverses, showing the image of Alfred Nobel and the years of his birth and death (1833–1896). Nobel's portrait also appears on the obverse of the Nobel Peace Prize medal and the Medal for the Prize in Economics, but with a slightly different design. The image on the reverse of a medal varies according to the institution awarding the prize. The reverse sides of the Nobel Prize medals for Chemistry and Physics share the same design. The medal for the Nobel Prize in Literature was designed by Erik Lindberg . Nobel Prize Diplomas [ edit ] Nobel laureates receive a Diploma directly from the King of Sweden. Each Diploma is uniquely designed by the prize-awarding institutions for the laureate that receives it. The Diploma contains a picture and text that states the name of the laureate and normally a citation of why they received the prize. Laureates [ edit ] Main article: List of Nobel laureates in Literature Potential candidates [ edit ] Potential recipients of the Nobel Prize in Literature are difficult to predict as nominations are kept secret for fifty years until they are publicly available at The Nomination Database for the Nobel Prize in Literature. Currently, only nominations submitted between 1901 and 1965 are available for public viewing. This secrecy has led to speculation about the next Nobel laureate. What about the rumours circling around the world about certain people being nominated for the Nobel Prize this year? - Well, either it's just a rumour, or someone among the invited nominators has leaked information. Since the nominations are kept secret for 50 years, you'll have to wait until then to find out. — www.nobelprize.org , in Nomination FAQ - Frequently Asked Questions about the Nomination and Selection of Nobel Laureates According to Professor Göran Malmqvist of the Swedish Academy , Chinese writer Shen Congwen was to have been awarded the 1988 Nobel Prize in Literature, had he not suddenly died that year. Criticism [ edit ] Controversies about Nobel Laureate selections [ edit ] Selma Lagerlöf , the first female writer to be awarded a Nobel Prize in literature, faced major controversies. Illustration from Svenska Dagbladet , 11 December 1909 From 1901 to 1912, the committee, headed by the conservative Carl David af Wirsén , weighed the literary quality of a work against its contribution towards humanity's struggle 'toward the ideal'. Tolstoy , Ibsen , Zola , and Mark Twain were rejected in favor of authors little read today. Also, many believe Sweden's historic antipathy towards Russia is the reason neither Tolstoy nor Anton Chekhov were awarded the prize. [ citation needed ] During World War I and its immediate aftermath, the committee adopted a policy of neutrality, favouring writers from non-combatant countries. August Strindberg was repeatedly bypassed by the committee, but holds the singular distinction of being awarded an Anti-Nobel Prize, conferred by popular acclaim and national subscription and presented to him in 1912 by future prime minister Hjalmar Branting . James Joyce wrote the books that rank 1st and 3rd on the Modern Library 100 Best Novels – Ulysses and Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man – but Joyce never won; as biographer Gordon Bowker wrote, "That prize was just out of Joyce's reach." The academy considered Czech writer Karel Čapek 's War With the Newts too offensive to the German government. He also declined to suggest some noncontroversial publication that could be cited as an example of his work, stating "Thank you for the good will, but I have already written my doctoral dissertation". He was thus denied the prize. The choice of Selma Lagerlöf (Sweden 1858–1940) as Nobel Laureate in 1909 (for the 'lofty idealism, vivid imagination and spiritual perception that characterizes her writings' ) followed fierce debate because of her writing style and subject matter, which broke literary decorums of the time. According to Swedish Academy archives studied by the newspaper Le Monde on their opening in 2008, French novelist and intellectual André Malraux was seriously considered for the prize in the 1950s. Malraux was competing with Albert Camus but was rejected several times, especially in 1954 and 1955, "so long as he does not come back to novel". Thus, Camus was awarded the prize in 1957. Some attribute W. H. Auden 's not being awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature to errors in his translation of 1961 Peace Prize laureate Dag Hammarskjöld 's Vägmärken (Markings) and to statements that Auden made during a Scandinavian lecture tour suggesting that Hammarskjöld was, like Auden, homosexual . In 1962, John Steinbeck received the Nobel Prize for Literature. The selection was heavily criticized, and described as "one of the Academy's biggest mistakes" in one Swedish newspaper. The New York Times asked why the Nobel committee gave the award to an author whose "limited talent is, in his best books, watered down by tenth-rate philosophising", adding, "we think it interesting that the laurel was not awarded to a writer ... whose significance, influence and sheer body of work had already made a more profound impression on the literature of our age". Steinbeck himself, when asked if he deserved the Nobel on the day of the announcement, replied: "Frankly, no." In 2012 (50 years later), the Nobel Prize opened its archives and it was revealed that Steinbeck was a "compromise choice" among a shortlist consisting of Steinbeck, British authors Robert Graves and Lawrence Durrell , French dramatist Jean Anouilh and Danish author Karen Blixen . The declassified documents showed that he was chosen as the best of a bad lot: "There aren't any obvious candidates for the Nobel prize and the prize committee is in an unenviable situation," wrote committee member Henry Olsson. In 1964, Jean-Paul Sartre was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, but he declined it, stating that "It is not the same thing if I sign Jean-Paul Sartre or if I sign Jean-Paul Sartre, Nobel Prize laureate. A writer must refuse to allow himself to be transformed into an institution, even if it takes place in the most honorable form." Soviet dissident writer Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn , the 1970 prize laureate, did not attend the Nobel Prize ceremony in Stockholm for fear that the USSR would prevent his return afterwards (his works there were circulated in samizdat —clandestine form). After the Swedish government refused to honor Solzhenitsyn with a public award ceremony and lecture at its Moscow embassy, Solzhenitsyn refused the award altogether, commenting that the conditions set by the Swedes (who preferred a private ceremony) were "an insult to the Nobel Prize itself." Solzhenitsyn did not accept the award and prize money until 10 December 1974, after he was deported from the Soviet Union. In 1974, Graham Greene , Vladimir Nabokov , and Saul Bellow were considered but rejected in favor of a joint award for Swedish authors Eyvind Johnson and Harry Martinson , both members of the Swedish Academy at the time, and unknown outside their home country. Bellow received the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1976; neither Greene nor Nabokov was awarded it. Argentine writer Jorge Luis Borges was nominated for the Prize several times but, as Edwin Williamson, Borges's biographer, states, the Academy did not award it to him, most likely because of his support of certain Argentine and Chilean right-wing military dictators, including Augusto Pinochet , which, according to Tóibín's review of Williamson's Borges: A Life , had complex social and personal contexts. Borges' failure to receive the Nobel Prize for his support of these right-wing dictators contrasts with the Committee honoring writers who openly supported controversial left-wing dictatorships, including Joseph Stalin , in the cases of Sartre and Pablo Neruda , Also, controversially, Gabriel García Márquez supported the Cuban Revolutionary and President Fidel Castro . The award to Italian performance artist Dario Fo in 1997 was initially considered "rather lightweight" by some critics, as he was seen primarily as a performer, and Catholic organizations saw the award to Fo as controversial as he had previously been censured by the Roman Catholic Church . The Vatican newspaper L'Osservatore Romano expressed surprise at Fo's selection for the prize commenting that "Giving the prize to someone who is also the author of questionable works is beyond all imagination." Salman Rushdie and Arthur Miller had been strongly favoured to receive the Prize, but the Nobel organisers were later quoted as saying that they would have been "too predictable, too popular." Camilo José Cela willingly offered his services as an informer for Franco 's regime and had moved voluntarily from Madrid to Galicia during the Spanish Civil War in order to join the rebel forces there; an article by Miguel Angel Villena, Between Fear and Impunity which compiled commentaries by Spanish novelists on the noteworthy silence of the older generation of Spanish novelists on the Francoist pasts of public intellectuals, appeared below a photograph of Cela during the Nobel ceremony in Stockholm in 1989. The choice of the 2004 laureate, Elfriede Jelinek , was protested by a member of the Swedish Academy, Knut Ahnlund , who had not played an active role in the Academy since 1996; Ahnlund resigned, alleging that selecting Jelinek had caused "irreparable damage" to the reputation of the award. The selection of Harold Pinter for the Prize in 2005 was delayed for a couple of days, apparently due to Ahnlund's resignation, and led to renewed speculations about there being a "political element" in the Swedish Academy's awarding of the Prize. Although Pinter was unable to give his controversial Nobel Lecture in person because of ill health, he delivered it from a television studio on video projected on screens to an audience at the Swedish Academy , in Stockholm . His comments have been the source of much commentary and debate. The issue of their "political stance" was also raised in response to the awards of the Nobel Prize in Literature to Orhan Pamuk and Doris Lessing in 2006 and 2007, respectively. The 2016 choice of Bob Dylan was the first time a musician and song-writer won the Nobel for Literature. The award caused some controversy, particularly among writers arguing that the literary merits of Dylan’s work are not equal to those of some of his peers. Lebanese novelist Rabih Alameddine tweeted that "Bob Dylan winning a Nobel in Literature is like Mrs Fields being awarded 3 Michelin stars." The French Moroccan writer Pierre Assouline described the decision "contemptuous of writers". In a live webchat hosted by The Guardian , Norwegian writer Karl Ove Knausgård said that "I’m very divided. I love that the novel committee opens up for other kinds of literature – lyrics and so on. I think that’s brilliant. But knowing that Dylan is the same generation as Thomas Pynchon , Philip Roth , Cormac McCarthy , makes it very difficult for me to accept it." Scottish novelist Irvine Welsh said "I'm a Dylan fan, but this is an ill conceived nostalgia award wrenched from the rancid prostates of senile, gibbering hippies." Dylan's songwriting peer and friend Leonard Cohen said that no prizes were necessary to recognize the greatness of the man who transformed pop music with records like Highway 61 Revisited . "To me," Cohen said, "[the Nobel] is like pinning a medal on Mount Everest for being the highest mountain." Writer and commentator Will Self wrote that the award "cheapened" Dylan whilst hoping the laureate would "follow Sartre in rejecting the award". Nationality-based criticism [ edit ] French author Albert Camus was the first African-born writer to receive the award. The prize's focus on European men, and Swedes in particular, has been the subject of criticism, even from Swedish newspapers. The majority of laureates have been European, with Sweden itself receiving more prizes (8) than all of Asia (7, if Orhan Pamuk is included), as well as all of Latin America (7, if Derek Walcott is included). In 2009, Horace Engdahl , then the permanent secretary of the Academy, declared that "Europe still is the center of the literary world" and that "the US is too isolated, too insular. They don't translate enough and don't really participate in the big dialogue of literature." In 2009, Engdahl's replacement, Peter Englund , rejected this sentiment ("In most language areas ... there are authors that really deserve and could get the Nobel Prize and that goes for the United States and the Americas, as well") and acknowledged the Eurocentric nature of the award, saying that, "I think that is a problem. We tend to relate more easily to literature written in Europe and in the European tradition." American critics are known to object that those from their own country, like Philip Roth , Thomas Pynchon , and Cormac McCarthy , have been overlooked, as have Latin Americans such as Jorge Luis Borges , Julio Cortázar , and Carlos Fuentes , while in their place Europeans lesser-known to that continent have triumphed. The 2009 award to Herta Müller , previously little-known outside Germany but many times named favorite for the Nobel Prize, re-ignited the viewpoint that the Swedish Academy was biased and Eurocentric . However, the 2010 prize was awarded to Mario Vargas Llosa , a native of Peru in South America . When the 2011 prize was awarded to the eminent Swedish poet Tomas Tranströmer , permanent secretary of the Swedish Academy Peter Englund said the prize was not decided based on politics, describing such a notion as "literature for dummies". The Swedish Academy awarded the next two prizes to non-Europeans, Chinese author Mo Yan and Canadian short story writer Alice Munro . French writer Patrick Modiano 's win in 2014 renewed questions of Eurocentrism; when asked by The Wall Street Journal "So no American this year, yet again. Why is that?", Englund reminded Americans of the Canadian origins of the previous year's winner, the Academy's desire for literary quality and the impossibility of rewarding everyone who deserves the prize. Overlooked literary achievements [ edit ] In the history of the Nobel Prize in Literature, many literary achievements were overlooked. The literary historian Kjell Espmark admitted that "as to the early prizes, the censure of bad choices and blatant omissions is often justified. Tolstoy , Ibsen , and Henry James should have been rewarded instead of, for instance, Sully Prudhomme , Eucken , and Heyse ". There are omissions which are beyond the control of the Nobel Committee such as the early death of an author as was the case with Marcel Proust , Italo Calvino , and Roberto Bolaño . According to Kjell Espmark "the main works of Kafka , Cavafy , and Pessoa were not published until after their deaths and the true dimensions of Mandelstam's poetry were revealed above all in the unpublished poems that his wife saved from extinction and gave to the world long after he had perished in his Siberian exile". British novelist Tim Parks ascribed the never-ending controversy surrounding the decisions of the Nobel Committee to the "essential silliness of the prize and our own foolishness at taking it seriously" and noted that "eighteen (or sixteen) Swedish nationals will have a certain credibility when weighing up works of Swedish literature, but what group could ever really get its mind round the infinitely varied work of scores of different traditions. And why should we ask them to do that?" Similar international prizes [ edit ] The Nobel Prize in Literature is not the only literary prize for which all nationalities are eligible. Other notable international literary prizes include the Neustadt International Prize for Literature , the Franz Kafka Prize , the Man Booker International Prize , and the recently reinstated Formentor Prize . In contrast to the other prizes mentioned, the Neustadt International Prize is awarded biennially. The journalist Hephzibah Anderson has noted that the Man Booker International Prize "is fast becoming the more significant award, appearing an ever more competent alternative to the Nobel". The Man Booker International Prize "highlights one writer's overall contribution to fiction on the world stage" and "has literary excellence as its sole focus". Established in 2005, it is not yet possible to analyze its importance on potential future Nobel Prize in Literature laureates. Only Alice Munro (2009) has been awarded with both. However, some winners of the Man Booker International Prize, such as Ismail Kadare (2005) and Philip Roth (2011) are considered contenders for the Nobel Prize in Literature. [ citation needed ] The Neustadt International Prize for Literature is regarded as one of the most prestigious international literary prizes, often referred to as the American equivalent to the Nobel Prize. Like the Nobel or the Man Booker International Prize, it is awarded not for any one work, but for an entire body of work. It is frequently seen as an indicator of who may be awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature. Gabriel García Márquez (1972 Neustadt, 1982 Nobel), Czesław Miłosz (1978 Neustadt, 1980 Nobel), Octavio Paz (1982 Neustadt, 1990 Nobel), Tomas Tranströmer (1990 Neustadt, 2011 Nobel) were first awarded the Neustadt International Prize for Literature before being awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature. Another award of note is the Spanish Princess of Asturias Award (formerly Prince of Asturias Award) in Letters. During the first years of its existence it was almost exclusively awarded to writers in the Spanish language, but in more recent times writers in other languages have been awarded as well. Writers who have won both the Asturias Award in Letters and the Nobel Prize in Literature include Camilo José Cela , Günter Grass , Doris Lessing , and Mario Vargas Llosa . The America Award in Literature , which does not include a monetary prize, presents itself as an alternative to the Nobel Prize in Literature. To date, Harold Pinter and José Saramago are the only writers to have received both the America Award and the Nobel Prize in Literature. There are also prizes for honouring the lifetime achievement of writers in specific languages, like the Miguel de Cervantes Prize (for Spanish language, established in 1976) and the Camões Prize (for Portuguese language, established in 1989). Nobel laureates who were also awarded the Miguel de Cervantes Prize include Octavio Paz (1981 Cervantes, 1990 Nobel); Mario Vargas Llosa (1994 Cervantes, 2010 Nobel); and Camilo José Cela (1995 Cervantes, 1989 Nobel). José Saramago is the only author to receive both the Camões Prize (1995) and the Nobel Prize (1998) to date. The Hans Christian Andersen Award is sometimes referred to as "the Little Nobel." The award has earned this appellation since, in a similar manner to the Nobel Prize in Literature, it recognizes the lifetime achievement of writers, though the Andersen Award focuses on a single category of literary works ( children's literature ). See also [ edit ] List of literary awards List of Nobel laureates List of Nobel laureates in Literature Nobel Library Swedish Academy Nordic Prize World literature References [ edit ] External links [ edit ] Wikisource has original works on the topic: Nobel Prize in Literature Wikimedia Commons has media related to Nobel Prize in Literature . The Nobel Prize Medal for Literature – Official webpage of the Nobel Foundation. Graphics: National Literature Nobel Prize shares 1901-2009 by citizenship at the time of the award and by country of birth . From J. Schmidhuber (2010), Evolution of National Nobel Prize Shares in the 20th Century at arXiv:1009.2634v1 What the Nobel Laureates Receive – Featured link in "The Nobel Prize Award Ceremonies" on the official site of the Nobel Foundation. "The rise of the Prize" - Article by Nilanjana S. Roy dealing with the history of the award by decade, from the 1900s to the 2000s.

validation

when was the nobel prize for literature first awarded

The Nobel Prize in Literature (Swedish : Nobelpriset i litteratur) has been awarded annually, since 1901, to an author from any country who has, in the words of the will of Alfred Nobel, produced `` in the field of literature the most outstanding work in an ideal direction '' (original Swedish : den som inom litteraturen har producerat det mest framstående verket i en idealisk riktning). Though individual works are sometimes cited as being particularly noteworthy, here `` work '' refers to an author 's work as a whole. The Swedish Academy decides who, if anyone, will receive the prize in any given year. The academy announces the name of the chosen laureate in early October. It is one of the five Nobel Prizes established by the will of Alfred Nobel in 1895 ; the others are the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, Nobel Prize in Physics, Nobel Peace Prize, and Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.

['1901']

ìgbà wo ni wọ́n kọ́kọ́ fúnni ní ẹ̀bùn nobel fún ìwé kíkọ

Yes

['Ẹ̀bùn Nobel nínú Lítíréṣọ̀ (Àdàkọ:Lang-sv) jẹ́ ẹ̀bùn ọlọ́dọọdún, láti 1901, tí wọ́n máa ń fun àwọn oǹkọ̀wé láti orílẹ̀-èdè yìówù tí wá, gẹ́gẹ́ bí ogun Alfred Nobel ṣe sọ, o se "ninu papa litireso ise pataki lona to daa" (ni ede Sweden: den som inom litteraturen har producerat det utmärktaste i idealisk riktning). Akademi Swidin lo n pinnu tani, ti onitoun ba wa, yio gba ebun na ninu odun kan, won si n sekede oruko onitoun ninu osu kewa odun.']

['Ẹ̀bùn Nobel nínú Lítíréṣọ̀ jẹ́ ẹ̀bùn ọlọ́dọọdún, láti 1901.']

['P1']

??bùn Nobel nínú Lítíré??? ??bùn Nobel nínú Lítíré??? j?? ??bùn ?l??d??dún, láti o?du?n 1901, tí w??n máa ? fun àw?n o?k??wé láti oríl??-èdè yìówù tí wá, g??g?? bí ogun Alfred Nobel ?e s?, o se "ninu papa litireso ise pataki lona to daa".[1][2] Akademi Swidin lo n pinnu tani, ti onitoun ba wa, yio gba ebun na ninu odun kan, won si n sekede oruko onitoun ninu osu kewa odun.[3]

Nobel Prize in Literature Announcement of the Nobel Prize laureate in literature, 2008 Awarded for Outstanding contributions in literature Country Sweden Presented by Swedish Academy Reward(s) 9 million SEK (2017) First awarded 1901 Currently held by Kazuo Ishiguro (2017) Website nobelprize.org ← 2016 The Nobel Prize in Literature ( Swedish : Nobelpriset i litteratur ) has been awarded annually, since 1901, to an author from any country who has, in the words of the will of Alfred Nobel , produced "in the field of literature the most outstanding work in an ideal direction" (original Swedish: den som inom litteraturen har producerat det mest framstående verket i en idealisk riktning ). Though individual works are sometimes cited as being particularly noteworthy, here "work" refers to an author's work as a whole. The Swedish Academy decides who, if anyone, will receive the prize in any given year. The academy announces the name of the chosen laureate in early October. It is one of the five Nobel Prizes established by the will of Alfred Nobel in 1895; the others are the Nobel Prize in Chemistry , Nobel Prize in Physics , Nobel Peace Prize , and Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine . Although the Nobel Prize in Literature has become the world's most prestigious literature prize, the Swedish Academy has attracted significant criticism for its handling of the award. Many authors who have won the prize have fallen into obscurity, while others rejected by the jury remain widely studied and read. The prize has "become widely seen as a political one - a peace prize in literary disguise", whose judges are prejudiced against authors with different political tastes to them. Tim Parks has expressed skepticism that it is possible for "Swedish professors ... [to] compar[e] a poet from Indonesia, perhaps translated into English with a novelist from Cameroon, perhaps available only in French, and another who writes in Afrikaans but is published in German and Dutch...". As of 2016, 16 of the 113 recipients have been of Scandinavian origin. The Academy has often been alleged to be biased towards European, and in particular Swedish, authors. Some, such as Indian academic Sabaree Mitra, have noted that, though the Nobel Prize in Literature is significant and tends to overshadow other awards, it is "not the only benchmark of literary excellence." Nobel's "vague" wording for the criteria for the prize has led to recurrent controversy. In the original Swedish, the word idealisk translates as either "idealistic" or "ideal". The Nobel Committee 's interpretation has varied over the years. In recent years, this means a kind of idealism championing human rights on a broad scale. Contents [ hide ] 1 Background 2 Nomination procedure 3 Prizes 3.1 Nobel Prize Medals 3.2 Nobel Prize Diplomas 4 Laureates 4.1 Potential candidates 5 Criticism 5.1 Controversies about Nobel Laureate selections 5.2 Nationality-based criticism 5.3 Overlooked literary achievements 6 Similar international prizes 7 See also 8 References 9 External links Background [ edit ] In 1901, French poet and essayist Sully Prudhomme (1839–1907) was the first person to be awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, "in special recognition of his poetic composition, which gives evidence of lofty idealism, artistic perfection and a rare combination of the qualities of both heart and intellect." Alfred Nobel stipulated in his last will and testament that his money be used to create a series of prizes for those who confer the "greatest benefit on mankind" in physics , chemistry , peace , physiology or medicine , and literature . Though Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime, the last was written a little over a year before he died, and signed at the Swedish-Norwegian Club in Paris on 27 November 1895. Nobel bequeathed 94% of his total assets, 31 million Swedish kronor ( US $198 million, € 176 million in 2016), to establish and endow the five Nobel Prizes. Due to the level of scepticism surrounding the will, it was not until 26 April 1897 that the Storting (Norwegian Parliament) approved it. The executors of his will were Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, who formed the Nobel Foundation to take care of Nobel's fortune and organize the prizes. The members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee that were to award the Peace Prize were appointed shortly after the will was approved. The prize-awarding organisations followed: the Karolinska Institutet on 7 June, the Swedish Academy on 9 June, and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences on 11 June. The Nobel Foundation then reached an agreement on guidelines for how the Nobel Prize should be awarded. In 1900, the Nobel Foundation's newly created statutes were promulgated by King Oscar II . According to Nobel's will, the Royal Swedish Academy was to award the Prize in Literature. Nomination procedure [ edit ] Each year, the Swedish Academy sends out requests for nominations of candidates for the Nobel Prize in Literature . Members of the Academy, members of literature academies and societies, professors of literature and language, former Nobel literature laureates, and the presidents of writers' organizations are all allowed to nominate a candidate. It is not permitted to nominate oneself. Thousands of requests are sent out each year, and as of 2011 [update] about 220 proposals are returned. These proposals must be received by the Academy by 1 February, after which they are examined by the Nobel Committee. By April, the Academy narrows the field to around twenty candidates. By May, a short list of five names is approved by the Committee. The subsequent four months are then spent in reading and reviewing the works of the five candidates. In October, members of the Academy vote and the candidate who receives more than half of the votes is named the Nobel laureate in Literature. No one can get the prize without being on the list at least twice, thus many of the same authors reappear and are reviewed repeatedly over the years. The academy is master of thirteen languages, but when a candidate is shortlisted from an unknown language, they call on translators and oath-sworn experts to provide samples of that writer. Other elements of the process are similar to that of other Nobel Prizes. Prizes [ edit ] A Literature Nobel Prize laureate earns a gold medal , a diploma bearing a citation , and a sum of money. The amount of money awarded depends on the income of the Nobel Foundation that year. If a prize is awarded to more than one laureate, the money is either split evenly among them or, for three laureates, it may be divided into a half and two quarters. If a prize is awarded jointly to two or more laureates, the money is split among them. The prize money of the Nobel Prize has been fluctuating since its inauguration but as of 2012 [update] it stood at kr 8,000,000 (about US$ 1,100,000), previously it was kr 10,000,000. This was not the first time the prize-amount was decreased—beginning with a nominal value of kr 150,782 in 1901 (worth 8,123,951 in 2011 SEK) the nominal value has been as low as kr 121,333 (2,370,660 in 2011 SEK) in 1945—but it has been uphill or stable since then, peaking at an SEK-2011 value of 11,659,016 in 2001. The laureate is also invited to give a lecture during "Nobel Week" in Stockholm ; the highlight is the prize-giving ceremony and banquet on 10 December. It is the richest literary prize in the world by a large margin. Nobel Prize Medals [ edit ] The Nobel Prize medals, minted by Myntverket in Sweden and the Mint of Norway since 1902, are registered trademarks of the Nobel Foundation. Each medal features an image of Alfred Nobel in left profile on the obverse (front side of the medal). The Nobel Prize medals for Physics, Chemistry, Physiology or Medicine, and Literature have identical obverses, showing the image of Alfred Nobel and the years of his birth and death (1833–1896). Nobel's portrait also appears on the obverse of the Nobel Peace Prize medal and the Medal for the Prize in Economics, but with a slightly different design. The image on the reverse of a medal varies according to the institution awarding the prize. The reverse sides of the Nobel Prize medals for Chemistry and Physics share the same design. The medal for the Nobel Prize in Literature was designed by Erik Lindberg . Nobel Prize Diplomas [ edit ] Nobel laureates receive a Diploma directly from the King of Sweden. Each Diploma is uniquely designed by the prize-awarding institutions for the laureate that receives it. The Diploma contains a picture and text that states the name of the laureate and normally a citation of why they received the prize. Laureates [ edit ] Main article: List of Nobel laureates in Literature Potential candidates [ edit ] Potential recipients of the Nobel Prize in Literature are difficult to predict as nominations are kept secret for fifty years until they are publicly available at The Nomination Database for the Nobel Prize in Literature. Currently, only nominations submitted between 1901 and 1965 are available for public viewing. This secrecy has led to speculation about the next Nobel laureate. What about the rumours circling around the world about certain people being nominated for the Nobel Prize this year? - Well, either it's just a rumour, or someone among the invited nominators has leaked information. Since the nominations are kept secret for 50 years, you'll have to wait until then to find out. — www.nobelprize.org , in Nomination FAQ - Frequently Asked Questions about the Nomination and Selection of Nobel Laureates According to Professor Göran Malmqvist of the Swedish Academy , Chinese writer Shen Congwen was to have been awarded the 1988 Nobel Prize in Literature, had he not suddenly died that year. Criticism [ edit ] Controversies about Nobel Laureate selections [ edit ] Selma Lagerlöf , the first female writer to be awarded a Nobel Prize in literature, faced major controversies. Illustration from Svenska Dagbladet , 11 December 1909 From 1901 to 1912, the committee, headed by the conservative Carl David af Wirsén , weighed the literary quality of a work against its contribution towards humanity's struggle 'toward the ideal'. Tolstoy , Ibsen , Zola , and Mark Twain were rejected in favor of authors little read today. Also, many believe Sweden's historic antipathy towards Russia is the reason neither Tolstoy nor Anton Chekhov were awarded the prize. [ citation needed ] During World War I and its immediate aftermath, the committee adopted a policy of neutrality, favouring writers from non-combatant countries. August Strindberg was repeatedly bypassed by the committee, but holds the singular distinction of being awarded an Anti-Nobel Prize, conferred by popular acclaim and national subscription and presented to him in 1912 by future prime minister Hjalmar Branting . James Joyce wrote the books that rank 1st and 3rd on the Modern Library 100 Best Novels – Ulysses and Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man – but Joyce never won; as biographer Gordon Bowker wrote, "That prize was just out of Joyce's reach." The academy considered Czech writer Karel Čapek 's War With the Newts too offensive to the German government. He also declined to suggest some noncontroversial publication that could be cited as an example of his work, stating "Thank you for the good will, but I have already written my doctoral dissertation". He was thus denied the prize. The choice of Selma Lagerlöf (Sweden 1858–1940) as Nobel Laureate in 1909 (for the 'lofty idealism, vivid imagination and spiritual perception that characterizes her writings' ) followed fierce debate because of her writing style and subject matter, which broke literary decorums of the time. According to Swedish Academy archives studied by the newspaper Le Monde on their opening in 2008, French novelist and intellectual André Malraux was seriously considered for the prize in the 1950s. Malraux was competing with Albert Camus but was rejected several times, especially in 1954 and 1955, "so long as he does not come back to novel". Thus, Camus was awarded the prize in 1957. Some attribute W. H. Auden 's not being awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature to errors in his translation of 1961 Peace Prize laureate Dag Hammarskjöld 's Vägmärken (Markings) and to statements that Auden made during a Scandinavian lecture tour suggesting that Hammarskjöld was, like Auden, homosexual . In 1962, John Steinbeck received the Nobel Prize for Literature. The selection was heavily criticized, and described as "one of the Academy's biggest mistakes" in one Swedish newspaper. The New York Times asked why the Nobel committee gave the award to an author whose "limited talent is, in his best books, watered down by tenth-rate philosophising", adding, "we think it interesting that the laurel was not awarded to a writer ... whose significance, influence and sheer body of work had already made a more profound impression on the literature of our age". Steinbeck himself, when asked if he deserved the Nobel on the day of the announcement, replied: "Frankly, no." In 2012 (50 years later), the Nobel Prize opened its archives and it was revealed that Steinbeck was a "compromise choice" among a shortlist consisting of Steinbeck, British authors Robert Graves and Lawrence Durrell , French dramatist Jean Anouilh and Danish author Karen Blixen . The declassified documents showed that he was chosen as the best of a bad lot: "There aren't any obvious candidates for the Nobel prize and the prize committee is in an unenviable situation," wrote committee member Henry Olsson. In 1964, Jean-Paul Sartre was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, but he declined it, stating that "It is not the same thing if I sign Jean-Paul Sartre or if I sign Jean-Paul Sartre, Nobel Prize laureate. A writer must refuse to allow himself to be transformed into an institution, even if it takes place in the most honorable form." Soviet dissident writer Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn , the 1970 prize laureate, did not attend the Nobel Prize ceremony in Stockholm for fear that the USSR would prevent his return afterwards (his works there were circulated in samizdat —clandestine form). After the Swedish government refused to honor Solzhenitsyn with a public award ceremony and lecture at its Moscow embassy, Solzhenitsyn refused the award altogether, commenting that the conditions set by the Swedes (who preferred a private ceremony) were "an insult to the Nobel Prize itself." Solzhenitsyn did not accept the award and prize money until 10 December 1974, after he was deported from the Soviet Union. In 1974, Graham Greene , Vladimir Nabokov , and Saul Bellow were considered but rejected in favor of a joint award for Swedish authors Eyvind Johnson and Harry Martinson , both members of the Swedish Academy at the time, and unknown outside their home country. Bellow received the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1976; neither Greene nor Nabokov was awarded it. Argentine writer Jorge Luis Borges was nominated for the Prize several times but, as Edwin Williamson, Borges's biographer, states, the Academy did not award it to him, most likely because of his support of certain Argentine and Chilean right-wing military dictators, including Augusto Pinochet , which, according to Tóibín's review of Williamson's Borges: A Life , had complex social and personal contexts. Borges' failure to receive the Nobel Prize for his support of these right-wing dictators contrasts with the Committee honoring writers who openly supported controversial left-wing dictatorships, including Joseph Stalin , in the cases of Sartre and Pablo Neruda , Also, controversially, Gabriel García Márquez supported the Cuban Revolutionary and President Fidel Castro . The award to Italian performance artist Dario Fo in 1997 was initially considered "rather lightweight" by some critics, as he was seen primarily as a performer, and Catholic organizations saw the award to Fo as controversial as he had previously been censured by the Roman Catholic Church . The Vatican newspaper L'Osservatore Romano expressed surprise at Fo's selection for the prize commenting that "Giving the prize to someone who is also the author of questionable works is beyond all imagination." Salman Rushdie and Arthur Miller had been strongly favoured to receive the Prize, but the Nobel organisers were later quoted as saying that they would have been "too predictable, too popular." Camilo José Cela willingly offered his services as an informer for Franco 's regime and had moved voluntarily from Madrid to Galicia during the Spanish Civil War in order to join the rebel forces there; an article by Miguel Angel Villena, Between Fear and Impunity which compiled commentaries by Spanish novelists on the noteworthy silence of the older generation of Spanish novelists on the Francoist pasts of public intellectuals, appeared below a photograph of Cela during the Nobel ceremony in Stockholm in 1989. The choice of the 2004 laureate, Elfriede Jelinek , was protested by a member of the Swedish Academy, Knut Ahnlund , who had not played an active role in the Academy since 1996; Ahnlund resigned, alleging that selecting Jelinek had caused "irreparable damage" to the reputation of the award. The selection of Harold Pinter for the Prize in 2005 was delayed for a couple of days, apparently due to Ahnlund's resignation, and led to renewed speculations about there being a "political element" in the Swedish Academy's awarding of the Prize. Although Pinter was unable to give his controversial Nobel Lecture in person because of ill health, he delivered it from a television studio on video projected on screens to an audience at the Swedish Academy , in Stockholm . His comments have been the source of much commentary and debate. The issue of their "political stance" was also raised in response to the awards of the Nobel Prize in Literature to Orhan Pamuk and Doris Lessing in 2006 and 2007, respectively. The 2016 choice of Bob Dylan was the first time a musician and song-writer won the Nobel for Literature. The award caused some controversy, particularly among writers arguing that the literary merits of Dylan’s work are not equal to those of some of his peers. Lebanese novelist Rabih Alameddine tweeted that "Bob Dylan winning a Nobel in Literature is like Mrs Fields being awarded 3 Michelin stars." The French Moroccan writer Pierre Assouline described the decision "contemptuous of writers". In a live webchat hosted by The Guardian , Norwegian writer Karl Ove Knausgård said that "I’m very divided. I love that the novel committee opens up for other kinds of literature – lyrics and so on. I think that’s brilliant. But knowing that Dylan is the same generation as Thomas Pynchon , Philip Roth , Cormac McCarthy , makes it very difficult for me to accept it." Scottish novelist Irvine Welsh said "I'm a Dylan fan, but this is an ill conceived nostalgia award wrenched from the rancid prostates of senile, gibbering hippies." Dylan's songwriting peer and friend Leonard Cohen said that no prizes were necessary to recognize the greatness of the man who transformed pop music with records like Highway 61 Revisited . "To me," Cohen said, "[the Nobel] is like pinning a medal on Mount Everest for being the highest mountain." Writer and commentator Will Self wrote that the award "cheapened" Dylan whilst hoping the laureate would "follow Sartre in rejecting the award". Nationality-based criticism [ edit ] French author Albert Camus was the first African-born writer to receive the award. The prize's focus on European men, and Swedes in particular, has been the subject of criticism, even from Swedish newspapers. The majority of laureates have been European, with Sweden itself receiving more prizes (8) than all of Asia (7, if Orhan Pamuk is included), as well as all of Latin America (7, if Derek Walcott is included). In 2009, Horace Engdahl , then the permanent secretary of the Academy, declared that "Europe still is the center of the literary world" and that "the US is too isolated, too insular. They don't translate enough and don't really participate in the big dialogue of literature." In 2009, Engdahl's replacement, Peter Englund , rejected this sentiment ("In most language areas ... there are authors that really deserve and could get the Nobel Prize and that goes for the United States and the Americas, as well") and acknowledged the Eurocentric nature of the award, saying that, "I think that is a problem. We tend to relate more easily to literature written in Europe and in the European tradition." American critics are known to object that those from their own country, like Philip Roth , Thomas Pynchon , and Cormac McCarthy , have been overlooked, as have Latin Americans such as Jorge Luis Borges , Julio Cortázar , and Carlos Fuentes , while in their place Europeans lesser-known to that continent have triumphed. The 2009 award to Herta Müller , previously little-known outside Germany but many times named favorite for the Nobel Prize, re-ignited the viewpoint that the Swedish Academy was biased and Eurocentric . However, the 2010 prize was awarded to Mario Vargas Llosa , a native of Peru in South America . When the 2011 prize was awarded to the eminent Swedish poet Tomas Tranströmer , permanent secretary of the Swedish Academy Peter Englund said the prize was not decided based on politics, describing such a notion as "literature for dummies". The Swedish Academy awarded the next two prizes to non-Europeans, Chinese author Mo Yan and Canadian short story writer Alice Munro . French writer Patrick Modiano 's win in 2014 renewed questions of Eurocentrism; when asked by The Wall Street Journal "So no American this year, yet again. Why is that?", Englund reminded Americans of the Canadian origins of the previous year's winner, the Academy's desire for literary quality and the impossibility of rewarding everyone who deserves the prize. Overlooked literary achievements [ edit ] In the history of the Nobel Prize in Literature, many literary achievements were overlooked. The literary historian Kjell Espmark admitted that "as to the early prizes, the censure of bad choices and blatant omissions is often justified. Tolstoy , Ibsen , and Henry James should have been rewarded instead of, for instance, Sully Prudhomme , Eucken , and Heyse ". There are omissions which are beyond the control of the Nobel Committee such as the early death of an author as was the case with Marcel Proust , Italo Calvino , and Roberto Bolaño . According to Kjell Espmark "the main works of Kafka , Cavafy , and Pessoa were not published until after their deaths and the true dimensions of Mandelstam's poetry were revealed above all in the unpublished poems that his wife saved from extinction and gave to the world long after he had perished in his Siberian exile". British novelist Tim Parks ascribed the never-ending controversy surrounding the decisions of the Nobel Committee to the "essential silliness of the prize and our own foolishness at taking it seriously" and noted that "eighteen (or sixteen) Swedish nationals will have a certain credibility when weighing up works of Swedish literature, but what group could ever really get its mind round the infinitely varied work of scores of different traditions. And why should we ask them to do that?" Similar international prizes [ edit ] The Nobel Prize in Literature is not the only literary prize for which all nationalities are eligible. Other notable international literary prizes include the Neustadt International Prize for Literature , the Franz Kafka Prize , the Man Booker International Prize , and the recently reinstated Formentor Prize . In contrast to the other prizes mentioned, the Neustadt International Prize is awarded biennially. The journalist Hephzibah Anderson has noted that the Man Booker International Prize "is fast becoming the more significant award, appearing an ever more competent alternative to the Nobel". The Man Booker International Prize "highlights one writer's overall contribution to fiction on the world stage" and "has literary excellence as its sole focus". Established in 2005, it is not yet possible to analyze its importance on potential future Nobel Prize in Literature laureates. Only Alice Munro (2009) has been awarded with both. However, some winners of the Man Booker International Prize, such as Ismail Kadare (2005) and Philip Roth (2011) are considered contenders for the Nobel Prize in Literature. [ citation needed ] The Neustadt International Prize for Literature is regarded as one of the most prestigious international literary prizes, often referred to as the American equivalent to the Nobel Prize. Like the Nobel or the Man Booker International Prize, it is awarded not for any one work, but for an entire body of work. It is frequently seen as an indicator of who may be awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature. Gabriel García Márquez (1972 Neustadt, 1982 Nobel), Czesław Miłosz (1978 Neustadt, 1980 Nobel), Octavio Paz (1982 Neustadt, 1990 Nobel), Tomas Tranströmer (1990 Neustadt, 2011 Nobel) were first awarded the Neustadt International Prize for Literature before being awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature. Another award of note is the Spanish Princess of Asturias Award (formerly Prince of Asturias Award) in Letters. During the first years of its existence it was almost exclusively awarded to writers in the Spanish language, but in more recent times writers in other languages have been awarded as well. Writers who have won both the Asturias Award in Letters and the Nobel Prize in Literature include Camilo José Cela , Günter Grass , Doris Lessing , and Mario Vargas Llosa . The America Award in Literature , which does not include a monetary prize, presents itself as an alternative to the Nobel Prize in Literature. To date, Harold Pinter and José Saramago are the only writers to have received both the America Award and the Nobel Prize in Literature. There are also prizes for honouring the lifetime achievement of writers in specific languages, like the Miguel de Cervantes Prize (for Spanish language, established in 1976) and the Camões Prize (for Portuguese language, established in 1989). Nobel laureates who were also awarded the Miguel de Cervantes Prize include Octavio Paz (1981 Cervantes, 1990 Nobel); Mario Vargas Llosa (1994 Cervantes, 2010 Nobel); and Camilo José Cela (1995 Cervantes, 1989 Nobel). José Saramago is the only author to receive both the Camões Prize (1995) and the Nobel Prize (1998) to date. The Hans Christian Andersen Award is sometimes referred to as "the Little Nobel." The award has earned this appellation since, in a similar manner to the Nobel Prize in Literature, it recognizes the lifetime achievement of writers, though the Andersen Award focuses on a single category of literary works ( children's literature ). See also [ edit ] List of literary awards List of Nobel laureates List of Nobel laureates in Literature Nobel Library Swedish Academy Nordic Prize World literature References [ edit ] External links [ edit ] Wikisource has original works on the topic: Nobel Prize in Literature Wikimedia Commons has media related to Nobel Prize in Literature . The Nobel Prize Medal for Literature – Official webpage of the Nobel Foundation. Graphics: National Literature Nobel Prize shares 1901-2009 by citizenship at the time of the award and by country of birth . From J. Schmidhuber (2010), Evolution of National Nobel Prize Shares in the 20th Century at arXiv:1009.2634v1 What the Nobel Laureates Receive – Featured link in "The Nobel Prize Award Ceremonies" on the official site of the Nobel Foundation. "The rise of the Prize" - Article by Nilanjana S. Roy dealing with the history of the award by decade, from the 1900s to the 2000s.

train

1. the word islam is arabic for

Islam (Arabic : الإسلام ‎, IPA : (alʔɪsˈlaːm) (listen)) is a verbal noun originating from the triliteral root S-L-M which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of wholeness, submission, safeness, and peace. In a religious context it means `` voluntary submission to God ''. Islām is the verbal noun of Form IV of the root, and means `` submission '' or `` surrender ''. Muslim, the word for an adherent of Islam, is the active participle of the same verb form, and means `` submitter '' or `` one who surrenders ''. The word sometimes has distinct connotations in its various occurrences in the Quran. In some verses, there is stress on the quality of Islam as an internal spiritual state : `` Whomsoever God desires to guide, He opens his heart to Islam. '' Other verses connect Islām and religion (dīn) together : `` Today, I have perfected your religion (dīn) for you ; I have completed My blessing upon you ; I have approved Islam for your religion. '' Still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God -- more than just a verbal affirmation of faith. In the Hadith of Gabriel, islām is presented as one part of a triad that also includes imān (faith), and ihsān (excellence).

['trade', 'cuneiform']

Islam jẹ́ èdè Arabì fún

Yes

['Ẹ̀sìn Ìmàle tabi Ẹ̀sìn Islàm (Lárúbáwá: الإسلام\u200e al-’islām, pronounced\xa0[ʔislæːm]\xa0 ( listen)[note 1]) jẹ́ ẹ̀sìn àlááfíà,ìrọ̀rùn àti ìjupá-jusẹ̀ sílẹ̀ fún Ọlọ́run aṣẹ̀dá gbogbo ayé nípa ṣ́iṣe ìfẹ́ àti títèlé àṣẹ rẹ̀ yálà o tẹ́ ọ lọ́rùn tàbí kò tẹ́ ọ lọ́rùn.']

['Lárúbáwá']

['P1']

??sìn Ìmàle ??sìn Ìmàle tabi ??sìn Islàm [1] j?? ??sìn àlááfíà,ìr??rùn àti ìjupá-jus?? síl?? fún ?l??run a???dá gbogbo ayé nípa ??i?e ìf?? àti títèlé à?? r?? yálà o t?? ? l??rùn tàbí kò t?? ? l??rùn. Ó tún j?? ??sin tí ?l??run tún fi rán??? sí gbogbo ayé lát?w?? àw?n òjí???e r?? tó ti rán wá ?áájú àn??bì Muhammad ?m? Abdullah (kí ìk?? àti ?là ?l??hun ó ma bá a). Òun sì ni ??sìn òtít? tí ??sìn mìíràn kò lè j?? ìt??w??gb?a ní ??d?? ?l??hun (Allah) yàtò sí òun nìkan. ?l??hun (Allah) sì ti ?e é ní ??sìn ìr??rùn tí kò sí ì?òro kankan tàbí wàhálà níb??. Kò si ohun tí ó k?já agbára w?n, b???? sì ni kò sí ìj?ni nípá fún àw?n tí w??n gba èsìn náà. B??è sì tún ni ??sìn náà kò la ohun tí ó k?já agbára w?n b?? w??n l??rùn. Ìsìlámù ni ??sìn tí ó ?e pé ìm??-?l??hun ni (al- Taoheed) ní ìpìl?? rè, òdodo ni òpó r??, ó dá lórí déédé,otito. Òhun sì ni ??sìn tí ó gbóp?n tí ó j?? pé ó ? darí gbogbo ??dá sí ibi gbogbo ohun tí yó?o j?? ànfààní fún w?n ní ??run àti ayé w?n. B???? náà ni ó sì tún ? kì w??n níl?? nípa gbogbo ohun tí yó?o ?aburú fún w?n yálà láyé ni tàbí ??run. Òhun ni ??sìn tí ?l??hun (Allah) fi ?e àtún?e àw?n àdì-??kàn àti àw?n ìwà àìdáa kan. Òhun náà ni Ó fi ?e àtún?e ìs??mí ayé àti ti ??run. Òun ni ?l??hun (Allah) fi ?e ìr??p?? láàrin àw?n ?kàn tí ó k??yìn sí ara w?n àti àw?n ojúkòkòrò tí ó f??nká. Nípas?? èyí ni Ó fi y? àw?n ohun tí a kà sí iwájú yìí nínú òkùnkùn biribiri ìró, tí Ó sì ?e ìfinim??nà r?? l? sí ibi òtít??, tí Ó sì t?? ? sí ??nà l? sí ibi ??nà tí ó yè kooro[2]. ??sìn Islam j?? orúk? i??? ayélujára gbajúgbajà tí Sheikh Dr. Abdul-Fattah Adelabu ?ni tí í ?e olórí àti olùdásíl??, Awqaf Africa àti Asíwájú ??sìn fún àw?n aláw?? dúdú ní il?? Geesi dá síl?? láti ipa??? EsinIslam.com fún ??k?? nípa ??sìn Islam p??lú Awqaf Africa Muslim Open College ní ìlú London. ??sìn Islam Ní ?ókí ISLAM ni esin ti o duro to, eyi ti a gbe kale ni ona ti o dara de opin ninu gbogbo awon iro ti o muwa ati ninu gbogbo awon idajo re pata.Ko si iroyin kankan ninu re ayafi otito ati ododo be e si ni ko si idajo kankan ninu re ayafi rere ati deede. Ninu re ni a o ti ri awon adisokan ti o ni alaafia, awon ise ti o duro to ,awon iwa ti o dara pari pelu awon eko ti o ye kooro.[3]. Ni soki, ise ISLAM wa lati se aseyori awon ohun ti o n bo wonyii[4]: Sise alaye Olohun ti I se oluda awon eniyan fun won pelu (ifosiwewe alaye) awon oruko Re ti o dara julo ati awon oriki Re ti o ga pari pelu awon ise Re ti o pe perepere ati awon ohun ti o to si I lohun nikan soso. Pipe awon eru Olohun (awon eda) lo si ibi jijosin fun Olohun (Allah) ni kan soso laiko mu orogun kankan mo o. Eyi yo o je be e nipa sise ohun ti O se ni oranyan le won lori ninu awon ase ati (jijinna si) awon ohun ti O ko fun ni lati se. Eyi ti o se pe daradara won ni igbesi aye won ati ti orun won wa ni ibi titele awon ase Re yii. Riran awon eda leti iwasi won ati ibuseri-padabosi won leyin iku won ati ohun ti won yo o pade ninu saaree won ati nigba igbehinde won ati isiro ise won ati ibumorile won leyin eleyii; eyi ti ise ogba idera alujonna tabi ina ti o n jo geregere. Ni akotan, a lee rokirika awon ohun ti esin islam pe ni lo si ibe ninu awon koko ti o n bo wonyii: IKINNI: Adisokan (akiidah) Eleyin da lori igbagbo pelu awon origun igbagbo mefeefa[5]: (1) Gbigba Olohun (Allah) gbo Eyi le e je be e pelu awon nikan ti o n bo wonyii: (i) Nini igbagbo pe Olohun (Allah) nikan ni Oba Eleto. Eyi tumo si pe Oun ni Oba,Oluda, Oluni ati Olusakoso gbogbo awon eto (aye ati ti orun ). (ii) Nini igbagbo pelu pe Olohun (Allah) nikan ni Atoosin. Eyi tumo si pe Oun nikan ni O ni eto lati maa gba ijosin ati pe elomiran ti a ba dari ijosin si yato si Oun jasi igbese-ikuna ti ko to. (iii) Nini igbagbo ninu awon oruko Re ati awon oriki Re. Eyi tumo si pe Oun ni o ni awon oruko ti o dara julo ati awon oriki ti o pe perepere ti o si ga julo gege bi o ti wa ninu tira Re (Al -quran) ati sunah (Ilana) ojise Re (ki ike ati ola Olohun ki o ma a baa). (2) Nini igbagbo ninu awon molaaika Awon molaaika ni awon eru Olohun kan ti won je eni aponle gegebi won ti je eda Olohun (Allah). Bakannaa, won je oluse ibaada (ijosin) fun Olohun de oju ami won si tun je atele ase re ni perepere. Olohun (Allah) fi awon ise (ojuse) orisirisii fun okookan won. Ninu won ni Jibiriilu eni ti a se afiti ise mimo ti o ba n waye lati odo Olohun (Allah) si odo eni ti O ba fe ninu awon anabi Re ati awon ojise Re ti si. Ara won si tun ni Miikailu eni ti o wa fun alaamori riro ojo ati awon koriko ti n hu. Bee naa ni ara won ni Isiraafiilu eni ti o wa fun fifon fere ni asiko ti Olohun (Allah) ba fe ki gbogbo eda o sun oorun asun- fonfon- n-tefon ti yoo kase ile aye nile ati nigba ti o ba tun fe ki won dide (lati jabo nipa igbesi aye won). Ara won si tun ni molaaika iku eni ti ojuse re je gbigba awon emi ni asiko ti Olohun (Allah) ba ti ni asiko re to. (3) Nini igbagbo si awon iwe mimo Olohun (tira) Olohun (Allah), Oba ti o tobi ti o si gbon-un -gbon julo so awon iwe kale fun awon ojise Re eyi ti ona mimo, rere ati daradara wa ninu re. Awon ti gbedeke re waye ninu awon tira yii ni wonyii: (i) Taoreeta eyi ti Olohun (Allah) so kale fun anabi Muusa eni ti awon kan mo si Moose -(ki ike ati ola Olohun o ma a baa). Tira yi ni iwe ti o tobi julo ti o so kale fun awon omo isireeli. (ii) Injiila (bibeli) ti Olohun (Allah) so kale fun anabi Isa eni ti awon kan mo si Jeesu- (ki ike ati ola Olohun o ma a baa). (iii) Sabuura ti Olohun (Allah) so kale fun anabi Dauda -eni ti awon kan mo si Dafiidi - (ki ike ati ola Olohun o maa baa) (iv) Awon takaada (ewe 'tira) ti Olohun (Allah) so kale fun ekeni -keji anabi Iburaimo - eni ti awon kan mo si Aburahaamu - ati anabi Musa. (Ki ike ati ola Olohun o maa ba awon mejeeji). (V) Alukuraani alaponle eyi ti Olohun (Allah) ti ola Re ga julo so kale fun anabi Re ti n je Muhammad eni ti i se olupinnu awon anabi .Tira alaponle yii ni Olohun (Allah) fi fagile gbogbo awon iwe mimo ti o ti so kale siwaju re. Idi abajo eyi ni o mu ki Olohun funraare mojuto siso tira naa (kuro nibii afikun tabi ayokuro omo adarihunrun tabi sisonu) nitoripe oun ni yoo seku gegebi awijare ti o fese mule gbon- in -gbon-in fun gbogbo eda titi di ojo igbehinde (alikiyaamo). (4) Nini igbagbo si awon ojise Olohun pata laiko da enikan si Olohun (Allah) ti ran awon ojise kan si awon eda Re. Eni akoko ninu awon ojise naa ni anabi Nuhu nigbati anabi Muhmmad (ki ike ati ola Olohun o ma a baa ati gbogbo awon ojise ti o siwaju re)si je olupinnu won. Gbogbo awon ojise Olohun pata -ti o fi mo anabi Isa- je eda abara ti ko si nkankan ninu jije Olohun ni ara won. Awon paapaa je eru Olohun (Allah) gegebi awon eda yoku naa ti je eru Olohun sugbon ti Adeda won se aponle fun won pelu riran won ni ise mimo si awon eda abara yoku. Ni akotan, Olohun (Allah) ti pari gbogbo ise ti o fe ran si aye pelu ise-imona ti o fi ran anabi Muhammad (ki ike ati ola Olohun o maa baa).O si ti ran an si gbogbo eniyan laiko da enikan si. Nitori naa, ko si anabi kankan mo leyin anabi Muhammad (ki ike ati ola Olohun o maa baa). (5) Nini igbagbo nipa ojo ikehin Ojo agbehinde ni ojo ikehin ti ko ni si ojo kankan leyin ojo naa mo. Ojo naa ni Olohun (Allah) yoo gbe gbogbo eniyan dide ni aaye pada lati seku titi ayeraye ninu ile onidera (alujonna)tabi ninu ile iya (ina) atanijoni. Ninu igbagbo si ojo ikehin jasi nini igbagbo si gbogbo ohun ti yoo sele leyin iku ni eyi ti o ko ibeere (fitino) saaree ati idera pelu ijiya re sinu. Ati ohun ti yoo tun sele leyin eleyii gegebi agbehinde, iseripadabo si odo Olohun ati isiro ise ti eda gbe aye se. Leyinwa-igba-naa, ni imorile ile ibugbe ayeraye eyi ti i se alujonna tabi ina. (6) Nini igbagbo si kadara(akoole) Ohun ti oun n je kadara ni nini igbagbo pe Olohun (Allah) ni O pebubu gbogbo ohun ti n be, Ohun ni O si da gbogbo eda ni ona ti mimo Re ti siwaju re ti ariwoye Re si fe bee. Gbogbo awon alaamori ni o ti je mimo ni o si ti wa ni akoole ni odo Re. Olohun (Allah) fe gbogbo ohun ti n sele ni o je ki o maa sele bee, Oun paapaa ni o si daa. IKEJI: Awon òpó ?sin Imale[6] Kaaba, ni Mekka Saudi Arabia, ni ibujoko esin Islam. Awon musulumi kakiri agbaye unpade nibe lati gbadura ni isokan. Esin ISLAM je ohun ti a mo lori awon origun marun kan to je pe eniyan ko lee je musulumi tooto ayafi ti o ba ni igbagbo ninu awon origun naa ti o si n se okookan ninu re. Awon origun naa ni wonyi : Ijeri Ijeri (igba-tokantokan) pe Olohun (Allah) nikan ni Oba (ti a a josin fun) ati pe ojise Olohun ni anabi Muhammad (ki ike ati ola Olohun o maa baa) i se. Ijeri yii ni kokoro ISLAM ati ipilese re ti gbogbo eka yoku duro le lori. Itumo a i si oba miran leyin Olohun (Allah) ni pe ko si eni ti o leto pe ki a ma a se ijosin fun ju oun nikan lo.Oun nikan ni apesin tooto. Gbogbo elomiran ti a ba n dari ijosin si odo re yato si Oun je iwa ibaje ti ko si lese nile bi o ti wu ki o mo. Ohun ti o n je Olohun Oba ninu agboye awa musulumi ni eni ti a a josin fun. Itumo ijeri (ifaramo) pe anabi Muhammad (ki ike ati ola Olohun o maa baa) je ojise Olohun ni gbigba a ni ododo ninu gbogbo ohun ti o fun ni ni labare re, titele e ninu gbogbo oun ti o pa lase ati jijinna si gbogbo ohun ti o ko fun ni lati se ti o si jagbe mo a i fe be e. Irun kiki Eyi ni awon irun ti a ma a n paara kiki re ni eemarun lojumo. Olohun (Allah) se e ni ofin lati lee je ifun Olohun ni iwo o Re lori awon eru Re, idupe fu Un lori ideraa Re ati okun idapo laarin musulumi ati Olohun Adeda re. Eyi ti yoo ma a ba A ni gbolohun ninu re ti yoo si ma a gbadura si I ninu re. Ti awon irun yii yo o si je akininlo fun un nipa sise ibaje ati sise aburu. Olohun (Allah) si ti se imudaniloju daradara esin, igunrege igbagbo ati laada aye ati ti orun fun eni ti o ba n ki irun wakati maraarun daadaa. Ni ipase awon irun yii ni ibale-okan ati ibale-ara ti yoo je okunfa orire aye ati ti orun yoo fi sele fun eni ti o ba n kii deede. Itore aanu (Saka) Eyi ni ore atinuwa kan ti eni ti o ba ni owo ti o ti wo gbedeke ti ilana ISLAM se afilele re yoo ma a san ni odoodun fun awon eni ti o leto si gbigba re ninu awon alaini ati awon miran. A ni lati mo daju gbangba pe itore aanu yi i ko je dandan fun alaini ti ko si gbedeke owo yii ni owo re. Eni ti o je dandan fun ni awon oloro ti yoo je pipe fun esin won ati ifaramo ISLAM won .Ti yoo si tun mu ilosiwaju ba iwasi won ati ihuwasi won pelu. Eyi si tun je ona kan pataki lati mu iyonusi ati iyojuran aye kuro lara won ati lara dukia won. Ati lati se afomo fun won kuro nibi aburu pelu lati se ikunlowo fun awon talaka ati awon alaini lawujo ati lati se igbeduro ohun ti yoo mu nkan tubatuse fun awon gan an alara paapaa. Paripari gbogbo re, oore aanu yii ko koja ebubu kan kinkinni ninu ohun ti Olohun (Allah) se fun won ninu owo ati ije- imu. Aawe gbigba Eleyi yoo ma a je ohun ti yoo ma a sele ninu osu kan soso lodoodun. Osu yen si ni osu Ramadan alaponle, eyi ti se osu kesan an ninu osu odun hijira (odun ti a n fi osupa mu ka). Ninu osu yii ni gbogbo awon musulumi yoo se ara won ni osusu-owo ti won yoo si kora duro nibii kosee-mase-kosee-mato won gegebi i jije, mimu ati wiwole to aya eni ni asiko osan. Iyen ni pe kikoraduro yo o wa lati asiko idaji hai (yiyo alufajari) titi di irole pata (asiko wiwo oorun). Olohun (Allah) yoo wa a fi pipe esin won ati igbagbo ati amojukuro nibi laifi won jiro ikoraduro yii fun won. Bee si ni pipe won yoo si lekun gegebi nkan daradara miran yoo ti je tiwon ninu awon oore lantilanti ti o ti pa lese sile fun eleyii ni ile aye nihaayin ati ni orun. Irinajo si ile mimo (haji) Ohun naa ni imura giri lo si ile Olohun (Allah) Olowo lati lo josin fun Un ni asiko kan pato gegebi o tise wa ninu ilana Islam. Olohun (Allah) ti see ni oranyan fun eni ti o ba ni ikapa bee ni igba isemi ni eekan soso. Ninu asiko haji yii ni gbogbo musulumi jakejado aye yoo kojo si aaye ti o loore julo lori ile, ti gbogbo won yoo maa se ijosin fun Olohun kan soso nibe ,ti won yoo si gbe ewu orisikan - naa wo. Ko ni i si iyato laarin olori ati ara ilu, olowo aye ati mekunnu pelu funfun ati dudu ninu won. Gbogbo won yo o ma a se awon ise ijosin mimo kan ti o ti ni akosile. Eyi ti o se koko julo ninu re je kikaraduro ni aaye ti a mo si Arafa ati rirokirika ile Oluwa (Kaaba) abiyi ti o je adojuko gbogbo Musulumi ni asiko ijosin won pelu ilosoke-losodo laarin oke Safa ati Moriwa. Awon anfaani aye ati orun olokan -o - jokan ti ko se e ka tan ni o wa ninu re. IKETA : IHSAN[7] Eleyi tumo si pe ki Musulumi maa sin Olohun re pelu igbagbo ati esin ododo gegebi eni-wipe o n wo Olohun Adedaa lojukoroju, bi o tile je pe ire kori I dajudaju Oun n ri o. Bakanaa, ki o rii daju wipe oun se ohun kohun ni ibamu pelu ilana (Sunnah) ojise e Re; annabi Muhammad (ki ike ati ola Olohun ki o baa). Bakan- naa ni ISLAM tun feto si igbesi aye awon eni ti o gba a lesin yala ni iwasi won ni eyo kookan ni o tabi nigbati won ba wa nijonijo ni ona ti oriire aye ati torun yo o fi je tiwon. Nitori idi eyi ni o fi se fife iyawo ni eto fun awon atele re ti o si se won lojukokoro lo sibe. O si se sina sise ati iwa pansaga ni eewo fun won ati awon isesi-i-laabi miran. Bee ni o si se dida ibi po ati sisaanu awon alaini ati talika ni oranyan pelu amojuto won. Gegebi o ti senilojukokoro lo si ibi gbogbo iwa to dara ti o si se e ni oranyan, bee gege ti o si kininilo nipa gbogbo iwa buruku ti o si se e ni eewo. Siwaju sii, o se kiko oro jo lona mimo gegebii owo sise tabi yiyafunnilo ati ohun ti o fara pe eleyii ni eto. Ni idakeji ewe, o se owo ele (riba) ati gbogbo owokowo ati ohun ti o ba ti ni modaru ati awuruju ninu ni eewo. Alaiye Ipari Nipa Esin Islam Ni Soki Yato si ohun ti a ka siwaju yii, ISLAM se akiyesi aidogba awon eniyan ninu diduroto si oju ona ilana re ati siso eto awon eniyan miran[8]. Nitori-idi-eyi ni o fi gbe awon ijiya amunisakuro-nibi-ese kale fun awon itayo -aala ti o ba waye ninu awon iwo Olohun (Allah ) Mimo; gegebii kikoomo (pipada sinu keferi leyin igba ti a ti gba ISLAM), sise sina, mimu oti ati bee bee lo.Gege bee naa ni o gbe awon ijiya adanilekun kale fun titase agere lori awon eto awon eniyan gegebii pipaayan, ole jija, piparo agbere mo elomiran, titayo aala nipa lilu elomiran tabi si see ni suta ati bee bee lo. O se pataki lati fi rinle pe awon ijiya kookan ti o fi lele yii se weku irunfin kookan la i si aseju tabi aseeto nibe. ISLAM tun seto, o si tun fi ala si ibasepo ti o wa laarin awon ara ilu ati awon adari won. O si se titele awon adari ni dandan fun awon ara ilu ninu gbogbo ohun ti ko ba si sise Olohun (Allah) ninu re. O si se yiyapa si ase won ati aigbo- aigba fun won ni eewo nitori ohun ti o le tara eyi jade ninu aapon ati rukerudo fun terutomo. Ni akotan , a le e fowogbaya re pe ISLAM ti kakoja mimo asepo ti o yanran-un-tan ati ise ti o ye kooro laarin eru Olohun (eda) ati Adeda re ni abala kan, ati laarin omo eda eniyan ati awujo ti o n gbe nibe ninu gbogbo alaamori re ni abala miran. Ko si rere kan ninu awon iwa ati awon ibalo ayafi ki o je pe o ti se ifinimona awon atele re sibe ti o si se won lojukokoro nipa diduro tii gboin -gboin. Bee si ni ko aburu kan ninu awon iwa ati awon ibalo ayafi ki o je pe o ti ki won nilo gidigidi nipa atimasunmo o ti o si ko o fun won. Eyi ni o fi wa n han wa gedegbe pe esin ti ko labujeku kankan ni ISLAM je, esin ti o si dara ni pelu ti a ba gbe yiri wo ni gbogbo ona[9].

train

how many acts of worship we have in islam

There are five basic religious acts in Islam, collectively known as ' The Pillars of Islam ' (arkan al - Islam ; also arkan ad - din, `` pillars of religion ''), which are considered obligatory for all believers. The Quran presents them as a framework for worship and a sign of commitment to the faith. They are (1) the creed (Shahada), (2) daily prayers (Salah), (3) almsgiving (Zakat), (4) fasting during Ramadan (Sawm) and (5) the pilgrimage to Mecca (Hajj) at least once in a lifetime. Both Shia and Sunni sects agree on the essential details for the performance of these acts. Apart from these, Muslims also perform other religious acts. Notable among them are charity (Sadaqah) and recitation of the Quran.

['three equal horizontal bands displaying the national colours of germany: black, red, and gold', 'flag of germany', 'german unity and freedom', 'the black-red-gold colours were the colours of the democratic, centrist, and republican political parties']

iye iṣẹ́ ìjọsìn wo la ní nínú ẹ̀sìn islám

Yes

['Esin ISLAM je ohun ti a mo lori awon origun marun kan to je pe eniyan ko lee je musulumi tooto ayafi ti o ba ni igbagbo ninu awon origun naa ti o si n se okookan ninu re.']

['Esin ISLAM je ohun ti a mo lori awon origun marun']

['P12']

??sìn Ìmàle ??sìn Ìmàle tabi ??sìn Islàm [1] j?? ??sìn àlááfíà,ìr??rùn àti ìjupá-jus?? síl?? fún ?l??run a???dá gbogbo ayé nípa ??i?e ìf?? àti títèlé à?? r?? yálà o t?? ? l??rùn tàbí kò t?? ? l??rùn. Ó tún j?? ??sin tí ?l??run tún fi rán??? sí gbogbo ayé lát?w?? àw?n òjí???e r?? tó ti rán wá ?áájú àn??bì Muhammad ?m? Abdullah (kí ìk?? àti ?là ?l??hun ó ma bá a). Òun sì ni ??sìn òtít? tí ??sìn mìíràn kò lè j?? ìt??w??gb?a ní ??d?? ?l??hun (Allah) yàtò sí òun nìkan. ?l??hun (Allah) sì ti ?e é ní ??sìn ìr??rùn tí kò sí ì?òro kankan tàbí wàhálà níb??. Kò si ohun tí ó k?já agbára w?n, b???? sì ni kò sí ìj?ni nípá fún àw?n tí w??n gba èsìn náà. B??è sì tún ni ??sìn náà kò la ohun tí ó k?já agbára w?n b?? w??n l??rùn. Ìsìlámù ni ??sìn tí ó ?e pé ìm??-?l??hun ni (al- Taoheed) ní ìpìl?? rè, òdodo ni òpó r??, ó dá lórí déédé,otito. Òhun sì ni ??sìn tí ó gbóp?n tí ó j?? pé ó ? darí gbogbo ??dá sí ibi gbogbo ohun tí yó?o j?? ànfààní fún w?n ní ??run àti ayé w?n. B???? náà ni ó sì tún ? kì w??n níl?? nípa gbogbo ohun tí yó?o ?aburú fún w?n yálà láyé ni tàbí ??run. Òhun ni ??sìn tí ?l??hun (Allah) fi ?e àtún?e àw?n àdì-??kàn àti àw?n ìwà àìdáa kan. Òhun náà ni Ó fi ?e àtún?e ìs??mí ayé àti ti ??run. Òun ni ?l??hun (Allah) fi ?e ìr??p?? láàrin àw?n ?kàn tí ó k??yìn sí ara w?n àti àw?n ojúkòkòrò tí ó f??nká. Nípas?? èyí ni Ó fi y? àw?n ohun tí a kà sí iwájú yìí nínú òkùnkùn biribiri ìró, tí Ó sì ?e ìfinim??nà r?? l? sí ibi òtít??, tí Ó sì t?? ? sí ??nà l? sí ibi ??nà tí ó yè kooro[2]. ??sìn Islam j?? orúk? i??? ayélujára gbajúgbajà tí Sheikh Dr. Abdul-Fattah Adelabu ?ni tí í ?e olórí àti olùdásíl??, Awqaf Africa àti Asíwájú ??sìn fún àw?n aláw?? dúdú ní il?? Geesi dá síl?? láti ipa??? EsinIslam.com fún ??k?? nípa ??sìn Islam p??lú Awqaf Africa Muslim Open College ní ìlú London. ??sìn Islam Ní ?ókí ISLAM ni esin ti o duro to, eyi ti a gbe kale ni ona ti o dara de opin ninu gbogbo awon iro ti o muwa ati ninu gbogbo awon idajo re pata.Ko si iroyin kankan ninu re ayafi otito ati ododo be e si ni ko si idajo kankan ninu re ayafi rere ati deede. Ninu re ni a o ti ri awon adisokan ti o ni alaafia, awon ise ti o duro to ,awon iwa ti o dara pari pelu awon eko ti o ye kooro.[3]. Ni soki, ise ISLAM wa lati se aseyori awon ohun ti o n bo wonyii[4]: Sise alaye Olohun ti I se oluda awon eniyan fun won pelu (ifosiwewe alaye) awon oruko Re ti o dara julo ati awon oriki Re ti o ga pari pelu awon ise Re ti o pe perepere ati awon ohun ti o to si I lohun nikan soso. Pipe awon eru Olohun (awon eda) lo si ibi jijosin fun Olohun (Allah) ni kan soso laiko mu orogun kankan mo o. Eyi yo o je be e nipa sise ohun ti O se ni oranyan le won lori ninu awon ase ati (jijinna si) awon ohun ti O ko fun ni lati se. Eyi ti o se pe daradara won ni igbesi aye won ati ti orun won wa ni ibi titele awon ase Re yii. Riran awon eda leti iwasi won ati ibuseri-padabosi won leyin iku won ati ohun ti won yo o pade ninu saaree won ati nigba igbehinde won ati isiro ise won ati ibumorile won leyin eleyii; eyi ti ise ogba idera alujonna tabi ina ti o n jo geregere. Ni akotan, a lee rokirika awon ohun ti esin islam pe ni lo si ibe ninu awon koko ti o n bo wonyii: IKINNI: Adisokan (akiidah) Eleyin da lori igbagbo pelu awon origun igbagbo mefeefa[5]: (1) Gbigba Olohun (Allah) gbo Eyi le e je be e pelu awon nikan ti o n bo wonyii: (i) Nini igbagbo pe Olohun (Allah) nikan ni Oba Eleto. Eyi tumo si pe Oun ni Oba,Oluda, Oluni ati Olusakoso gbogbo awon eto (aye ati ti orun ). (ii) Nini igbagbo pelu pe Olohun (Allah) nikan ni Atoosin. Eyi tumo si pe Oun nikan ni O ni eto lati maa gba ijosin ati pe elomiran ti a ba dari ijosin si yato si Oun jasi igbese-ikuna ti ko to. (iii) Nini igbagbo ninu awon oruko Re ati awon oriki Re. Eyi tumo si pe Oun ni o ni awon oruko ti o dara julo ati awon oriki ti o pe perepere ti o si ga julo gege bi o ti wa ninu tira Re (Al -quran) ati sunah (Ilana) ojise Re (ki ike ati ola Olohun ki o ma a baa). (2) Nini igbagbo ninu awon molaaika Awon molaaika ni awon eru Olohun kan ti won je eni aponle gegebi won ti je eda Olohun (Allah). Bakannaa, won je oluse ibaada (ijosin) fun Olohun de oju ami won si tun je atele ase re ni perepere. Olohun (Allah) fi awon ise (ojuse) orisirisii fun okookan won. Ninu won ni Jibiriilu eni ti a se afiti ise mimo ti o ba n waye lati odo Olohun (Allah) si odo eni ti O ba fe ninu awon anabi Re ati awon ojise Re ti si. Ara won si tun ni Miikailu eni ti o wa fun alaamori riro ojo ati awon koriko ti n hu. Bee naa ni ara won ni Isiraafiilu eni ti o wa fun fifon fere ni asiko ti Olohun (Allah) ba fe ki gbogbo eda o sun oorun asun- fonfon- n-tefon ti yoo kase ile aye nile ati nigba ti o ba tun fe ki won dide (lati jabo nipa igbesi aye won). Ara won si tun ni molaaika iku eni ti ojuse re je gbigba awon emi ni asiko ti Olohun (Allah) ba ti ni asiko re to. (3) Nini igbagbo si awon iwe mimo Olohun (tira) Olohun (Allah), Oba ti o tobi ti o si gbon-un -gbon julo so awon iwe kale fun awon ojise Re eyi ti ona mimo, rere ati daradara wa ninu re. Awon ti gbedeke re waye ninu awon tira yii ni wonyii: (i) Taoreeta eyi ti Olohun (Allah) so kale fun anabi Muusa eni ti awon kan mo si Moose -(ki ike ati ola Olohun o ma a baa). Tira yi ni iwe ti o tobi julo ti o so kale fun awon omo isireeli. (ii) Injiila (bibeli) ti Olohun (Allah) so kale fun anabi Isa eni ti awon kan mo si Jeesu- (ki ike ati ola Olohun o ma a baa). (iii) Sabuura ti Olohun (Allah) so kale fun anabi Dauda -eni ti awon kan mo si Dafiidi - (ki ike ati ola Olohun o maa baa) (iv) Awon takaada (ewe 'tira) ti Olohun (Allah) so kale fun ekeni -keji anabi Iburaimo - eni ti awon kan mo si Aburahaamu - ati anabi Musa. (Ki ike ati ola Olohun o maa ba awon mejeeji). (V) Alukuraani alaponle eyi ti Olohun (Allah) ti ola Re ga julo so kale fun anabi Re ti n je Muhammad eni ti i se olupinnu awon anabi .Tira alaponle yii ni Olohun (Allah) fi fagile gbogbo awon iwe mimo ti o ti so kale siwaju re. Idi abajo eyi ni o mu ki Olohun funraare mojuto siso tira naa (kuro nibii afikun tabi ayokuro omo adarihunrun tabi sisonu) nitoripe oun ni yoo seku gegebi awijare ti o fese mule gbon- in -gbon-in fun gbogbo eda titi di ojo igbehinde (alikiyaamo). (4) Nini igbagbo si awon ojise Olohun pata laiko da enikan si Olohun (Allah) ti ran awon ojise kan si awon eda Re. Eni akoko ninu awon ojise naa ni anabi Nuhu nigbati anabi Muhmmad (ki ike ati ola Olohun o ma a baa ati gbogbo awon ojise ti o siwaju re)si je olupinnu won. Gbogbo awon ojise Olohun pata -ti o fi mo anabi Isa- je eda abara ti ko si nkankan ninu jije Olohun ni ara won. Awon paapaa je eru Olohun (Allah) gegebi awon eda yoku naa ti je eru Olohun sugbon ti Adeda won se aponle fun won pelu riran won ni ise mimo si awon eda abara yoku. Ni akotan, Olohun (Allah) ti pari gbogbo ise ti o fe ran si aye pelu ise-imona ti o fi ran anabi Muhammad (ki ike ati ola Olohun o maa baa).O si ti ran an si gbogbo eniyan laiko da enikan si. Nitori naa, ko si anabi kankan mo leyin anabi Muhammad (ki ike ati ola Olohun o maa baa). (5) Nini igbagbo nipa ojo ikehin Ojo agbehinde ni ojo ikehin ti ko ni si ojo kankan leyin ojo naa mo. Ojo naa ni Olohun (Allah) yoo gbe gbogbo eniyan dide ni aaye pada lati seku titi ayeraye ninu ile onidera (alujonna)tabi ninu ile iya (ina) atanijoni. Ninu igbagbo si ojo ikehin jasi nini igbagbo si gbogbo ohun ti yoo sele leyin iku ni eyi ti o ko ibeere (fitino) saaree ati idera pelu ijiya re sinu. Ati ohun ti yoo tun sele leyin eleyii gegebi agbehinde, iseripadabo si odo Olohun ati isiro ise ti eda gbe aye se. Leyinwa-igba-naa, ni imorile ile ibugbe ayeraye eyi ti i se alujonna tabi ina. (6) Nini igbagbo si kadara(akoole) Ohun ti oun n je kadara ni nini igbagbo pe Olohun (Allah) ni O pebubu gbogbo ohun ti n be, Ohun ni O si da gbogbo eda ni ona ti mimo Re ti siwaju re ti ariwoye Re si fe bee. Gbogbo awon alaamori ni o ti je mimo ni o si ti wa ni akoole ni odo Re. Olohun (Allah) fe gbogbo ohun ti n sele ni o je ki o maa sele bee, Oun paapaa ni o si daa. IKEJI: Awon òpó ?sin Imale[6] Kaaba, ni Mekka Saudi Arabia, ni ibujoko esin Islam. Awon musulumi kakiri agbaye unpade nibe lati gbadura ni isokan. Esin ISLAM je ohun ti a mo lori awon origun marun kan to je pe eniyan ko lee je musulumi tooto ayafi ti o ba ni igbagbo ninu awon origun naa ti o si n se okookan ninu re. Awon origun naa ni wonyi : Ijeri Ijeri (igba-tokantokan) pe Olohun (Allah) nikan ni Oba (ti a a josin fun) ati pe ojise Olohun ni anabi Muhammad (ki ike ati ola Olohun o maa baa) i se. Ijeri yii ni kokoro ISLAM ati ipilese re ti gbogbo eka yoku duro le lori. Itumo a i si oba miran leyin Olohun (Allah) ni pe ko si eni ti o leto pe ki a ma a se ijosin fun ju oun nikan lo.Oun nikan ni apesin tooto. Gbogbo elomiran ti a ba n dari ijosin si odo re yato si Oun je iwa ibaje ti ko si lese nile bi o ti wu ki o mo. Ohun ti o n je Olohun Oba ninu agboye awa musulumi ni eni ti a a josin fun. Itumo ijeri (ifaramo) pe anabi Muhammad (ki ike ati ola Olohun o maa baa) je ojise Olohun ni gbigba a ni ododo ninu gbogbo ohun ti o fun ni ni labare re, titele e ninu gbogbo oun ti o pa lase ati jijinna si gbogbo ohun ti o ko fun ni lati se ti o si jagbe mo a i fe be e. Irun kiki Eyi ni awon irun ti a ma a n paara kiki re ni eemarun lojumo. Olohun (Allah) se e ni ofin lati lee je ifun Olohun ni iwo o Re lori awon eru Re, idupe fu Un lori ideraa Re ati okun idapo laarin musulumi ati Olohun Adeda re. Eyi ti yoo ma a ba A ni gbolohun ninu re ti yoo si ma a gbadura si I ninu re. Ti awon irun yii yo o si je akininlo fun un nipa sise ibaje ati sise aburu. Olohun (Allah) si ti se imudaniloju daradara esin, igunrege igbagbo ati laada aye ati ti orun fun eni ti o ba n ki irun wakati maraarun daadaa. Ni ipase awon irun yii ni ibale-okan ati ibale-ara ti yoo je okunfa orire aye ati ti orun yoo fi sele fun eni ti o ba n kii deede. Itore aanu (Saka) Eyi ni ore atinuwa kan ti eni ti o ba ni owo ti o ti wo gbedeke ti ilana ISLAM se afilele re yoo ma a san ni odoodun fun awon eni ti o leto si gbigba re ninu awon alaini ati awon miran. A ni lati mo daju gbangba pe itore aanu yi i ko je dandan fun alaini ti ko si gbedeke owo yii ni owo re. Eni ti o je dandan fun ni awon oloro ti yoo je pipe fun esin won ati ifaramo ISLAM won .Ti yoo si tun mu ilosiwaju ba iwasi won ati ihuwasi won pelu. Eyi si tun je ona kan pataki lati mu iyonusi ati iyojuran aye kuro lara won ati lara dukia won. Ati lati se afomo fun won kuro nibi aburu pelu lati se ikunlowo fun awon talaka ati awon alaini lawujo ati lati se igbeduro ohun ti yoo mu nkan tubatuse fun awon gan an alara paapaa. Paripari gbogbo re, oore aanu yii ko koja ebubu kan kinkinni ninu ohun ti Olohun (Allah) se fun won ninu owo ati ije- imu. Aawe gbigba Eleyi yoo ma a je ohun ti yoo ma a sele ninu osu kan soso lodoodun. Osu yen si ni osu Ramadan alaponle, eyi ti se osu kesan an ninu osu odun hijira (odun ti a n fi osupa mu ka). Ninu osu yii ni gbogbo awon musulumi yoo se ara won ni osusu-owo ti won yoo si kora duro nibii kosee-mase-kosee-mato won gegebi i jije, mimu ati wiwole to aya eni ni asiko osan. Iyen ni pe kikoraduro yo o wa lati asiko idaji hai (yiyo alufajari) titi di irole pata (asiko wiwo oorun). Olohun (Allah) yoo wa a fi pipe esin won ati igbagbo ati amojukuro nibi laifi won jiro ikoraduro yii fun won. Bee si ni pipe won yoo si lekun gegebi nkan daradara miran yoo ti je tiwon ninu awon oore lantilanti ti o ti pa lese sile fun eleyii ni ile aye nihaayin ati ni orun. Irinajo si ile mimo (haji) Ohun naa ni imura giri lo si ile Olohun (Allah) Olowo lati lo josin fun Un ni asiko kan pato gegebi o tise wa ninu ilana Islam. Olohun (Allah) ti see ni oranyan fun eni ti o ba ni ikapa bee ni igba isemi ni eekan soso. Ninu asiko haji yii ni gbogbo musulumi jakejado aye yoo kojo si aaye ti o loore julo lori ile, ti gbogbo won yoo maa se ijosin fun Olohun kan soso nibe ,ti won yoo si gbe ewu orisikan - naa wo. Ko ni i si iyato laarin olori ati ara ilu, olowo aye ati mekunnu pelu funfun ati dudu ninu won. Gbogbo won yo o ma a se awon ise ijosin mimo kan ti o ti ni akosile. Eyi ti o se koko julo ninu re je kikaraduro ni aaye ti a mo si Arafa ati rirokirika ile Oluwa (Kaaba) abiyi ti o je adojuko gbogbo Musulumi ni asiko ijosin won pelu ilosoke-losodo laarin oke Safa ati Moriwa. Awon anfaani aye ati orun olokan -o - jokan ti ko se e ka tan ni o wa ninu re. IKETA : IHSAN[7] Eleyi tumo si pe ki Musulumi maa sin Olohun re pelu igbagbo ati esin ododo gegebi eni-wipe o n wo Olohun Adedaa lojukoroju, bi o tile je pe ire kori I dajudaju Oun n ri o. Bakanaa, ki o rii daju wipe oun se ohun kohun ni ibamu pelu ilana (Sunnah) ojise e Re; annabi Muhammad (ki ike ati ola Olohun ki o baa). Bakan- naa ni ISLAM tun feto si igbesi aye awon eni ti o gba a lesin yala ni iwasi won ni eyo kookan ni o tabi nigbati won ba wa nijonijo ni ona ti oriire aye ati torun yo o fi je tiwon. Nitori idi eyi ni o fi se fife iyawo ni eto fun awon atele re ti o si se won lojukokoro lo sibe. O si se sina sise ati iwa pansaga ni eewo fun won ati awon isesi-i-laabi miran. Bee ni o si se dida ibi po ati sisaanu awon alaini ati talika ni oranyan pelu amojuto won. Gegebi o ti senilojukokoro lo si ibi gbogbo iwa to dara ti o si se e ni oranyan, bee gege ti o si kininilo nipa gbogbo iwa buruku ti o si se e ni eewo. Siwaju sii, o se kiko oro jo lona mimo gegebii owo sise tabi yiyafunnilo ati ohun ti o fara pe eleyii ni eto. Ni idakeji ewe, o se owo ele (riba) ati gbogbo owokowo ati ohun ti o ba ti ni modaru ati awuruju ninu ni eewo. Alaiye Ipari Nipa Esin Islam Ni Soki Yato si ohun ti a ka siwaju yii, ISLAM se akiyesi aidogba awon eniyan ninu diduroto si oju ona ilana re ati siso eto awon eniyan miran[8]. Nitori-idi-eyi ni o fi gbe awon ijiya amunisakuro-nibi-ese kale fun awon itayo -aala ti o ba waye ninu awon iwo Olohun (Allah ) Mimo; gegebii kikoomo (pipada sinu keferi leyin igba ti a ti gba ISLAM), sise sina, mimu oti ati bee bee lo.Gege bee naa ni o gbe awon ijiya adanilekun kale fun titase agere lori awon eto awon eniyan gegebii pipaayan, ole jija, piparo agbere mo elomiran, titayo aala nipa lilu elomiran tabi si see ni suta ati bee bee lo. O se pataki lati fi rinle pe awon ijiya kookan ti o fi lele yii se weku irunfin kookan la i si aseju tabi aseeto nibe. ISLAM tun seto, o si tun fi ala si ibasepo ti o wa laarin awon ara ilu ati awon adari won. O si se titele awon adari ni dandan fun awon ara ilu ninu gbogbo ohun ti ko ba si sise Olohun (Allah) ninu re. O si se yiyapa si ase won ati aigbo- aigba fun won ni eewo nitori ohun ti o le tara eyi jade ninu aapon ati rukerudo fun terutomo. Ni akotan , a le e fowogbaya re pe ISLAM ti kakoja mimo asepo ti o yanran-un-tan ati ise ti o ye kooro laarin eru Olohun (eda) ati Adeda re ni abala kan, ati laarin omo eda eniyan ati awujo ti o n gbe nibe ninu gbogbo alaamori re ni abala miran. Ko si rere kan ninu awon iwa ati awon ibalo ayafi ki o je pe o ti se ifinimona awon atele re sibe ti o si se won lojukokoro nipa diduro tii gboin -gboin. Bee si ni ko aburu kan ninu awon iwa ati awon ibalo ayafi ki o je pe o ti ki won nilo gidigidi nipa atimasunmo o ti o si ko o fun won. Eyi ni o fi wa n han wa gedegbe pe esin ti ko labujeku kankan ni ISLAM je, esin ti o si dara ni pelu ti a ba gbe yiri wo ni gbogbo ona[9].

train

when was the last reported case of leprosy

Leprosy is curable with a treatment known as multidrug therapy. Treatment for paucibacillary leprosy is with the medications dapsone and rifampicin for six months. Treatment for multibacillary leprosy consists of rifampicin, dapsone, and clofazimine for 12 months. A number of other antibiotics may also be used. These treatments are provided free of charge by the World Health Organization. Globally in 2012, the number of chronic cases of leprosy was 189,000, down from some 5.2 million in the 1980s. The number of new cases was 230,000. Most new cases occur in 16 countries, with India accounting for more than half. In the past 20 years, 16 million people worldwide have been cured of leprosy. About 200 cases are reported per year in the United States.

['english']

ìgbà wo ni wọ́n kọ àkọsílẹ̀ àìsàn ẹ̀tẹ̀ tó kẹ́yìn

Yes

['A maa ń wo ẹ̀tẹ̀ sàn nípa ìtọjú.\xa0Ìtọjú fún ẹ̀tẹ̀ paucibacillary ní àwọn egbògi\xa0dapsone\xa0àti\xa0rifampicin\xa0fún osù 6.\xa0Ìtọjú fún ẹ̀tẹ̀ multibacillary ni\xa0rifampicin,\xa0dapsone, àti\xa0clofazimine\xa0fún osù méjìlá.\xa0Àwọn ìtọjú yíì jẹ́ ọ̀fẹ́ láti ọwọ́\xa0Àjọ Ìlera Àgbayé.\xa0Ọ̀pọ̀ egbògi aṣòdìsí ni a tún lè lò.\xa0Lágbayé ní 2012, iye ìṣẹlẹ̀ lílé ti ẹ̀tẹ̀ jẹ́ 189,000 àti iye ìṣẹlẹ̀ titun jẹ́ 230,000.\xa0Iye ìṣẹlẹ̀ líle ti dínkù láti 5.2 mílíọ́nù ní àwọn ọdún 1980.\xa0Ọ̀pọ̀ àwọn ìsẹlẹ̀ titun wáyé ní orílẹ̀-èdè 16, tí Índíánì sí jẹ̀ bíi ìdajì.\xa0Ní àwọn 20 ọdún sẹ́yìn, 16 mílíọ́nù àwọn ènìyàn lágbayé ni o ti rí ìwosàn lọ́wọ ẹ̀tẹ̀.']

['Ọ̀pọ̀ àwọn ìsẹlẹ̀ titun wáyé ní orílẹ̀-èdè 16, tí Índíánì sí jẹ̀ bíi ìdajì.']

['P3']

??t?? ??t??, tí a tún m??sí Àrùn Hansen (HD), j??? bárakú àkóràn ti kòkòrò àrùn Mycobacterium leprae[1] àti Mycobacterium lepromatosis. Lák?k??, àw?n àkóràn kòní àw?n aamì w??n sì wà báyì fún ?dún 5 l?sí 20 ?dún.[1] Àw?n aamì tí o ? farahàn ni granuloma ti àw?n isan im??, ibi at??gùn ìmí ?gbà, àw?? ara, àti àw?n ojú.[1] Èyí lè fa ìrora àti ìpàdánù àw?n ??yà ìkángun nítorí ìfarapa léraléra.[2] Àìlera àti àìríran dáradára lè wáyé.[2] Orísi àw?n arùn dálé iye irúf?? kòkòrò tí ó wà níb??: paucibacillary àti multibacillary.[2] Àw?n irúf?? méjì yíì yàt?? nípa iye àw?n ohun ayí àw?? padà tí kò dára, àw?n bálabála àw?n ara, p??lú tí o ní márùn tàbí dí?? àti multibacillary tí o ní ju márùn.[2] A sàwarí ìwádìí àìsàn yíì nípa wíwá acid-fast bacilli ní ày??wò ìsú-ara ti aw?? ara tàbí nípa ?ísàwarí DNA nípa polymerase àbájáde ì???l?? t??lét??lé.[2] Ó sábà maa ? ?s?l?? láàrin àw?n tí o ? gbé nínu òsì a sì gbàgb?? pé o maa ? ràn nípa àw?n mímí tí o ? wáyé.[2] O ní àrànm?? tí ó ga.[2] A maa ? wo ??t?? sàn nípa ìt?jú.[1] Ìt?jú fún ??t?? paucibacillary ní àw?n egbògi dapsone àti rifampicin fún osù 6.[2] Ìt?jú fún ??t?? multibacillary ni rifampicin, dapsone, àti clofazimine fún osù méjìlá.[2] Àw?n ìt?jú yíì j?? ??f?? láti ?w?? Àj? Ìlera Àgbayé.[1] ??p?? egbògi a?òdìsí ni a tún lè lò.[2] Lágbayé ní 2012, iye ì??l?? lílé ti ??t?? j?? 189,000 àti iye ì??l?? titun j?? 230,000.[1] Iye ì??l?? líle ti dínkù láti 5.2 mílí??nù ní àw?n ?dún 1980.[1][3][4] ??p?? àw?n ìs?l?? titun wáyé ní oríl??-èdè 16, tí Índíánì sí j?? bíi ìdajì.[1][2] Ní àw?n 20 ?dún s??yìn, 16 mílí??nù àw?n ènìyàn lágbayé ni o ti rí ìwosàn l??w? ??t??.[1] ??t?? ti ? ran àw?n ènìyàn fún àw?n ?gb??rún ?dún s??yìn.[2] Àrùn yí gba orúk? r? láti Látínì ??r?? lepra, tí ó túnm?? sí "scaly", nígbà tí ??r?? "Àrùn Hansen" wá láti orúk? oní?ègùn Gerhard Armauer Hansen.[2] Yíya àw?n èniyàn s??t?? ní aw?n ìletò ad??t?? ?sì ? wáyé ní àw?n oríl??-èdè bíi Índíánì, p??lú iye ju ?gb??gb??rún l?;[5] ?áínà, p??lú iye ní ?g?g??rùn;[6] àti ní Áfíríkà.[7] Síb??síb??, ??p?? àw?n ìletò kòsí m??.[7] ??t?? ni ó r??m?? àbùkù ìbálóp?? fún ??p?? ìtàn,[1] tí ó j?? ìdènà fún ìfi-ara-?ni sùn àti ìt?jú l??gán. ?j?? ??t?? Àgbayé b??r?? ní 1954 láti mú mím?? nípa wá fún àw?n tí o ní ??t??.[8] Awon ami ati ifarahan Awon ami ti o wopo ti a maa n ri fun eyikeyi arun ete ni bi imu to n se omi, ara gbigbe; arun oju; egbo ara, irewesi si isan; ara pipon; aini imolara ni ika owo ati ese.[9] Siwajusi, epon maa n kere si, ati pe, oko okunri le ma dide daradara.[10] Okunfa M. leprae and M. lepromatosis M. leprae ati M. lepromatosis je mycobacteria ti o n se okunfa ete.[11] M. lepromatosis je mycobacteria ti a sese mo ti a si yo jade lati ara eni ti o ni àrùn ??t?? tó ? tàn kálè? ni odun 2008.[12][13]

For the Biblical term and its varied meanings, see Tzaraath . For other uses, see Leprosy (disambiguation) . "Leper" redirects here. It is not to be confused with Ieper , a Belgian city. Leprosy Synonyms Hansen's disease (HD) A 24-year-old man with leprosy (1886) Pronunciation / ˈ l ɛ p r ə s i / Specialty Infectious disease Symptoms Decreased ability to feel pain Causes Mycobacterium leprae or Mycobacterium lepromatosis Risk factors Close contact with a case of leprosy, living in poverty Treatment Multidrug therapy Medication Rifampicin , dapsone , clofazimine Frequency 514,000 (2015) [ edit on Wikidata ] Leprosy , also known as Hansen's disease ( HD ), is a long-term infection by the bacterium Mycobacterium leprae or Mycobacterium lepromatosis . Initially, infections are without symptoms and typically remain this way for 5 to 20 years. Symptoms that develop include granulomas of the nerves , respiratory tract , skin, and eyes. This may result in a lack of ability to feel pain, thus loss of parts of extremities due to repeated injuries or infection due to unnoticed wounds. Weakness and poor eyesight may also be present. Leprosy is spread between people. This is thought to occur through a cough or contact with fluid from the nose of an infected person. Leprosy occurs more commonly among those living in poverty. Contrary to popular belief, it is not highly contagious. The two main types of disease are based on the number of bacteria present: paucibacillary and multibacillary. The two types are differentiated by the number of poorly pigmented , numb skin patches present, with paucibacillary having five or fewer and multibacillary having more than five. The diagnosis is confirmed by finding acid-fast bacilli in a biopsy of the skin or by detecting the DNA using polymerase chain reaction . Leprosy is curable with a treatment known as multidrug therapy. Treatment for paucibacillary leprosy is with the medications dapsone and rifampicin for six months. Treatment for multibacillary leprosy consists of rifampicin , dapsone , and clofazimine for 12 months. A number of other antibiotics may also be used. These treatments are provided free of charge by the World Health Organization . Globally in 2012, the number of chronic cases of leprosy was 189,000, down from some 5.2 million in the 1980s. The number of new cases was 230,000. Most new cases occur in 16 countries, with India accounting for more than half. In the past 20 years, 16 million people worldwide have been cured of leprosy. About 200 cases are reported per year in the United States. Leprosy has affected humanity for thousands of years. The disease takes its name from the Latin word lepra , while the term "Hansen's disease" is named after the physician Gerhard Armauer Hansen . Separating people by placing them in leper colonies still occurs in places such as India, China, and Africa. However, most colonies have closed, since leprosy is not very contagious. Social stigma has been associated with leprosy for much of history, which continues to be a barrier to self-reporting and early treatment. Some consider the word "leper" offensive, preferring the phrase "person affected with leprosy". It is classified as a neglected tropical disease . World Leprosy Day was started in 1954 to draw awareness to those affected by leprosy. Contents [ hide ] 1 Signs and symptoms 2 Cause 2.1 M. leprae and M. lepromatosis 2.2 Risk factors 2.3 Transmission 2.4 Genetics 3 Pathophysiology 4 Diagnosis 4.1 Classification 5 Prevention 6 Treatment 7 Epidemiology 7.1 Disease burden 8 History 9 Society and culture 9.1 India 9.2 Treatment cost 9.3 Historical texts 9.4 Middle Ages 9.5 19th century 9.5.1 Norway 9.5.2 Colonialism and imperialism 9.6 Stigma 9.7 Programs and treatment 9.8 Notable cases 10 Other animals 11 See also 12 References 13 External links Signs and symptoms [ edit ] Leprosy is mostly a granulomatous disease of the peripheral nerves and mucosa of the upper respiratory tract ; skin lesions (light or dark patches) are the primary external sign. If untreated, leprosy can progress and cause permanent damage to the skin, nerves, limbs, and eyes. Secondary infections, in turn, can result in tissue loss, causing fingers and toes to become shortened and deformed, as cartilage is absorbed into the body. Hands deformed by leprosy Leprosy in Tahiti, circa 1895 A 26-year-old woman with leprous lesions A 13-year-old boy with severe leprosy Cause [ edit ] M. leprae and M. lepromatosis [ edit ] M. leprae , one of the causative agents of leprosy: As an acid-fast bacterium, M. leprae appears red when a Ziehl-Neelsen stain is used. Main articles: Mycobacterium leprae and Mycobacterium lepromatosis M. leprae and M. lepromatosis are the causative agents of leprosy. M. lepromatosis is a relatively newly identified mycobacterium isolated from a fatal case of diffuse lepromatous leprosy in 2008. An intracellular, acid-fast bacterium , M. leprae is aerobic and rod-shaped, and is surrounded by the waxy cell membrane coating characteristic of the Mycobacterium genus. Due to extensive loss of genes necessary for independent growth, M. leprae and M. lepromatosis are obligate intracellular pathogens , and unculturable in the laboratory, a factor that leads to difficulty in definitively identifying the organism under a strict interpretation of Koch's postulates . The use of nonculture-based techniques such as molecular genetics has allowed for alternative establishment of causation. While the causative organisms have to date been impossible to culture in vitro , it has been possible to grow them in animals such as mice and armadillos. Naturally occurring infection also has been reported in nonhuman primates, including the African chimpanzee , sooty mangabey , and cynomolgus macaque, as well as in armadillos and red squirrels . Red squirrels ( Sciurus vulgaris ) - a threatened species - in England were found to have leprosy in November 2016. However, no squirrel cases have spread to a human for hundreds of years. Risk factors [ edit ] The greatest risk factor for developing leprosy is contact with another case of leprosy. Contacts of people with leprosy are five to eight times more likely to develop leprosy than members of the general population. Leprosy also occurs more commonly among those living in poverty. Other risk factors are poorly understood. However, conditions that reduce immune function, such as malnutrition, other illnesses, or host genetic differences, may increase the risk of developing leprosy. Despite this, infection with HIV does not appear to increase the risk of developing leprosy. Transmission [ edit ] Transmission of leprosy occurs during close contact with those who are infected. Transmission is proposed to be by nasal droplets, but many questions remain about its mode of transmission and epidemiology. Leprosy is not known to be either sexually transmitted or highly infectious. People are generally no longer infectious after the first month of standard multidrug therapy. Leprosy may also be transmitted to humans by armadillos. Two exit routes of M. leprae from the human body often described are the skin and the nasal mucosa, although their relative importance is not clear. Lepromatous cases show large numbers of organisms deep in the dermis , but whether they reach the skin surface in sufficient numbers is doubtful. The skin and the upper respiratory tract are most likely entry route. While older research dealt with the skin route, recent research has increasingly favored the respiratory route. Experimental transmission of leprosy through aerosols containing M. leprae in immunosuppressed mice was accomplished, suggesting a similar possibility in humans. Genetics [ edit ] Name Locus OMIM Gene LPRS1 10p13 609888 LPRS2 6q25 607572 PARK2 , PACRG LPRS3 4q32 246300 TLR2 LPRS4 6p21.3 610988 LTA LPRS5 4p14 613223 TLR1 LPRS6 13q14.11 613407 Several genes have been associated with a susceptibility to leprosy. Often, the immune system is able to eliminate leprosy during the early infection stage before severe symptoms develop. A defect in cell-mediated immunity may cause susceptibility to leprosy. The region of DNA responsible for this variability is also involved in Parkinson's disease , giving rise to current speculation that the two disorders may be linked in some way at the biochemical level. Some evidence indicates not all people who are infected with M. leprae develop leprosy, and genetic factors have long been thought to play a role, due to the observation of clustering of leprosy around certain families, and the failure to understand why certain individuals develop lepromatous leprosy while others develop other types of leprosy. Pathophysiology [ edit ] How the infection produces the symptoms of the disease is not known. Diagnosis [ edit ] According to the World Health Organization, diagnosis in areas where people are frequently infected is based on one of these main signs: Skin lesion consistent with leprosy and with definite sensory loss Positive skin smears Skin lesions can be single or multiple, and usually hypopigmented, although occasionally reddish or copper-colored. The lesions may be macules (flat), papules (raised), or nodular. The sensory loss at the skin lesion is important because this feature can help differentiate it from other causes of skin lesions such as tinea versicolor . Thickened nerves are associated with leprosy and can be accompanied by loss of sensation or muscle weakness. However, without the characteristic skin lesion and sensory loss, muscle weakness is not considered a reliable sign of leprosy. In some cases, acid-fast leprosy bacilli in skin smears are considered diagnostic; however, the diagnosis is clinical. Diagnosis in areas where the disease is uncommon, such as the United States, is often delayed because healthcare providers are unaware of leprosy and its symptoms. Early diagnosis and treatment prevent nerve involvement, the hallmark of leprosy, and the disability it causes. Many kinds of leprosy are known, but some symptoms are common to them, including runny nose, dry scalp, eye problems, skin lesions, muscle weakness, reddish skin, smooth, shiny, diffuse thickening of facial skin, ear, and hand, loss of sensation in fingers and toes, thickening of peripheral nerves, and flat nose due to destruction of nasal cartilage. Also, phonation and resonation of sound occur during speech. Often, atrophy of the testes with resulting impotence occurs. Classification [ edit ] Several different approaches for classifying leprosy exist, but parallels exist. The World Health Organization system distinguishes "paucibacillary" and "multibacillary" based upon the proliferation of bacteria. (" pauci -" refers to a low quantity.) The SHAY scale provides five gradations. The ICD-10 , though developed by the WHO, uses Ridley-Jopling and not the WHO system. It also adds an indeterminate ("I") entry. In MeSH , three groupings are used. WHO Ridley-Jopling ICD-10 MeSH Description Lepromin test Paucibacillary tuberculoid ("TT"), borderline tuberculoid ("BT") A30.1, A30.2 Tuberculoid It is characterized by one or more hypopigmented skin macules and patches where skin sensations are lost because of damaged peripheral nerves that have been attacked by the human host's immune cells. Positive Multibacillary midborderline or borderline ("BB") A30.3 Borderline Borderline leprosy is of intermediate severity and is the most common form. Skin lesions resemble tuberculoid leprosy, but are more numerous and irregular; large patches may affect a whole limb, and peripheral nerve involvement with weakness and loss of sensation is common. This type is unstable and may become more like lepromatous leprosy or may undergo a reversal reaction, becoming more like the tuberculoid form. Multibacillary borderline lepromatous ("BL"), and lepromatous ("LL") A30.4, A30.5 Lepromatous It is associated with symmetric skin lesions , nodules , plaques , thickened dermis, and frequent involvement of the nasal mucosa resulting in nasal congestion and nose bleeds , but, typically, detectable nerve damage is late. Negative A difference in immune response to the tuberculoid and lepromatous forms is seen. Leprosy may also be divided into: Early and indeterminate leprosy Tuberculoid leprosy Borderline tuberculoid leprosy Borderline leprosy Borderline lepromatous leprosy Lepromatous leprosy Histoid leprosy Diffuse leprosy of Lucio and Latapí This disease may also occur with only neural involvement, without skin lesions. Prevention [ edit ] Early detection of the disease is important, since physical and neurological damage may be irreversible even if cured. Medications can decrease the risk of those living with people with leprosy from acquiring the disease and likely those with whom people with leprosy come into contact outside the home. However, concerns are known of resistance, cost, and disclosure of a person's infection status when doing follow-up of contacts. Therefore, the WHO recommends that people who live in the same household be examined for leprosy and be treated only if symptoms are present. The Bacillus Calmette–Guérin (BCG) vaccine offers a variable amount of protection against leprosy in addition to its target of tuberculosis . It appears to be 26 to 41% effective (based on controlled trials) and about 60% effective based on observational studies with two doses possibly working better than one. Development of a more effective vaccine is ongoing. Treatment [ edit ] MDT antileprosy drugs: standard regimens A number of leprostatic agents are available for treatment. For paucibacillary (PB or tuberculoid) cases, treatment with daily dapsone and monthly rifampicin for six months is recommended. While for multibacillary (MB or lepromatous) cases, treatment with daily dapsone and clofazimine along with monthly rifampicin for 12 months is recommended. Multidrug therapy (MDT) remains highly effective, and people are no longer infectious after the first monthly dose. It is safe and easy to use under field conditions due to its presentation in calendar blister packs. Relapse rates remain low, and no resistance to the combined drugs is seen. Epidemiology [ edit ] Main article: Epidemiology of leprosy World distribution of leprosy, 2003 Disability-adjusted life year for leprosy per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004 no data <1.5 1.5–3 3–4.5 4.5–6 6–7.5 7.5–9 9–10.5 10.5–12 12–13.5 13.5–15 15–20 >20 In 2015, the number of cases of leprosy was about 175,000 and the number of new cases was 210,000. As of 2013, 14 countries contain 95% of the globally reported leprosy cases. Of these, India has the greatest number of cases (59%), followed by Brazil (14%) and Indonesia (8%). Although the number of cases worldwide continues to fall, pockets of high prevalence remain in certain areas such as Brazil, South Asia (India, Nepal, Bhutan), some parts of Africa (Tanzania, Madagascar, Mozambique), and the western Pacific. The number of cases of leprosy was in the tens of millions in the 1960s; a series of national (the International Federation of Anti-Leprosy Associations) and international (the WHO's "Global Strategy for Reducing Disease Burden Due to Leprosy") initiatives have reduced the total number and the number of new cases of the disease. In 1995, two to three million people were estimated to be permanently disabled because of leprosy. Disease burden [ edit ] Although the number of new leprosy cases occurring each year is important as a measure of transmission, it is difficult to measure due to leprosy's long incubation period, delays in diagnosis after onset of the disease, and the lack of laboratory tools to detect it in the very early stages. Instead, the registered prevalence is used. Registered prevalence is a useful proxy indicator of the disease burden, as it reflects the number of active leprosy cases diagnosed with the disease and receiving treatment with MDT at a given point in time. The prevalence rate is defined as the number of cases registered for MDT treatment among the population in which the cases have occurred, again at a given point in time. New case detection is another indicator of the disease that is usually reported by countries on an annual basis. It includes cases diagnosed with the onset of disease in the year in question (true incidence) and a large proportion of cases with onset in previous years (termed a backlog prevalence of undetected cases). Endemic countries also report the number of new cases with established disabilities at the time of detection, as an indicator of the backlog prevalence. Determination of the time of onset of the disease is, in general, unreliable, is very labor-intensive, and is seldom done in recording these statistics. History [ edit ] Main article: History of leprosy G. H. A. Hansen , discoverer of M. leprae Using comparative genomics, in 2005, geneticists traced the origins and worldwide distribution of leprosy from East Africa or the Near East along human migration routes. They found four strains of M. leprae with specific regional locations. Strain 1 occurs predominantly in Asia, the Pacific region, and East Africa; strain 4, in West Africa and the Caribbean; strain 3 in Europe, North Africa, and the Americas; and strain 2 only in Ethiopia, Malawi , Nepal/north India, and New Caledonia . On the basis of this, they offer a map of the dissemination of leprosy in the world. This confirms the spread of the disease along the migration, colonisation, and slave trade routes taken from East Africa to India, West Africa to the New World, and from Africa into Europe and vice versa. The oldest skeletal evidence for the disease date from 2000 BCE, as found in human remains from the archaeological sites of Balathal in India and Harappa in Pakistan. Although retrospectively identifying descriptions of leprosy-like symptoms is difficult, what appears to be leprosy was discussed by Hippocrates in 460 BC. In 1846, Francis Adams produced The Seven Books of Paulus Aegineta which included a commentary on all medical and surgical knowledge and descriptions and remedies to do with leprosy from the Romans, Greeks, and Arabs. Interpretations of the presence of leprosy have been made on the basis of descriptions in ancient Indian (Atharva Veda and Kausika Sutra), Greek, and Middle Eastern documentary sources that describe skin afflictions. Skeletal remains from the second millennium BC, discovered in 2009, represent the oldest documented evidence for leprosy. Located at Balathal, in Rajasthan, northwest India, the discoverers suggest that if the disease did migrate from Africa to India, during the third millennium BC "at a time when there was substantial interaction among the Indus Civilization, Mesopotamia, and Egypt, there needs to be additional skeletal and molecular evidence of leprosy in India and Africa so as to confirm the African origin of the disease." A proven human case was verified by DNA taken from the shrouded remains of a man discovered in a tomb next to the Old City of Jerusalem dated by radiocarbon methods to 1–50 AD. The causative agent of leprosy, M. leprae , was discovered by G. H. Armauer Hansen in Norway in 1873, making it the first bacterium to be identified as causing disease in humans. The first effective treatment ( promin ) became available in the 1940s. In the 1950s, dapsone was introduced. The search for further effective antileprosy drugs led to the use of clofazimine and rifampicin in the 1960s and 1970s. Later, Indian scientist Shantaram Yawalkar and his colleagues formulated a combined therapy using rifampicin and dapsone, intended to mitigate bacterial resistance. MDT combining all three drugs was first recommended by the WHO in 1981. These three antileprosy drugs are still used in the standard MDT regimens. Leprosy was once believed to be highly contagious and was treated with mercury —as was syphilis , which was first described in 1530. Many early cases thought to be leprosy could actually have been syphilis. Resistance has developed to initial treatment. Until the introduction of MDT in the early 1980s, leprosy could not be diagnosed and treated successfully within the community. Japan still has sanatoriums (although Japan's sanatoriums no longer have active leprosy cases, nor are survivors held in them by law). The importance of the nasal mucosa in the transmission of M leprae was recognized as early as 1898 by Schäffer, in particular, that of the ulcerated mucosa. Society and culture [ edit ] Two lepers denied entrance to town, 14th century India [ edit ] British India enacted the Leprosy Act of 1898 which institutionalized those affected and segregated them by gender to prevent reproduction. The Act was difficult to enforce but was repealed in 1983 only after MDT therapy had become widely available. In 1983, the National Leprosy Elimination Programme, previously the National Leprosy Control Programme, changed its methods from surveillance to the treatment of people with leprosy. India still accounts for over half of the global disease burden. Treatment cost [ edit ] Between 1995 and 1999, the WHO, with the aid of the Nippon Foundation , supplied all endemic countries with free MDT in blister packs, channeled through ministries of health. This free provision was extended in 2000 and again in 2005, 2010 and 2015 with donations by the MDT manufacturer Novartis through the WHO. In the latest agreement signed between the company and the WHO in October 2015, the provision of free MDT by the WHO to all endemic countries will run until the end of 2020. At the national level, nongovernment organizations affiliated with the national program will continue to be provided with an appropriate free supply of this WHO-supplied MDT by the government. Historical texts [ edit ] Written accounts of leprosy date back thousands of years. Various skin diseases translated as leprosy appear in the ancient Indian text, the Atharava Veda , as early as 2000 BC. Another Indian text, the Laws of Manu (1500 BC),  prohibited contact with those infected with the disease and made marriage to a person infected with leprosy punishable. Biblically speaking, the Hebraic root tsara or tsaraath (צָרַע, --tsaw-rah' -- to be struck with leprosy, to be leprous) and the Greek (λεπρός - lepros), are of broader classification than the more narrow use of the term related to Hansen's Disease. Any progressive skin disease (a whitening or splotchy bleaching of skin, raised manifestations of scales, scabs, infections, rashes, etc.…) as well as generalized molds and surface discoloration of any clothing, leather, and/or discoloration on walls surfaces throughout homes all came under the "law of leprosy" (Leviticus 14:54-57). Ancient sources also such as the Talmud (Sifra 63) make clear that tzaraath refers to various types of lesions or stains associated with ritual impurity and occurring on cloth, leather, or houses, as well as skin. It may sometimes be a symptom of the disease described in this article but has many other causes, as well. The New Testament describes instances of Jesus healing people with leprosy ( Luke 5 :10), although the precise relationship between this, tzaraath , and Hansen's disease is not established. The biblical perception that people with leprosy were unclean may be connected to a passage from Leviticus 13: 44-46, among others. Judeo-Christian belief, for some, held that leprosy was of moral consequence, and, as in many societies, early Christians believed that those affected by leprosy were being punished by God for sinful behavior. Moral associations have persisted throughout history. Pope Gregory the Great (540-604) and Isidor of Seville (560-636) considered people with the disease to be heretics. Middle Ages [ edit ] Medieval leper bell It is believed that a rise in leprosy in Europe occurred in the Middle Ages based on the increased number of hospitals created to treat leprosy patients in the 12th and 13th centuries. France alone had nearly 2,000 leprosariums during this period. The social perception in medieval communities was generally one of fear, and those people infected with the disease were thought to be unclean, untrustworthy, and morally corrupt. People with leprosy were also often required to wear clothing that identified them as such or carry a bell announcing their presence. Segregation from mainstream society was common. The third Lateran Council of 1179 and a 1346 edict by King Edward expelled lepers from city limits. Because of the moral stigma of the disease, methods of treatment were both physical and spiritual, and leprosariums were established under the purview of the church. 19th century [ edit ] Norway [ edit ] Norway was the location of a progressive stance on leprosy tracking and treatment and played an influential role in European understanding of the disease. In 1832, Dr. JJ Hjort conducted the first leprosy survey, thus establishing a basis for epidemiological surveys. Subsequent surveys resulted in the establishment of a national leprosy registry to study the causes of leprosy and for tracking of the rate of infection. Early leprosy research throughout Europe was conducted by Norwegian scientists Daniel Cornelius Danielssen and Carl Wilhelm Boeck . Their work resulted in the establishment of the National Leprosy Research and Treatment Center. Danielssen and Boeck believed the cause of leprosy transmission was hereditary. This stance was influential in advocating for the isolation of those infected by gender to prevent reproduction. Colonialism and imperialism [ edit ] Father Damien on his deathbed in 1889 Though leprosy in Europe was again on the decline by the 1860s, Western countries embraced isolation treatment out of fear of the spread of disease from developing countries, minimal understanding of bacteriology, lack of diagnostic ability or knowledge of how contagious the disease was, and missionary activity. Growing imperialism and pressures of the industrial revolution resulted in a Western presence in countries where leprosy was endemic, namely the British presence in India. Isolation treatment methods were observed by Surgeon-Mayor Henry Vandyke Carter of the British Colony in India while visiting Norway, and these methods were applied in India with the financial and logistical assistance of religious missionaries. Colonial and religious influence and associated stigma continued to be a major factor in the treatment and public perception of leprosy in endemic developing countries until the mid-twentieth century. Stigma [ edit ] See also: Leprosy stigma Despite effective treatment and education efforts, leprosy stigma continues to be problematic in endemic developing countries. Leprosy is most common amongst impoverished or marginalized populations where social stigma is likely to be compounded by other social inequities. Fears of ostracism, loss of employment, or expulsion from family and society may contribute to a delayed diagnosis and treatment. Folk models of belief, lack of education, and religious connotations of the disease continue to influence social perceptions of those afflicted in many parts of the world. In Brazil, for example, folklore holds that leprosy is transmitted by dogs, it is a disease associated with sexual promiscuity, and is sometimes thought to be punishment for sins or moral transgressions. Socioeconomic factors also have a direct impact. Lower-class domestic workers who are often employed by those in a higher socioeconomic class may find their employment in jeopardy as physical manifestations of the disease become apparent. Skin discoloration and darker pigmentation resulting from the disease also have social repercussions. In extreme cases in northern India, leprosy is equated with an "untouchable" status that "often persists long after (individuals with leprosy) have been cured of the disease, creating lifelong prospects of divorce, eviction, loss of employment, and ostracism from family and social networks." Programs and treatment [ edit ] The WHO states that diagnosis and treatment with MDT are easy and effective, and a 45% decline in disease burden has occurred since MDT has become more widely available. The organization emphasizes the importance of fully integrating leprosy treatment into public health services, effective diagnosis and treatment, and access to information. In some instances in India, community-based rehabilitation is embraced by local governments and NGOs alike. Often, the identity cultivated by a community environment is preferable to reintegration, and models of self-management and collective agency independent of NGOs and government support have been desirable and successful. Notable cases [ edit ] Saint Damien DeVeuster , a Roman Catholic priest from Belgium, himself eventually contracting leprosy, ministered to lepers who had been placed under a government-sanctioned medical quarantine on the island of Molokaʻi in the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi . Baldwin IV of Jerusalem was a Christian king of Latin Jerusalem afflicted with leprosy. King Henry IV of England (reigned 1399 to 1413) possibly had leprosy. Vietnamese poet Hàn Mặc Tử Ōtani Yoshitsugu , a Japanese daimyō Forough Farrokhzad made a 22-minute documentary about a leprosy colony in Iran in 1962 called The House Is Black . The film humanizes the people affected and opens by saying that "there is no shortage of ugliness in the world, but by closing our eyes on ugliness, we will intensify it." Other animals [ edit ] Wild nine-banded armadillos ( Dayspus novemcinctus ) in south central United States often carry Mycobacterium leprae . This is believed to be because armadillos have such a low body temperature. Leprosy lesions appear mainly in cooler body regions such as the skin and mucous membranes of the upper respiratory tract . Because of armadillos' armor, skin lesions are hard to see. Abrasions around the eyes, nose and feet are the most common signs. Infected armadillos make up a large reservoir of M. leprae and may be a source of infection for some humans in the United States or other locations in the armadillos' home range. In armadillo leprosy, lesions did not persist at the site of entry in animals, M. leprae multiplied in macrophages at the site of inoculation and lymph nodes. See also [ edit ] Noma (disease) References [ edit ] External links [ edit ] Classification V · T · D ICD - 10 : A30 ICD - 9-CM : 030 OMIM : 246300 MeSH : D007918 DiseasesDB : 8478 External resources MedlinePlus : 001347 eMedicine : med/1281 derm/223 neuro/187 Patient UK : Leprosy Wikimedia Commons has media related to Leprosy . Leprosy at Curlie (based on DMOZ ) Links and resources Links to information about leprosy selected by the World Health Organization

train

where does the bacteria that causes leprosy come from

Leprosy is spread between people and possibly from armadillos. This is thought to occur through a cough or contact with fluid from the nose of an infected person. Leprosy occurs more commonly among those living in poverty. Contrary to popular belief, it is not highly contagious. The two main types of disease are based on the number of bacteria present : paucibacillary and multibacillary. The two types are differentiated by the number of poorly pigmented, numb skin patches present, with paucibacillary having five or fewer and multibacillary having more than five. The diagnosis is confirmed by finding acid - fast bacilli in a biopsy of the skin or by detecting the DNA using polymerase chain reaction.

['in south south nigeria,[2]:222 bordering cameroon to the east.']

ibo ni kòkòrò tó ń fa àrùn ẹ̀tẹ̀ ti wá?

Yes

['Orísi àwọn arùn dálé iye irúfẹ́ kòkòrò tí ó wà níbẹ̀: paucibacillary àti multibacillary.\xa0Àwọn irúfẹ́ méjì yíì yàtọ̀ nípa iye àwọn\xa0ohun ayí àwọ̀ padà tí kò dára, àwọn bálabála àwọn ara, pẹ̀lú tí o ní márùn tàbí díẹ̀ àti multibacillary tí o ní ju márùn.\xa0A sàwarí ìwádìí àìsàn yíì nípa wíwá\xa0acid-fast bacilli\xa0ní àyẹ̀wò ìsú-ara ti awọ̀ ara tàbí nípa ṣísàwarí DNA nípa\xa0polymerase àbájáde ìṣẹ̀lẹ̀ tẹ̀létẹ̀lé.\xa0Ó sábà maa ń ṣsẹlẹ̀ láàrin àwọn tí o ń gbé nínu òsì a sì gbàgbọ́ pé o maa ń ràn nípa àwọn mímí tí o ń wáyé.\xa0O ní àrànmọ́ tí ó ga.']

['Ó sábà maa ń ṣsẹlẹ̀ láàrin àwọn tí o ń gbé nínu òsì a sì gbàgbọ́ pé o maa ń ràn nípa àwọn mímí tí o ń wáyé.']

['P2']

??t?? ??t??, tí a tún m??sí Àrùn Hansen (HD), j??? bárakú àkóràn ti kòkòrò àrùn Mycobacterium leprae[1] àti Mycobacterium lepromatosis. Lák?k??, àw?n àkóràn kòní àw?n aamì w??n sì wà báyì fún ?dún 5 l?sí 20 ?dún.[1] Àw?n aamì tí o ? farahàn ni granuloma ti àw?n isan im??, ibi at??gùn ìmí ?gbà, àw?? ara, àti àw?n ojú.[1] Èyí lè fa ìrora àti ìpàdánù àw?n ??yà ìkángun nítorí ìfarapa léraléra.[2] Àìlera àti àìríran dáradára lè wáyé.[2] Orísi àw?n arùn dálé iye irúf?? kòkòrò tí ó wà níb??: paucibacillary àti multibacillary.[2] Àw?n irúf?? méjì yíì yàt?? nípa iye àw?n ohun ayí àw?? padà tí kò dára, àw?n bálabála àw?n ara, p??lú tí o ní márùn tàbí dí?? àti multibacillary tí o ní ju márùn.[2] A sàwarí ìwádìí àìsàn yíì nípa wíwá acid-fast bacilli ní ày??wò ìsú-ara ti aw?? ara tàbí nípa ?ísàwarí DNA nípa polymerase àbájáde ì???l?? t??lét??lé.[2] Ó sábà maa ? ?s?l?? láàrin àw?n tí o ? gbé nínu òsì a sì gbàgb?? pé o maa ? ràn nípa àw?n mímí tí o ? wáyé.[2] O ní àrànm?? tí ó ga.[2] A maa ? wo ??t?? sàn nípa ìt?jú.[1] Ìt?jú fún ??t?? paucibacillary ní àw?n egbògi dapsone àti rifampicin fún osù 6.[2] Ìt?jú fún ??t?? multibacillary ni rifampicin, dapsone, àti clofazimine fún osù méjìlá.[2] Àw?n ìt?jú yíì j?? ??f?? láti ?w?? Àj? Ìlera Àgbayé.[1] ??p?? egbògi a?òdìsí ni a tún lè lò.[2] Lágbayé ní 2012, iye ì??l?? lílé ti ??t?? j?? 189,000 àti iye ì??l?? titun j?? 230,000.[1] Iye ì??l?? líle ti dínkù láti 5.2 mílí??nù ní àw?n ?dún 1980.[1][3][4] ??p?? àw?n ìs?l?? titun wáyé ní oríl??-èdè 16, tí Índíánì sí j?? bíi ìdajì.[1][2] Ní àw?n 20 ?dún s??yìn, 16 mílí??nù àw?n ènìyàn lágbayé ni o ti rí ìwosàn l??w? ??t??.[1] ??t?? ti ? ran àw?n ènìyàn fún àw?n ?gb??rún ?dún s??yìn.[2] Àrùn yí gba orúk? r? láti Látínì ??r?? lepra, tí ó túnm?? sí "scaly", nígbà tí ??r?? "Àrùn Hansen" wá láti orúk? oní?ègùn Gerhard Armauer Hansen.[2] Yíya àw?n èniyàn s??t?? ní aw?n ìletò ad??t?? ?sì ? wáyé ní àw?n oríl??-èdè bíi Índíánì, p??lú iye ju ?gb??gb??rún l?;[5] ?áínà, p??lú iye ní ?g?g??rùn;[6] àti ní Áfíríkà.[7] Síb??síb??, ??p?? àw?n ìletò kòsí m??.[7] ??t?? ni ó r??m?? àbùkù ìbálóp?? fún ??p?? ìtàn,[1] tí ó j?? ìdènà fún ìfi-ara-?ni sùn àti ìt?jú l??gán. ?j?? ??t?? Àgbayé b??r?? ní 1954 láti mú mím?? nípa wá fún àw?n tí o ní ??t??.[8] Awon ami ati ifarahan Awon ami ti o wopo ti a maa n ri fun eyikeyi arun ete ni bi imu to n se omi, ara gbigbe; arun oju; egbo ara, irewesi si isan; ara pipon; aini imolara ni ika owo ati ese.[9] Siwajusi, epon maa n kere si, ati pe, oko okunri le ma dide daradara.[10] Okunfa M. leprae and M. lepromatosis M. leprae ati M. lepromatosis je mycobacteria ti o n se okunfa ete.[11] M. lepromatosis je mycobacteria ti a sese mo ti a si yo jade lati ara eni ti o ni àrùn ??t?? tó ? tàn kálè? ni odun 2008.[12][13]

For other uses, see Leprosy (disambiguation) . Leprosy Synonyms Hansen's disease (HD) A 24-year-old man with leprosy (1886) Pronunciation / ˈ l ɛ p r ə s i / Specialty Infectious disease Symptoms Decreased ability to feel pain Causes Mycobacterium leprae or Mycobacterium lepromatosis Risk factors Close contact with a case of leprosy, living in poverty Treatment Multidrug therapy Medication Rifampicin , dapsone , clofazimine Frequency 514,000 (2015) Leprosy , also known as Hansen's disease ( HD ), is a long-term infection by the bacterium Mycobacterium leprae or Mycobacterium lepromatosis . Initially, infections are without symptoms and typically remain this way for 5 to 20 years. Symptoms that develop include granulomas of the nerves , respiratory tract , skin, and eyes. This may result in a lack of ability to feel pain, which can lead to the loss of parts of extremities due to repeated injuries or infection due to unnoticed wounds. Weakness and poor eyesight may also be present. Leprosy is spread between people and possibly from armadillos . This is thought to occur through a cough or contact with fluid from the nose of an infected person. Leprosy occurs more commonly among those living in poverty. Contrary to popular belief, it is not highly contagious. The two main types of disease are based on the number of bacteria present: paucibacillary and multibacillary. The two types are differentiated by the number of poorly pigmented , numb skin patches present, with paucibacillary having five or fewer and multibacillary having more than five. The diagnosis is confirmed by finding acid-fast bacilli in a biopsy of the skin or by detecting the DNA using polymerase chain reaction . Leprosy is curable with a treatment known as multidrug therapy. Treatment for paucibacillary leprosy is with the medications dapsone and rifampicin for six months. Treatment for multibacillary leprosy consists of rifampicin , dapsone , and clofazimine for 12 months. A number of other antibiotics may also be used. These treatments are provided free of charge by the World Health Organization . Globally in 2012, the number of chronic cases of leprosy was 189,000, down from some 5.2 million in the 1980s. The number of new cases was 230,000. Most new cases occur in 16 countries, with India accounting for more than half. In the past 20 years, 16 million people worldwide have been cured of leprosy. About 200 cases are reported per year in the United States. Leprosy has affected humanity for thousands of years. The disease takes its name from the Greek word λέπρᾱ ( léprā ), from λεπῐ́ς ( lepís ; "scale"), while the term "Hansen's disease" is named after the Norwegian physician Gerhard Armauer Hansen . Separating people by placing them in leper colonies still occurs in places such as India, China, and Africa. However, most colonies have closed, since leprosy is not very contagious. Social stigma has been associated with leprosy for much of history, which continues to be a barrier to self-reporting and early treatment. Some consider the word "leper" offensive, preferring the phrase "person affected with leprosy". It is classified as a neglected tropical disease . World Leprosy Day was started in 1954 to draw awareness to those affected by leprosy. Contents 1 Signs and symptoms 2 Cause 2.1 M. leprae and M. lepromatosis 2.2 Risk factors 2.3 Transmission 2.4 Genetics 3 Pathophysiology 4 Diagnosis 4.1 Classification 5 Prevention 6 Treatment 6.1 Anti-leprosy medication 6.2 Skin changes 7 Epidemiology 7.1 Disease burden 8 History 9 Society and culture 9.1 India 9.2 Treatment cost 9.3 Historical texts 9.4 Middle Ages 9.5 19th century 9.5.1 Norway 9.5.2 Colonialism and imperialism 9.6 Stigma 9.7 Programs and treatment 9.8 Notable cases 10 Other animals 11 See also 12 References 13 External links Signs and symptoms [ edit ] Skin lesions on the thigh of a person with leprosy. Hands deformed by leprosy The first noticeable sign of leprosy is often the development of pale or pinkish patches of skin that may be insensitive to temperature or pain. This is sometimes accompanied or preceded by nerve problems including numbness or tenderness in the hands or feet. Secondary infections, in turn, can result in tissue loss, causing fingers and toes to become shortened and deformed, as cartilage is absorbed into the body. Approximately 30% of people experience nerve damage, and the nerve damage sustained is irreversible, even with treatment of the infection. Damage to nerves may cause sensation abnormalities, which may lead to infection, ulceration, and joint deformity. Cause [ edit ] M. leprae and M. lepromatosis [ edit ] M. leprae , one of the causative agents of leprosy: As an acid-fast bacterium, M. leprae appears red when a Ziehl-Neelsen stain is used. Main articles: Mycobacterium leprae and Mycobacterium lepromatosis M. leprae and M. lepromatosis are the causative agents of leprosy. M. lepromatosis is a relatively newly identified mycobacterium isolated from a fatal case of diffuse lepromatous leprosy in 2008. An intracellular, acid-fast bacterium , M. leprae is aerobic and rod-shaped, and is surrounded by the waxy cell membrane coating characteristic of the genus Mycobacterium . Due to extensive loss of genes necessary for independent growth, M. leprae and M. lepromatosis are obligate intracellular pathogens , and unculturable in the laboratory, a factor that leads to difficulty in definitively identifying the organism under a strict interpretation of Koch's postulates . The use of nonculture-based techniques such as molecular genetics has allowed for alternative establishment of causation. While the causative organisms have to date been impossible to culture in vitro , it has been possible to grow them in animals such as mice and armadillos. Naturally occurring infection also has been reported in nonhuman primates, including the African chimpanzee , sooty mangabey , and cynomolgus macaque, as well as in armadillos and red squirrels . Red squirrels ( Sciurus vulgaris ) - a threatened species - in England were found to have leprosy in November 2016. However, no squirrel cases have spread to a human for hundreds of years. [ medical citation needed ] Risk factors [ edit ] The greatest risk factor for developing leprosy is contact with another case of leprosy. Contacts of people with leprosy are five to eight times more likely to develop leprosy than members of the general population. Leprosy also occurs more commonly among those living in poverty. Other risk factors are poorly understood. However, conditions that reduce immune function, such as malnutrition, other illnesses, or host genetic differences, may increase the risk of developing leprosy. Despite this, infection with HIV does not appear to increase the risk of developing leprosy. Transmission [ edit ] Transmission of leprosy occurs during close contact with those who are infected. Transmission is proposed to be by nasal droplets, but many questions remain about its mode of transmission and epidemiology. Leprosy is not known to be either sexually transmitted or highly infectious. People are generally no longer infectious after the first month of standard multidrug therapy. Leprosy may also be transmitted to humans by armadillos . Two exit routes of M. leprae from the human body often described are the skin and the nasal mucosa, although their relative importance is not clear. Lepromatous cases show large numbers of organisms deep in the dermis , but whether they reach the skin surface in sufficient numbers is doubtful. The skin and the upper respiratory tract are most likely entry route. While older research dealt with the skin route, recent research has increasingly favored the respiratory route. Experimental transmission of leprosy through aerosols containing M. leprae in immunosuppressed mice was accomplished, suggesting a similar possibility in humans. Genetics [ edit ] Name Locus OMIM Gene LPRS1 10p13 609888 LPRS2 6q25 607572 PARK2 , PACRG LPRS3 4q32 246300 TLR2 LPRS4 6p21.3 610988 LTA LPRS5 4p14 613223 TLR1 LPRS6 13q14.11 613407 Several genes have been associated with a susceptibility to leprosy. Often, the immune system is able to eliminate leprosy during the early infection stage before severe symptoms develop. A defect in cell-mediated immunity may cause susceptibility to leprosy. The region of DNA responsible for this variability is also involved in Parkinson's disease , giving rise to current speculation that the two disorders may be linked in some way at the biochemical level. Some evidence indicates not all people who are infected with M. leprae develop leprosy, and genetic factors have long been thought to play a role, due to the observation of clustering of leprosy around certain families, and the failure to understand why certain individuals develop lepromatous leprosy while others develop other types of leprosy. Pathophysiology [ edit ] How the infection produces the symptoms of the disease is not known. Diagnosis [ edit ] According to the World Health Organization, diagnosis in areas where people are frequently infected is based on one of these main signs: Skin lesion consistent with leprosy and with definite sensory loss Positive skin smears Skin lesions can be single or multiple, and usually hypopigmented, although occasionally reddish or copper-colored. The lesions may be macules (flat), papules (raised), or nodular. The sensory loss at the skin lesion is important because this feature can help differentiate it from other causes of skin lesions such as tinea versicolor . Thickened nerves are associated with leprosy and can be accompanied by loss of sensation or muscle weakness. However, without the characteristic skin lesion and sensory loss, muscle weakness is not considered a reliable sign of leprosy. In some cases, acid-fast leprosy bacilli in skin smears are considered diagnostic; however, the diagnosis is clinical. Diagnosis in areas where the disease is uncommon, such as the United States, is often delayed because healthcare providers are unaware of leprosy and its symptoms. Early diagnosis and treatment prevent nerve involvement, the hallmark of leprosy, and the disability it causes. Many kinds of leprosy are known, but some symptoms are common to them, including runny nose, dry scalp, eye problems, skin lesions, muscle weakness, reddish skin, smooth, shiny, diffuse thickening of facial skin, ear, and hand, loss of sensation in fingers and toes, thickening of peripheral nerves, and flat nose due to destruction of nasal cartilage. Also, phonation and resonation of sound occur during speech. Often, atrophy of the testes with resulting impotence occurs. Classification [ edit ] Several different approaches for classifying leprosy exist, but parallels exist. The World Health Organization system distinguishes "paucibacillary" and "multibacillary" based upon the proliferation of bacteria. (" pauci -" refers to a low quantity.) The Ridley-Jopling scale provides five gradations. The ICD-10 , though developed by the WHO, uses Ridley-Jopling and not the WHO system. It also adds an indeterminate ("I") entry. In MeSH , three groupings are used. WHO Ridley-Jopling ICD-10 MeSH Description Lepromin test Paucibacillary tuberculoid ("TT"), borderline tuberculoid ("BT") A30.1, A30.2 Tuberculoid It is characterized by one or more hypopigmented skin macules and patches where skin sensations are lost because of damaged peripheral nerves that have been attacked by the human host's immune cells. Positive Multibacillary midborderline or borderline ("BB") A30.3 Borderline Borderline leprosy is of intermediate severity and is the most common form. Skin lesions resemble tuberculoid leprosy, but are more numerous and irregular; large patches may affect a whole limb, and peripheral nerve involvement with weakness and loss of sensation is common. This type is unstable and may become more like lepromatous leprosy or may undergo a reversal reaction, becoming more like the tuberculoid form. Multibacillary borderline lepromatous ("BL"), and lepromatous ("LL") A30.4, A30.5 Lepromatous It is associated with symmetric skin lesions , nodules , plaques , thickened dermis, and frequent involvement of the nasal mucosa resulting in nasal congestion and nose bleeds , but, typically, detectable nerve damage is late. Negative A difference in immune response to the tuberculoid and lepromatous forms is seen. Leprosy may also be divided into: Early and indeterminate leprosy Tuberculoid leprosy Borderline tuberculoid leprosy Borderline leprosy Borderline lepromatous leprosy Lepromatous leprosy Histoid leprosy Diffuse leprosy of Lucio and Latapí This disease may also occur with only neural involvement, without skin lesions. Prevention [ edit ] Early detection of the disease is important, since physical and neurological damage may be irreversible even if cured. Medications can decrease the risk of those living with people with leprosy from acquiring the disease and likely those with whom people with leprosy come into contact outside the home. However, concerns are known of resistance, cost, and disclosure of a person's infection status when doing follow-up of contacts. Therefore, the WHO recommends that people who live in the same household be examined for leprosy and be treated only if symptoms are present. The Bacillus Calmette–Guérin (BCG) vaccine offers a variable amount of protection against leprosy in addition to its target of tuberculosis . It appears to be 26 to 41% effective (based on controlled trials) and about 60% effective based on observational studies with two doses possibly working better than one. Development of a more effective vaccine is ongoing. Treatment [ edit ] MDT antileprosy drugs: standard regimens Anti-leprosy medication [ edit ] A number of leprostatic agents are available for treatment. For paucibacillary (PB or tuberculoid) cases, treatment with daily dapsone and monthly rifampicin for six months is recommended, while for multibacillary (MB or lepromatous) cases, treatment with daily dapsone and clofazimine along with monthly rifampicin for 12 months is recommended. Multidrug therapy (MDT) remains highly effective, and people are no longer infectious after the first monthly dose. It is safe and easy to use under field conditions due to its presentation in calendar blister packs. Relapse rates remain low, and no resistance to the combined drugs is seen. Skin changes [ edit ] In those with nerve damage, protective footwear can prevent ulcers and secondary infection. Canvas shoes have been shown to be slightly more efficacious than PVC-boots, but not significantly, in promoting healing. There seems to be no difference between double rocker shoes and below-knee plaster. Topical ketanserin seems to have a better effect on ulcer healing than clioquinol cream or zinc paste, but the evidence for this is weak. Likewise, topical phenytoin has shown more efficacy than saline dressings. More research in ulcer prevention and treatment in leprosy is needed to better guide management of skin changes caused by leprosy-induced nerve damage. Epidemiology [ edit ] Main article: Epidemiology of leprosy World distribution of leprosy, 2003 Disability-adjusted life year for leprosy per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004 no data <1.5 1.5–3 3–4.5 4.5–6 6–7.5 7.5–9 9–10.5 10.5–12 12–13.5 13.5–15 15–20 >20 In 2015, the number of cases of leprosy was about 175,000 and the number of new cases was 210,000. As of 2013, 14 countries contain 95% of the globally reported leprosy cases. Of these, India has the greatest number of cases (59%), followed by Brazil (14%) and Indonesia (8%). Although the number of cases worldwide continues to fall, pockets of high prevalence remain in certain areas such as Brazil, South Asia (India, Nepal, Bhutan), some parts of Africa (Tanzania, Madagascar, Mozambique), and the western Pacific. The number of cases of leprosy was in the tens of millions in the 1960s; a series of national (the International Federation of Anti-Leprosy Associations) and international (the WHO's "Global Strategy for Reducing Disease Burden Due to Leprosy") initiatives have reduced the total number and the number of new cases of the disease. In 1995, two to three million people were estimated to be permanently disabled because of leprosy. Disease burden [ edit ] Although the number of new leprosy cases occurring each year is important as a measure of transmission, it is difficult to measure due to leprosy's long incubation period, delays in diagnosis after onset of the disease, and the lack of laboratory tools to detect it in the very early stages. Instead, the registered prevalence is used. Registered prevalence is a useful proxy indicator of the disease burden, as it reflects the number of active leprosy cases diagnosed with the disease and receiving treatment with MDT at a given point in time. The prevalence rate is defined as the number of cases registered for MDT treatment among the population in which the cases have occurred, again at a given point in time. New case detection is another indicator of the disease that is usually reported by countries on an annual basis. It includes cases diagnosed with the onset of disease in the year in question (true incidence) and a large proportion of cases with onset in previous years (termed a backlog prevalence of undetected cases). Endemic countries also report the number of new cases with established disabilities at the time of detection, as an indicator of the backlog prevalence. Determination of the time of onset of the disease is, in general, unreliable, is very labor-intensive, and is seldom done in recording these statistics. History [ edit ] Main article: History of leprosy See also: Tzaraath G. H. A. Hansen , discoverer of M. leprae Using comparative genomics, in 2005, geneticists traced the origins and worldwide distribution of leprosy from East Africa or the Near East along human migration routes. They found four strains of M. leprae with specific regional locations. Strain 1 occurs predominantly in Asia, the Pacific region, and East Africa; strain 4, in West Africa and the Caribbean; strain 3 in Europe, North Africa, and the Americas; and strain 2 only in Ethiopia, Malawi , Nepal/north India, and New Caledonia . On the basis of this, they offer a map of the dissemination of leprosy in the world. This confirms the spread of the disease along the migration, colonisation, and slave trade routes taken from East Africa to India, West Africa to the New World, and from Africa into Europe and vice versa. The oldest skeletal evidence for the disease date from 2000 BCE, as found in human remains from the archaeological sites of Balathal in India and Harappa in Pakistan. Although retrospectively identifying descriptions of leprosy-like symptoms is difficult, what appears to be leprosy was discussed by Hippocrates in 460 BC. In 1846, Francis Adams produced The Seven Books of Paulus Aegineta which included a commentary on all medical and surgical knowledge and descriptions and remedies to do with leprosy from the Romans, Greeks, and Arabs. Interpretations of the presence of leprosy have been made on the basis of descriptions in ancient Indian (Atharva Veda and Kausika Sutra), Greek, and Middle Eastern documentary sources that describe skin afflictions. Leprosy probably did not exist in Greece or Israel before Common Era. It did not exist in the Americas before colonization by modern Europeans. Skeletal remains from the second millennium BC, discovered in 2009, represent the oldest documented evidence for leprosy. Located at Balathal, in Rajasthan, northwest India, the discoverers suggest that if the disease did migrate from Africa to India, during the third millennium BC "at a time when there was substantial interaction among the Indus Civilization, Mesopotamia, and Egypt, there needs to be additional skeletal and molecular evidence of leprosy in India and Africa so as to confirm the African origin of the disease." A proven human case was verified by DNA taken from the shrouded remains of a man discovered in a tomb next to the Old City of Jerusalem dated by radiocarbon methods to 1–50 AD. However, a study published in 2018 found the oldest strains of leprosy in remains from Europe, the oldest strain being from Great Chesterford and dating back to 415 to 545 AD. These findings suggest a different path for the spread of leprosy where it may have originated in Western Eurasia. This study also indicates that there were more strains in Europe at the time than previously determined. The causative agent of leprosy, M. leprae , was discovered by G. H. Armauer Hansen in Norway in 1873, making it the first bacterium to be identified as causing disease in humans. The first effective treatment ( promin ) became available in the 1940s. In the 1950s, dapsone was introduced. The search for further effective antileprosy drugs led to the use of clofazimine and rifampicin in the 1960s and 1970s. Later, Indian scientist Shantaram Yawalkar and his colleagues formulated a combined therapy using rifampicin and dapsone, intended to mitigate bacterial resistance. MDT combining all three drugs was first recommended by the WHO in 1981. These three antileprosy drugs are still used in the standard MDT regimens. Leprosy was once believed to be highly contagious and was treated with mercury —as was syphilis , which was first described in 1530. Many early cases thought to be leprosy could actually have been syphilis. Resistance has developed to initial treatment. Until the introduction of MDT in the early 1980s, leprosy could not be diagnosed and treated successfully within the community. Japan still has sanatoriums (although Japan's sanatoriums no longer have active leprosy cases, nor are survivors held in them by law). The importance of the nasal mucosa in the transmission of M leprae was recognized as early as 1898 by Schäffer, in particular, that of the ulcerated mucosa. Society and culture [ edit ] Two lepers denied entrance to town, 14th century India [ edit ] British India enacted the Leprosy Act of 1898 which institutionalized those affected and segregated them by sex to prevent reproduction. The Act was difficult to enforce but was repealed in 1983 only after MDT therapy had become widely available. In 1983, the National Leprosy Elimination Programme, previously the National Leprosy Control Programme, changed its methods from surveillance to the treatment of people with leprosy. India still accounts for over half of the global disease burden. Treatment cost [ edit ] Between 1995 and 1999, the WHO, with the aid of the Nippon Foundation , supplied all endemic countries with free MDT in blister packs, channeled through ministries of health. This free provision was extended in 2000 and again in 2005, 2010 and 2015 with donations by the MDT manufacturer Novartis through the WHO. In the latest agreement signed between the company and the WHO in October 2015, the provision of free MDT by the WHO to all endemic countries will run until the end of 2020. At the national level, nongovernment organizations affiliated with the national program will continue to be provided with an appropriate free supply of this WHO-supplied MDT by the government. Historical texts [ edit ] Written accounts of leprosy date back thousands of years. Various skin diseases translated as leprosy appear in the ancient Indian text, the Atharava Veda , as early as 2000 BC. Another Indian text, the Manusmriti (1500 BC),  prohibited contact with those infected with the disease and made marriage to a person infected with leprosy punishable. Biblically speaking, the Hebraic root tsara or tsaraath (צָרַע, --tsaw-rah' -- to be struck with leprosy, to be leprous) and the Greek (λεπρός - lepros), are of broader classification than the more narrow use of the term related to Hansen's Disease. Any progressive skin disease (a whitening or splotchy bleaching of skin, raised manifestations of scales, scabs, infections, rashes, etc.…) as well as generalized molds and surface discoloration of any clothing, leather, and/or discoloration on walls surfaces throughout homes all came under the "law of leprosy" (Leviticus 14:54-57). Ancient sources also such as the Talmud (Sifra 63) make clear that tzaraath refers to various types of lesions or stains associated with ritual impurity and occurring on cloth, leather, or houses, as well as skin. It may sometimes be a symptom of the disease described in this article but has many other causes, as well. The New Testament describes instances of Jesus healing people with leprosy Luke 17:11, although the precise relationship between this, tzaraath , and Hansen's disease is not established. The biblical perception that people with leprosy were unclean may be connected to a passage from Leviticus 13: 44-46, among others. Judeo-Christian belief, for some, held that leprosy was of moral consequence, and, as in many societies, early Christians believed that those affected by leprosy were being punished by God for sinful behavior. Moral associations have persisted throughout history. Pope Gregory the Great (540-604) and Isidor of Seville (560-636) considered people with the disease to be heretics. Middle Ages [ edit ] Medieval leper bell It is believed that a rise in leprosy in Europe occurred in the Middle Ages based on the increased number of hospitals created to treat leprosy patients in the 12th and 13th centuries. France alone had nearly 2,000 leprosariums during this period. The social perception in medieval communities was generally one of fear, and those people infected with the disease were thought to be unclean, untrustworthy, and morally corrupt. People with leprosy were also often required to wear clothing that identified them as such or carry a bell announcing their presence. Segregation from mainstream society was common. The third Lateran Council of 1179 and a 1346 edict by King Edward expelled lepers from city limits. Because of the moral stigma of the disease, methods of treatment were both physical and spiritual, and leprosariums were established under the purview of the church. 19th century [ edit ] Norway [ edit ] Norway was the location of a progressive stance on leprosy tracking and treatment and played an influential role in European understanding of the disease. In 1832, Dr. JJ Hjort conducted the first leprosy survey, thus establishing a basis for epidemiological surveys. Subsequent surveys resulted in the establishment of a national leprosy registry to study the causes of leprosy and for tracking of the rate of infection. Early leprosy research throughout Europe was conducted by Norwegian scientists Daniel Cornelius Danielssen and Carl Wilhelm Boeck . Their work resulted in the establishment of the National Leprosy Research and Treatment Center. Danielssen and Boeck believed the cause of leprosy transmission was hereditary. This stance was influential in advocating for the isolation of those infected by sex to prevent reproduction. Colonialism and imperialism [ edit ] Father Damien on his deathbed in 1889 Though leprosy in Europe was again on the decline by the 1860s, Western countries embraced isolation treatment out of fear of the spread of disease from developing countries, minimal understanding of bacteriology, lack of diagnostic ability or knowledge of how contagious the disease was, and missionary activity. Growing imperialism and pressures of the industrial revolution resulted in a Western presence in countries where leprosy was endemic, namely the British presence in India. Isolation treatment methods were observed by Surgeon-Mayor Henry Vandyke Carter of the British Colony in India while visiting Norway, and these methods were applied in India with the financial and logistical assistance of religious missionaries. Colonial and religious influence and associated stigma continued to be a major factor in the treatment and public perception of leprosy in endemic developing countries until the mid-twentieth century. Stigma [ edit ] See also: Leprosy stigma Despite effective treatment and education efforts, leprosy stigma continues to be problematic in developing countries where the disease is common. Leprosy is most common amongst impoverished or marginalized populations where social stigma is likely to be compounded by other social inequities. Fears of ostracism, loss of employment, or expulsion from family and society may contribute to a delayed diagnosis and treatment. Folk beliefs, lack of education, and religious connotations of the disease continue to influence social perceptions of those afflicted in many parts of the world. In Brazil, for example, folklore holds that leprosy is transmitted by dogs, it is a disease associated with sexual promiscuity, and is sometimes thought to be punishment for sins or moral transgressions. Socioeconomic factors also have a direct impact. Lower-class domestic workers who are often employed by those in a higher socioeconomic class may find their employment in jeopardy as physical manifestations of the disease become apparent. Skin discoloration and darker pigmentation resulting from the disease also have social repercussions. In extreme cases in northern India, leprosy is equated with an "untouchable" status that "often persists long after (individuals with leprosy) have been cured of the disease, creating lifelong prospects of divorce, eviction, loss of employment, and ostracism from family and social networks." Leprosy in Tahiti, circa 1895 A 26-year-old woman with leprous lesions A 13-year-old boy with severe leprosy Programs and treatment [ edit ] The WHO states that diagnosis and treatment with MDT are easy and effective, and a 45% decline in disease burden has occurred since MDT has become more widely available. The organization emphasizes the importance of fully integrating leprosy treatment into public health services, effective diagnosis and treatment, and access to information. In some instances in India, community-based rehabilitation is embraced by local governments and NGOs alike. Often, the identity cultivated by a community environment is preferable to reintegration, and models of self-management and collective agency independent of NGOs and government support have been desirable and successful. Notable cases [ edit ] Saint Damien DeVeuster , a Roman Catholic priest from Belgium, himself eventually contracting leprosy, ministered to lepers who had been placed under a government-sanctioned medical quarantine on the island of Molokaʻi in the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi . Baldwin IV of Jerusalem was a Christian king of Latin Jerusalem afflicted with leprosy. King Henry IV of England (reigned 1399 to 1413) possibly had leprosy. Vietnamese poet Hàn Mặc Tử Ōtani Yoshitsugu , a Japanese daimyō Forough Farrokhzad made a 22-minute documentary about a leprosy colony in Iran in 1962 called The House Is Black . The film humanizes the people affected and opens by saying that "there is no shortage of ugliness in the world, but by closing our eyes on ugliness, we will intensify it." Other animals [ edit ] Wild nine-banded armadillos ( Dayspus novemcinctus ) in south central United States often carry Mycobacterium leprae . This is believed to be because armadillos have such a low body temperature. Leprosy lesions appear mainly in cooler body regions such as the skin and mucous membranes of the upper respiratory tract . Because of armadillos' armor, skin lesions are hard to see. Abrasions around the eyes, nose and feet are the most common signs. Infected armadillos make up a large reservoir of M. leprae and may be a source of infection for some humans in the United States or other locations in the armadillos' home range. In armadillo leprosy, lesions did not persist at the site of entry in animals, M. leprae multiplied in macrophages at the site of inoculation and lymph nodes. See also [ edit ] Noma (disease) References [ edit ] External links [ edit ] Classification D ICD - 10 : A30 ICD - 9-CM : 030 OMIM : 246300 MeSH : D007918 DiseasesDB : 8478 External resources MedlinePlus : 001347 eMedicine : med/1281 derm/223 neuro/187 Patient UK : Leprosy Wikimedia Commons has media related to Leprosy . Leprosy at Curlie (based on DMOZ ) Links and resources Links to information about leprosy selected by the World Health Organization

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where is leprosy most commonly found in the world

British India enacted the Leprosy Act of 1898 which institutionalized those affected and segregated them by gender to prevent reproduction. The Act was difficult to enforce but was repealed in 1983 only after MDT therapy had become widely available. In 1983, the National Leprosy Elimination Programme, previously the National Leprosy Control Programme, changed its methods from surveillance to the treatment of people with leprosy. India still accounts for over half of the global disease burden.

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['Índíánì']

['P3']

??t?? ??t??, tí a tún m??sí Àrùn Hansen (HD), j??? bárakú àkóràn ti kòkòrò àrùn Mycobacterium leprae[1] àti Mycobacterium lepromatosis. Lák?k??, àw?n àkóràn kòní àw?n aamì w??n sì wà báyì fún ?dún 5 l?sí 20 ?dún.[1] Àw?n aamì tí o ? farahàn ni granuloma ti àw?n isan im??, ibi at??gùn ìmí ?gbà, àw?? ara, àti àw?n ojú.[1] Èyí lè fa ìrora àti ìpàdánù àw?n ??yà ìkángun nítorí ìfarapa léraléra.[2] Àìlera àti àìríran dáradára lè wáyé.[2] Orísi àw?n arùn dálé iye irúf?? kòkòrò tí ó wà níb??: paucibacillary àti multibacillary.[2] Àw?n irúf?? méjì yíì yàt?? nípa iye àw?n ohun ayí àw?? padà tí kò dára, àw?n bálabála àw?n ara, p??lú tí o ní márùn tàbí dí?? àti multibacillary tí o ní ju márùn.[2] A sàwarí ìwádìí àìsàn yíì nípa wíwá acid-fast bacilli ní ày??wò ìsú-ara ti aw?? ara tàbí nípa ?ísàwarí DNA nípa polymerase àbájáde ì???l?? t??lét??lé.[2] Ó sábà maa ? ?s?l?? láàrin àw?n tí o ? gbé nínu òsì a sì gbàgb?? pé o maa ? ràn nípa àw?n mímí tí o ? wáyé.[2] O ní àrànm?? tí ó ga.[2] A maa ? wo ??t?? sàn nípa ìt?jú.[1] Ìt?jú fún ??t?? paucibacillary ní àw?n egbògi dapsone àti rifampicin fún osù 6.[2] Ìt?jú fún ??t?? multibacillary ni rifampicin, dapsone, àti clofazimine fún osù méjìlá.[2] Àw?n ìt?jú yíì j?? ??f?? láti ?w?? Àj? Ìlera Àgbayé.[1] ??p?? egbògi a?òdìsí ni a tún lè lò.[2] Lágbayé ní 2012, iye ì??l?? lílé ti ??t?? j?? 189,000 àti iye ì??l?? titun j?? 230,000.[1] Iye ì??l?? líle ti dínkù láti 5.2 mílí??nù ní àw?n ?dún 1980.[1][3][4] ??p?? àw?n ìs?l?? titun wáyé ní oríl??-èdè 16, tí Índíánì sí j?? bíi ìdajì.[1][2] Ní àw?n 20 ?dún s??yìn, 16 mílí??nù àw?n ènìyàn lágbayé ni o ti rí ìwosàn l??w? ??t??.[1] ??t?? ti ? ran àw?n ènìyàn fún àw?n ?gb??rún ?dún s??yìn.[2] Àrùn yí gba orúk? r? láti Látínì ??r?? lepra, tí ó túnm?? sí "scaly", nígbà tí ??r?? "Àrùn Hansen" wá láti orúk? oní?ègùn Gerhard Armauer Hansen.[2] Yíya àw?n èniyàn s??t?? ní aw?n ìletò ad??t?? ?sì ? wáyé ní àw?n oríl??-èdè bíi Índíánì, p??lú iye ju ?gb??gb??rún l?;[5] ?áínà, p??lú iye ní ?g?g??rùn;[6] àti ní Áfíríkà.[7] Síb??síb??, ??p?? àw?n ìletò kòsí m??.[7] ??t?? ni ó r??m?? àbùkù ìbálóp?? fún ??p?? ìtàn,[1] tí ó j?? ìdènà fún ìfi-ara-?ni sùn àti ìt?jú l??gán. ?j?? ??t?? Àgbayé b??r?? ní 1954 láti mú mím?? nípa wá fún àw?n tí o ní ??t??.[8] Awon ami ati ifarahan Awon ami ti o wopo ti a maa n ri fun eyikeyi arun ete ni bi imu to n se omi, ara gbigbe; arun oju; egbo ara, irewesi si isan; ara pipon; aini imolara ni ika owo ati ese.[9] Siwajusi, epon maa n kere si, ati pe, oko okunri le ma dide daradara.[10] Okunfa M. leprae and M. lepromatosis M. leprae ati M. lepromatosis je mycobacteria ti o n se okunfa ete.[11] M. lepromatosis je mycobacteria ti a sese mo ti a si yo jade lati ara eni ti o ni àrùn ??t?? tó ? tàn kálè? ni odun 2008.[12][13]

For the Biblical term and its varied meanings, see Tzaraath . For other uses, see Leprosy (disambiguation) . "Leper" redirects here. It is not to be confused with Ieper , a Belgian city. Leprosy Synonyms Hansen's disease (HD) A 24-year-old man with leprosy (1886) Pronunciation / ˈ l ɛ p r ə s i / Specialty Infectious disease Symptoms Decreased ability to feel pain Causes Mycobacterium leprae or Mycobacterium lepromatosis Risk factors Close contact with a case of leprosy, living in poverty Treatment Multidrug therapy Medication Rifampicin , dapsone , clofazimine Frequency 514,000 (2015) Leprosy , also known as Hansen's disease ( HD ), is a long-term infection by the bacterium Mycobacterium leprae or Mycobacterium lepromatosis . Initially, infections are without symptoms and typically remain this way for 5 to 20 years. Symptoms that develop include granulomas of the nerves , respiratory tract , skin, and eyes. This may result in a lack of ability to feel pain, thus loss of parts of extremities due to repeated injuries or infection due to unnoticed wounds. Weakness and poor eyesight may also be present. Leprosy is spread between people. This is thought to occur through a cough or contact with fluid from the nose of an infected person. Leprosy occurs more commonly among those living in poverty. Contrary to popular belief, it is not highly contagious. The two main types of disease are based on the number of bacteria present: paucibacillary and multibacillary. The two types are differentiated by the number of poorly pigmented , numb skin patches present, with paucibacillary having five or fewer and multibacillary having more than five. The diagnosis is confirmed by finding acid-fast bacilli in a biopsy of the skin or by detecting the DNA using polymerase chain reaction . Leprosy is curable with a treatment known as multidrug therapy. Treatment for paucibacillary leprosy is with the medications dapsone and rifampicin for six months. Treatment for multibacillary leprosy consists of rifampicin , dapsone , and clofazimine for 12 months. A number of other antibiotics may also be used. These treatments are provided free of charge by the World Health Organization . Globally in 2012, the number of chronic cases of leprosy was 189,000, down from some 5.2 million in the 1980s. The number of new cases was 230,000. Most new cases occur in 16 countries, with India accounting for more than half. In the past 20 years, 16 million people worldwide have been cured of leprosy. About 200 cases are reported per year in the United States. Leprosy has affected humanity for thousands of years. The disease takes its name from the Greek word lepra , while the term "Hansen's disease" is named after the Norwegian physician Gerhard Armauer Hansen . Separating people by placing them in leper colonies still occurs in places such as India, China, and Africa. However, most colonies have closed, since leprosy is not very contagious. Social stigma has been associated with leprosy for much of history, which continues to be a barrier to self-reporting and early treatment. It is classified as a neglected tropical disease . World Leprosy Day was started in 1954 to draw awareness to those affected by leprosy. Contents [ hide ] 1 Signs and symptoms 2 Cause 2.1 M. leprae and M. lepromatosis 2.2 Risk factors 2.3 Transmission 2.4 Genetics 3 Pathophysiology 4 Diagnosis 4.1 Classification 5 Prevention 6 Treatment 7 Epidemiology 7.1 Disease burden 8 History 9 Society and culture 9.1 India 9.2 Treatment cost 9.3 Historical texts 9.4 Middle Ages 9.5 19th century 9.5.1 Norway 9.5.2 Colonialism and imperialism 9.6 Stigma 9.7 Programs and treatment 9.8 Notable cases 10 Other animals 11 See also 12 References 13 External links Signs and symptoms [ edit ] Leprosy is mostly a granulomatous disease of the peripheral nerves and mucosa of the upper respiratory tract ; skin lesions (light or dark patches) are the primary external sign. If untreated, leprosy can progress and cause permanent damage to the skin, nerves, limbs, and eyes. Secondary infections, in turn, can result in tissue loss, causing fingers and toes to become shortened and deformed, as cartilage is absorbed into the body. Hands deformed by leprosy Leprosy in Tahiti, circa 1895 A 26-year-old woman with leprous lesions A 13-year-old boy with severe leprosy Cause [ edit ] M. leprae and M. lepromatosis [ edit ] M. leprae , one of the causative agents of leprosy: As an acid-fast bacterium, M. leprae appears red when a Ziehl-Neelsen stain is used. Main articles: Mycobacterium leprae and Mycobacterium lepromatosis M. leprae and M. lepromatosis are the causative agents of leprosy. M. lepromatosis is a relatively newly identified mycobacterium isolated from a fatal case of diffuse lepromatous leprosy in 2008. An intracellular, acid-fast bacterium , M. leprae is aerobic and rod-shaped, and is surrounded by the waxy cell membrane coating characteristic of the Mycobacterium genus. Due to extensive loss of genes necessary for independent growth, M. leprae and M. lepromatosis are obligate intracellular pathogens , and unculturable in the laboratory, a factor that leads to difficulty in definitively identifying the organism under a strict interpretation of Koch's postulates . The use of nonculture-based techniques such as molecular genetics has allowed for alternative establishment of causation. While the causative organisms have to date been impossible to culture in vitro , it has been possible to grow them in animals such as mice and armadillos. Naturally occurring infection also has been reported in nonhuman primates, including the African chimpanzee , sooty mangabey , and cynomolgus macaque, as well as in armadillos and red squirrels . Red squirrels ( Sciurus vulgaris ) - a threatened species - in England were found to have leprosy in November 2016. However, no squirrel cases have spread to a human for hundreds of years. Risk factors [ edit ] The greatest risk factor for developing leprosy is contact with another case of leprosy. Contacts of people with leprosy are five to eight times more likely to develop leprosy than members of the general population. Leprosy also occurs more commonly among those living in poverty. Other risk factors are poorly understood. However, conditions that reduce immune function, such as malnutrition, other illnesses, or host genetic differences, may increase the risk of developing leprosy. Despite this, infection with HIV does not appear to increase the risk of developing leprosy. Transmission [ edit ] Transmission of leprosy occurs during close contact with those who are infected. Transmission is proposed to be by nasal droplets, but many questions remain about its mode of transmission and epidemiology. Leprosy is not known to be either sexually transmitted or highly infectious. People are generally no longer infectious after the first month of standard multidrug therapy. Leprosy may also be transmitted to humans by armadillos. Two exit routes of M. leprae from the human body often described are the skin and the nasal mucosa, although their relative importance is not clear. Lepromatous cases show large numbers of organisms deep in the dermis , but whether they reach the skin surface in sufficient numbers is doubtful. The skin and the upper respiratory tract are most likely entry route. While older research dealt with the skin route, recent research has increasingly favored the respiratory route. Experimental transmission of leprosy through aerosols containing M. leprae in immunosuppressed mice was accomplished, suggesting a similar possibility in humans. Genetics [ edit ] Name Locus OMIM Gene LPRS1 10p13 609888 LPRS2 6q25 607572 PARK2 , PACRG LPRS3 4q32 246300 TLR2 LPRS4 6p21.3 610988 LTA LPRS5 4p14 613223 TLR1 LPRS6 13q14.11 613407 Several genes have been associated with a susceptibility to leprosy. Often, the immune system is able to eliminate leprosy during the early infection stage before severe symptoms develop. A defect in cell-mediated immunity may cause susceptibility to leprosy. The region of DNA responsible for this variability is also involved in Parkinson's disease , giving rise to current speculation that the two disorders may be linked in some way at the biochemical level. Some evidence indicates not all people who are infected with M. leprae develop leprosy, and genetic factors have long been thought to play a role, due to the observation of clustering of leprosy around certain families, and the failure to understand why certain individuals develop lepromatous leprosy while others develop other types of leprosy. Pathophysiology [ edit ] How the infection produces the symptoms of the disease is not known. Diagnosis [ edit ] According to the World Health Organization, diagnosis in areas where people are frequently infected is based on one of these main signs: Skin lesion consistent with leprosy and with definite sensory loss Positive skin smears Skin lesions can be single or multiple, and usually hypopigmented, although occasionally reddish or copper-colored. The lesions may be macules (flat), papules (raised), or nodular. The sensory loss at the skin lesion is important because this feature can help differentiate it from other causes of skin lesions such as tinea versicolor . Thickened nerves are associated with leprosy and can be accompanied by loss of sensation or muscle weakness. However, without the characteristic skin lesion and sensory loss, muscle weakness is not considered a reliable sign of leprosy. In some cases, acid-fast leprosy bacilli in skin smears are considered diagnostic; however, the diagnosis is clinical. Diagnosis in areas where the disease is uncommon, such as the United States, is often delayed because healthcare providers are unaware of leprosy and its symptoms. Early diagnosis and treatment prevent nerve involvement, the hallmark of leprosy, and the disability it causes. Many kinds of leprosy are known, but some symptoms are common to them, including runny nose, dry scalp, eye problems, skin lesions, muscle weakness, reddish skin, smooth, shiny, diffuse thickening of facial skin, ear, and hand, loss of sensation in fingers and toes, thickening of peripheral nerves, and flat nose due to destruction of nasal cartilage. Also, phonation and resonation of sound occur during speech. Often, atrophy of the testes with resulting impotence occurs. Classification [ edit ] Several different approaches for classifying leprosy exist, but parallels exist. The World Health Organization system distinguishes "paucibacillary" and "multibacillary" based upon the proliferation of bacteria. (" pauci -" refers to a low quantity.) The Ridley-Jopling scale provides five gradations. The ICD-10 , though developed by the WHO, uses Ridley-Jopling and not the WHO system. It also adds an indeterminate ("I") entry. In MeSH , three groupings are used. WHO Ridley-Jopling ICD-10 MeSH Description Lepromin test Paucibacillary tuberculoid ("TT"), borderline tuberculoid ("BT") A30.1, A30.2 Tuberculoid It is characterized by one or more hypopigmented skin macules and patches where skin sensations are lost because of damaged peripheral nerves that have been attacked by the human host's immune cells. Positive Multibacillary midborderline or borderline ("BB") A30.3 Borderline Borderline leprosy is of intermediate severity and is the most common form. Skin lesions resemble tuberculoid leprosy, but are more numerous and irregular; large patches may affect a whole limb, and peripheral nerve involvement with weakness and loss of sensation is common. This type is unstable and may become more like lepromatous leprosy or may undergo a reversal reaction, becoming more like the tuberculoid form. Multibacillary borderline lepromatous ("BL"), and lepromatous ("LL") A30.4, A30.5 Lepromatous It is associated with symmetric skin lesions , nodules , plaques , thickened dermis, and frequent involvement of the nasal mucosa resulting in nasal congestion and nose bleeds , but, typically, detectable nerve damage is late. Negative A difference in immune response to the tuberculoid and lepromatous forms is seen. Leprosy may also be divided into: Early and indeterminate leprosy Tuberculoid leprosy Borderline tuberculoid leprosy Borderline leprosy Borderline lepromatous leprosy Lepromatous leprosy Histoid leprosy Diffuse leprosy of Lucio and Latapí This disease may also occur with only neural involvement, without skin lesions. Prevention [ edit ] Early detection of the disease is important, since physical and neurological damage may be irreversible even if cured. Medications can decrease the risk of those living with people with leprosy from acquiring the disease and likely those with whom people with leprosy come into contact outside the home. However, concerns are known of resistance, cost, and disclosure of a person's infection status when doing follow-up of contacts. Therefore, the WHO recommends that people who live in the same household be examined for leprosy and be treated only if symptoms are present. The Bacillus Calmette–Guérin (BCG) vaccine offers a variable amount of protection against leprosy in addition to its target of tuberculosis . It appears to be 26 to 41% effective (based on controlled trials) and about 60% effective based on observational studies with two doses possibly working better than one. Development of a more effective vaccine is ongoing. Treatment [ edit ] MDT antileprosy drugs: standard regimens A number of leprostatic agents are available for treatment. For paucibacillary (PB or tuberculoid) cases, treatment with daily dapsone and monthly rifampicin for six months is recommended, while for multibacillary (MB or lepromatous) cases, treatment with daily dapsone and clofazimine along with monthly rifampicin for 12 months is recommended. Multidrug therapy (MDT) remains highly effective, and people are no longer infectious after the first monthly dose. It is safe and easy to use under field conditions due to its presentation in calendar blister packs. Relapse rates remain low, and no resistance to the combined drugs is seen. Epidemiology [ edit ] Main article: Epidemiology of leprosy World distribution of leprosy, 2003 Disability-adjusted life year for leprosy per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004 no data <1.5 1.5–3 3–4.5 4.5–6 6–7.5 7.5–9 9–10.5 10.5–12 12–13.5 13.5–15 15–20 >20 In 2015, the number of cases of leprosy was about 175,000 and the number of new cases was 210,000. As of 2013, 14 countries contain 95% of the globally reported leprosy cases. Of these, India has the greatest number of cases (59%), followed by Brazil (14%) and Indonesia (8%). Although the number of cases worldwide continues to fall, pockets of high prevalence remain in certain areas such as Brazil, South Asia (India, Nepal, Bhutan), some parts of Africa (Tanzania, Madagascar, Mozambique), and the western Pacific. The number of cases of leprosy was in the tens of millions in the 1960s; a series of national (the International Federation of Anti-Leprosy Associations) and international (the WHO's "Global Strategy for Reducing Disease Burden Due to Leprosy") initiatives have reduced the total number and the number of new cases of the disease. In 1995, two to three million people were estimated to be permanently disabled because of leprosy. Disease burden [ edit ] Although the number of new leprosy cases occurring each year is important as a measure of transmission, it is difficult to measure due to leprosy's long incubation period, delays in diagnosis after onset of the disease, and the lack of laboratory tools to detect it in the very early stages. Instead, the registered prevalence is used. Registered prevalence is a useful proxy indicator of the disease burden, as it reflects the number of active leprosy cases diagnosed with the disease and receiving treatment with MDT at a given point in time. The prevalence rate is defined as the number of cases registered for MDT treatment among the population in which the cases have occurred, again at a given point in time. New case detection is another indicator of the disease that is usually reported by countries on an annual basis. It includes cases diagnosed with the onset of disease in the year in question (true incidence) and a large proportion of cases with onset in previous years (termed a backlog prevalence of undetected cases). Endemic countries also report the number of new cases with established disabilities at the time of detection, as an indicator of the backlog prevalence. Determination of the time of onset of the disease is, in general, unreliable, is very labor-intensive, and is seldom done in recording these statistics. History [ edit ] Main article: History of leprosy G. H. A. Hansen , discoverer of M. leprae Using comparative genomics, in 2005, geneticists traced the origins and worldwide distribution of leprosy from East Africa or the Near East along human migration routes. They found four strains of M. leprae with specific regional locations. Strain 1 occurs predominantly in Asia, the Pacific region, and East Africa; strain 4, in West Africa and the Caribbean; strain 3 in Europe, North Africa, and the Americas; and strain 2 only in Ethiopia, Malawi , Nepal/north India, and New Caledonia . On the basis of this, they offer a map of the dissemination of leprosy in the world. This confirms the spread of the disease along the migration, colonisation, and slave trade routes taken from East Africa to India, West Africa to the New World, and from Africa into Europe and vice versa. The oldest skeletal evidence for the disease date from 2000 BCE, as found in human remains from the archaeological sites of Balathal in India and Harappa in Pakistan. Although retrospectively identifying descriptions of leprosy-like symptoms is difficult, what appears to be leprosy was discussed by Hippocrates in 460 BC. In 1846, Francis Adams produced The Seven Books of Paulus Aegineta which included a commentary on all medical and surgical knowledge and descriptions and remedies to do with leprosy from the Romans, Greeks, and Arabs. Interpretations of the presence of leprosy have been made on the basis of descriptions in ancient Indian (Atharva Veda and Kausika Sutra), Greek, and Middle Eastern documentary sources that describe skin afflictions. Skeletal remains from the second millennium BC, discovered in 2009, represent the oldest documented evidence for leprosy. Located at Balathal, in Rajasthan, northwest India, the discoverers suggest that if the disease did migrate from Africa to India, during the third millennium BC "at a time when there was substantial interaction among the Indus Civilization, Mesopotamia, and Egypt, there needs to be additional skeletal and molecular evidence of leprosy in India and Africa so as to confirm the African origin of the disease." A proven human case was verified by DNA taken from the shrouded remains of a man discovered in a tomb next to the Old City of Jerusalem dated by radiocarbon methods to 1–50 AD. The causative agent of leprosy, M. leprae , was discovered by G. H. Armauer Hansen in Norway in 1873, making it the first bacterium to be identified as causing disease in humans. The first effective treatment ( promin ) became available in the 1940s. In the 1950s, dapsone was introduced. The search for further effective antileprosy drugs led to the use of clofazimine and rifampicin in the 1960s and 1970s. Later, Indian scientist Shantaram Yawalkar and his colleagues formulated a combined therapy using rifampicin and dapsone, intended to mitigate bacterial resistance. MDT combining all three drugs was first recommended by the WHO in 1981. These three antileprosy drugs are still used in the standard MDT regimens. Leprosy was once believed to be highly contagious and was treated with mercury —as was syphilis , which was first described in 1530. Many early cases thought to be leprosy could actually have been syphilis. Resistance has developed to initial treatment. Until the introduction of MDT in the early 1980s, leprosy could not be diagnosed and treated successfully within the community. Japan still has sanatoriums (although Japan's sanatoriums no longer have active leprosy cases, nor are survivors held in them by law). The importance of the nasal mucosa in the transmission of M leprae was recognized as early as 1898 by Schäffer, in particular, that of the ulcerated mucosa. Society and culture [ edit ] Two lepers denied entrance to town, 14th century India [ edit ] British India enacted the Leprosy Act of 1898 which institutionalized those affected and segregated them by gender to prevent reproduction. The Act was difficult to enforce but was repealed in 1983 only after MDT therapy had become widely available. In 1983, the National Leprosy Elimination Programme, previously the National Leprosy Control Programme, changed its methods from surveillance to the treatment of people with leprosy. India still accounts for over half of the global disease burden. Treatment cost [ edit ] Between 1995 and 1999, the WHO, with the aid of the Nippon Foundation , supplied all endemic countries with free MDT in blister packs, channeled through ministries of health. This free provision was extended in 2000 and again in 2005, 2010 and 2015 with donations by the MDT manufacturer Novartis through the WHO. In the latest agreement signed between the company and the WHO in October 2015, the provision of free MDT by the WHO to all endemic countries will run until the end of 2020. At the national level, nongovernment organizations affiliated with the national program will continue to be provided with an appropriate free supply of this WHO-supplied MDT by the government. Historical texts [ edit ] Written accounts of leprosy date back thousands of years. Various skin diseases translated as leprosy appear in the ancient Indian text, the Atharava Veda , as early as 2000 BC. Another Indian text, the Laws of Manu (1500 BC),  prohibited contact with those infected with the disease and made marriage to a person infected with leprosy punishable. Biblically speaking, the Hebraic root tsara or tsaraath (צָרַע, --tsaw-rah' -- to be struck with leprosy, to be leprous) and the Greek (λεπρός - lepros), are of broader classification than the more narrow use of the term related to Hansen's Disease. Any progressive skin disease (a whitening or splotchy bleaching of skin, raised manifestations of scales, scabs, infections, rashes, etc.…) as well as generalized molds and surface discoloration of any clothing, leather, and/or discoloration on walls surfaces throughout homes all came under the "law of leprosy" (Leviticus 14:54-57). Ancient sources also such as the Talmud (Sifra 63) make clear that tzaraath refers to various types of lesions or stains associated with ritual impurity and occurring on cloth, leather, or houses, as well as skin. It may sometimes be a symptom of the disease described in this article but has many other causes, as well. The New Testament describes instances of Jesus healing people with leprosy ( Luke 5 :10), although the precise relationship between this, tzaraath , and Hansen's disease is not established. The biblical perception that people with leprosy were unclean may be connected to a passage from Leviticus 13: 44-46, among others. Judeo-Christian belief, for some, held that leprosy was of moral consequence, and, as in many societies, early Christians believed that those affected by leprosy were being punished by God for sinful behavior. Moral associations have persisted throughout history. Pope Gregory the Great (540-604) and Isidor of Seville (560-636) considered people with the disease to be heretics. Middle Ages [ edit ] Medieval leper bell It is believed that a rise in leprosy in Europe occurred in the Middle Ages based on the increased number of hospitals created to treat leprosy patients in the 12th and 13th centuries. France alone had nearly 2,000 leprosariums during this period. The social perception in medieval communities was generally one of fear, and those people infected with the disease were thought to be unclean, untrustworthy, and morally corrupt. People with leprosy were also often required to wear clothing that identified them as such or carry a bell announcing their presence. Segregation from mainstream society was common. The third Lateran Council of 1179 and a 1346 edict by King Edward expelled lepers from city limits. Because of the moral stigma of the disease, methods of treatment were both physical and spiritual, and leprosariums were established under the purview of the church. 19th century [ edit ] Norway [ edit ] Norway was the location of a progressive stance on leprosy tracking and treatment and played an influential role in European understanding of the disease. In 1832, Dr. JJ Hjort conducted the first leprosy survey, thus establishing a basis for epidemiological surveys. Subsequent surveys resulted in the establishment of a national leprosy registry to study the causes of leprosy and for tracking of the rate of infection. Early leprosy research throughout Europe was conducted by Norwegian scientists Daniel Cornelius Danielssen and Carl Wilhelm Boeck . Their work resulted in the establishment of the National Leprosy Research and Treatment Center. Danielssen and Boeck believed the cause of leprosy transmission was hereditary. This stance was influential in advocating for the isolation of those infected by gender to prevent reproduction. Colonialism and imperialism [ edit ] Father Damien on his deathbed in 1889 Though leprosy in Europe was again on the decline by the 1860s, Western countries embraced isolation treatment out of fear of the spread of disease from developing countries, minimal understanding of bacteriology, lack of diagnostic ability or knowledge of how contagious the disease was, and missionary activity. Growing imperialism and pressures of the industrial revolution resulted in a Western presence in countries where leprosy was endemic, namely the British presence in India. Isolation treatment methods were observed by Surgeon-Mayor Henry Vandyke Carter of the British Colony in India while visiting Norway, and these methods were applied in India with the financial and logistical assistance of religious missionaries. Colonial and religious influence and associated stigma continued to be a major factor in the treatment and public perception of leprosy in endemic developing countries until the mid-twentieth century. Stigma [ edit ] See also: Leprosy stigma Despite effective treatment and education efforts, leprosy stigma continues to be problematic in developing countries where the disease is common. Leprosy is most common amongst impoverished or marginalized populations where social stigma is likely to be compounded by other social inequities. Fears of ostracism, loss of employment, or expulsion from family and society may contribute to a delayed diagnosis and treatment. Folk beliefs, lack of education, and religious connotations of the disease continue to influence social perceptions of those afflicted in many parts of the world. In Brazil, for example, folklore holds that leprosy is transmitted by dogs, it is a disease associated with sexual promiscuity, and is sometimes thought to be punishment for sins or moral transgressions. Socioeconomic factors also have a direct impact. Lower-class domestic workers who are often employed by those in a higher socioeconomic class may find their employment in jeopardy as physical manifestations of the disease become apparent. Skin discoloration and darker pigmentation resulting from the disease also have social repercussions. In extreme cases in northern India, leprosy is equated with an "untouchable" status that "often persists long after (individuals with leprosy) have been cured of the disease, creating lifelong prospects of divorce, eviction, loss of employment, and ostracism from family and social networks." Programs and treatment [ edit ] The WHO states that diagnosis and treatment with MDT are easy and effective, and a 45% decline in disease burden has occurred since MDT has become more widely available. The organization emphasizes the importance of fully integrating leprosy treatment into public health services, effective diagnosis and treatment, and access to information. In some instances in India, community-based rehabilitation is embraced by local governments and NGOs alike. Often, the identity cultivated by a community environment is preferable to reintegration, and models of self-management and collective agency independent of NGOs and government support have been desirable and successful. Notable cases [ edit ] Saint Damien DeVeuster , a Roman Catholic priest from Belgium, himself eventually contracting leprosy, ministered to lepers who had been placed under a government-sanctioned medical quarantine on the island of Molokaʻi in the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi . Baldwin IV of Jerusalem was a Christian king of Latin Jerusalem afflicted with leprosy. King Henry IV of England (reigned 1399 to 1413) possibly had leprosy. Vietnamese poet Hàn Mặc Tử Ōtani Yoshitsugu , a Japanese daimyō Forough Farrokhzad made a 22-minute documentary about a leprosy colony in Iran in 1962 called The House Is Black . The film humanizes the people affected and opens by saying that "there is no shortage of ugliness in the world, but by closing our eyes on ugliness, we will intensify it." Other animals [ edit ] Wild nine-banded armadillos ( Dayspus novemcinctus ) in south central United States often carry Mycobacterium leprae . This is believed to be because armadillos have such a low body temperature. Leprosy lesions appear mainly in cooler body regions such as the skin and mucous membranes of the upper respiratory tract . Because of armadillos' armor, skin lesions are hard to see. Abrasions around the eyes, nose and feet are the most common signs. Infected armadillos make up a large reservoir of M. leprae and may be a source of infection for some humans in the United States or other locations in the armadillos' home range. In armadillo leprosy, lesions did not persist at the site of entry in animals, M. leprae multiplied in macrophages at the site of inoculation and lymph nodes. See also [ edit ] Noma (disease) References [ edit ] External links [ edit ] Classification V · T · D ICD - 10 : A30 ICD - 9-CM : 030 OMIM : 246300 MeSH : D007918 DiseasesDB : 8478 External resources MedlinePlus : 001347 eMedicine : med/1281 derm/223 neuro/187 Patient UK : Leprosy Wikimedia Commons has media related to Leprosy . Leprosy at Curlie (based on DMOZ ) Links and resources Links to information about leprosy selected by the World Health Organization

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who are the ibibio by edit a. udo

The Ibibio people are from southern Nigeria. They are related to the Anaang and Efik peoples. During the colonial period in Nigeria, the Ibibio Union asked for recognition by the British as a sovereign nation (Noah, 1988). The Annang, Efik, Ekid, Oron and Ibeno share personal names, culture, and traditions with the Ibibio, and speak closely related varieties of Ibibio - Efik which are more or less mutually intelligible.

['melvin jerome "mel" blanc', 'south america']

àwọn wo ni ibibíò lati ọwọ edit a. udo

Yes

['Àwọn Ibibio tabi Àwọn ọmọ Ibiobio jẹ́ àwọn ẹ̀yà kan tí ó wà ní apá Gúúsù Nàìjíríà. Wọ́n wọ́pọ̀ ní ìpínlẹ̀ Akwa Ibom, Ìpinlẹ̀ Cross River àti ní ìlà oòrùn Ìpínlẹ̀ Abia. Wọ́n tan mọ́ àwọn ẹ̀yà Efik. Nígbà ìṣàkóso àwọn gẹ̀ẹ́sì ìjọba amúnisìn ní Nàìjíríà, àwọn Ibibio bèrè òmìnira lọ́wọ́ ìjọba Brítènì.', 'Àwọn Annang, Efik, Ekid, Oron àti Ibeno pín orúkọ, àṣà àti ìṣe kan pẹ̀lú àwọn ènìyàn Ibibio, èdè wọn sí jọra. Àwọn ènìyàn Ekpo àti Ekpe wà lára ìṣèlú Ibibio.']

['Àwọn Ibibio tabi Àwọn ọmọ Ibiobio jẹ́ àwọn ẹ̀yà kan tí ó wà ní apá Gúúsù Nàìjíríà.', 'Àwọn Annang, Efik, Ekid, Oron àti Ibeno pín orúkọ, àṣà àti ìṣe kan pẹ̀lú àwọn ènìyàn Ibibio, èdè wọn sí jọra. ']

['P1']

??yà Ibibio Àw?n Ibibio tabi Àw?n ?m? Ibiobio j?? àw?n ??yà kan tí ó wà ní apá Gúúsù Nàìjíríà.[6] W??n w??p?? ní ìpínl?? Akwa Ibom, Ìpinl?? Cross River àti ní ìlà oòrùn Ìpínl?? Abia.[7] W??n tan m?? àw?n ??yà ??fíìkì.[8] Nígbà ì?àkóso àw?n g????sì ìj?ba amúnisìn ní Nàìjíríà, àw?n Ibibio bèrè òmìnira l??w?? ìj?ba Brítènì. Àw?n Annang, Efik, Ekid, Oron àti Ibeno pín orúk?, à?à àti ì?e kan p??lú àw?n ènìyàn Ibibio, èdè w?n sí j?ra.[9] Àw?n ènìyàn Ekpo àti Ekpe wà lára ì?èlú Ibibio.[10]

Ibibio people Nsibidi symbols which are used by Igbo , Ibibio, Efik , Annang and Ekoi/Ejagham members of the Ekpe society. Total population Over 5 million Regions with significant populations Nigeria 4,482,000 Ghana 46,000 Cameroon 39,000 Equatorial Guinea 2,700 Trinidad and Tobago ( Afro-Trinidadian and Tobagonian ) 371 (1813) Languages Ibibio , English Religion Christianity , traditional , Related ethnic groups Efik , Anaang , Ejagham , Oron , Igbo , Ijaw The Ibibio people are from southern Nigeria . They are related to the Anaang and Efik peoples. During the colonial period in Nigeria, the Ibibio Union asked for recognition by the British as a sovereign nation (Noah, 1988). The Annang, Efik, Ekid, Oron and Ibeno share personal names, culture, and traditions with the Ibibio, and speak closely related varieties of Ibibio-Efik which are more or less mutually intelligible . Contents [ hide ] 1 Origin 2 Geography 2.1 Location of Ibibioland 3 Political system 4 Religion 4.1 Pre-Colonial Era 4.2 Colonial and Post-Colonial Era 5 Art 5.1 Ibibio tribes and ethnic groups 6 Demographics 7 Ndi Ibibio 7.1 Nnyin Ido Ibibio 8 See also 9 References 10 External links 11 Further reading Origin [ edit ] The Ibibio people are reputed to be the earliest inhabitants of the south eastern Nigeria. It is estimated that they arrived at their present abode from very earliest times, about 7000 B.C. In spite of the historical account, it is not clear when the people known as Ibibio arrived the state. According to some scholars, they might have come from the central Benue valley, particularly, the Jukun influence in the old Calabar at some historical time period. Another pointer is the wide-spread use of the manila, a popular currency used by the Jukuns. [ citation needed ] Coupled with this is the Jukun southern drive to the coast which appears to have been recently compared with the formation of Akwa Ibom settlements in their present location. Another version had it that the Cameroon will offer a more concise explanation of the Ibibio migration story. This was corroborated by oral testimonies by field workers who say that the core Ibibio people were of the Afaha lineage whose original home was Usak Edet in the Cameroon. This was premised on the fact that among the Ibibio people, Usak Edet is popularly known as Edit Afaha (Afaha’s Creek) which reflects the fact that Ibibio people originated from Usak Edet. After the first bulk of the people arrived in what later became Nigeria, they settled first at Ibom then in Arochukwu. The Ibibio must have lived in Ibom for quite sometime, but as a result of clashes with the Igbo people culminating into the famous ‘Ibibio War’ which took place about 1300 and 1400 A.D. [ citation needed ] , they left Ibom and moved to the present day Ibibio land. Geography [ edit ] The Ibibio people are found predominantly in Akwa Ibom state and is made up of the related Anaang community, the Ibibio community and the Eket and Oron communities, although other groups usually understand the Ibibio language . Because of the larger population of the Ibibio people, they hold political control over Akwa-Ibom State , but government is shared with the Anaangs, Eket and Oron. The political system follows the traditional method of consensus. Even though elections are held, practically, the political leaders are pre-discussed in a manner that is benefiting to all. Location of Ibibioland [ edit ] The Ibibio people are located in Southeastern Nigeria also known as Coastal Southeastern Nigeria . Prior to the existence of Nigeria as a nation, the Ibibio people were self-governed. The Ibibio people became a part of the Eastern Nigeria of Nigeria under British colonial rule. During the Nigerian Civil War, the Eastern region was split into three states. Southeastern State of Nigeria was where the Ibibio were located, one of the original twelve states of Nigeria) after Nigerian independence. The Efik, Anaang, Oron, Eket and their brothers and sisters of the Ogoja District, were also in the Southeastern State. The state ( Southeastern State ) was later renamed Cross Rivers State . On 23 September 1987, by Military Decree No.24, Akwa Ibom State was carved out of the then Cross Rivers State as a separate state. Cross Rivers State remains as one of neighbouring states. Southwestern Cameroon was a part of present Cross River State and Akwa Ibom State of Nigeria. During the then Eastern Region of Nigeria it got partitioned into Cameroon in a 1961 plebiscite. This resulted in the Ibibio, Efik, and Annang being divided between Nigeria and Cameroon. However, the leadership of the Northern Region of Nigeria was able to keep "Northwestern section" during the plebiscite that is now today's Nigerian Adamawa and Taraba states. Political system [ edit ] Traditionally Ibibio society consists of communities that are made up of Large Families with blood affinity each ruled by their Constitutional and Religious Head known as the Ikpaisong' . The Obong Ikpaisong ruled with the Mbong Ekpuk (Head of the Families)which together with the Heads of the Cults and Societies constitute the 'Afe or Asan or Esop Ikpaisong' (Traditional Council or Traditional Shrine or Traditional Court'). The decisions or orders of the Traditional Council or the Obong Ikpaisong were enforced by members of the Ekpo or Obon society who act as messengers of the spirits and the military and police of the Community. Ekpo members are always masked when performing their policing duties, and although their identities are almost always known, fear of retribution from the ancestors prevents most people from accusing those members who overstep their social boundaries, effectively committing police brutality. Membership is open to all Ibibio males, but one must have access to wealth to move into the politically influential grades. The Obon society with its strong enticing traditional musical prowess, with popular acceptability, openly executes its mandates with musical procession and popular participation by members which comprises children, youth, adults and very brave elderly women. Religion [ edit ] Pre-Colonial Era [ edit ] Ibibio religion was of two dimensions, which centered on the pouring of libation, worship, consultation, communication and invocation of the God of Heaven (Abasi Enyong) and God of the Earth (Abasi Isong) by the Constitutional and Religious King/Head of a particular Ibibio Community who was known from the ancient times as the Obong-Ikpaisong (the word 'Obong Ikpaisong' directly interpreted means King of the Principalities of the Earth' or 'King of the Earth and the Principalities' or Traditional Ruler ). The second dimension of Ibibio Religion centered on the worship, consultation, invocation, sacrifice, appeasement, etc. of the God of the Heaven (Abasi Enyong) and the God of the Earth (Abasi Isong)through various invisible or spiritual entities (Ndem) of the various Ibibio Division such as Etefia Ikono, Awa Itam, etc. The Priests of these spiritual entities (Ndem) were the Temple Chief Priests of the various Ibibio Divisions. A particular Ibibio Division could consist of many inter-related autonomous communities or Kingdoms ruled by an autonomous Priest-King called Obong-Ikpaisong, assisted by Heads of the various Large Families (Mbong Ekpuk) which make up the Community. These have been the ancient political and religious system of Ibibio people from time immemorial. Tradition, interpreted in Ibibio Language, is 'Ikpaisong'. Tradition (Ikpaisong) in Ibibio Custom embodies the Religious and Political System. The word 'Obong' in Ibibio language means 'Ruler, King, Lord, Chief, Head' and is applied depending on the Office concern. In reference to the Obong-Ikpaisong, the word 'Obong' means 'King' In reference to the Village Head, the word means 'Chief'. In reference to the Head of the Families (Obong Ekpuk), the word means 'Head' In reference to God, the word means 'Lord'. In reference to the Head of the various societies - e.g. 'Obong Obon', the word means 'Head or Leader'. Colonial and Post-Colonial Era [ edit ] The Ibibios were introduced to Christianity through the work of early missionaries in the nineteenth century. Samuel Bill started his work at Ibeno. He established the Qua Iboe Church which later spread places in the middle belt of Nigeria. The Methodist Church , the Roman Catholic church , and Presbyterian Church rode into the Ibibio hinterland. Later, day churches were also introduced, for e.g. The Apostolic church, independent churches, like Deeper Life Bible Church, came into the area in the second part of the twentieth century. Today Ibibio people are predominantly Christian area. The Ibibio practiced the killing of twins before it was abolished during the colonial era, with help of missionary Mary Slessor . It was common practice for twin babies to be taken to their community's local evil forest and left to die as it was a taboo for twins to be born. Art [ edit ] The masks and accoutrements of the Ekpo society make up the greatest works of art in Ibibio society. Drumming and music are also important elements in Ekpe ceremonies. The wooden sculpture from this area is also very detailed, and artists are just as likely to capture beauty as they are the hideous forms of evil spirits. Ibibio tribes and ethnic groups [ edit ] See also: Ibibio-Efik languages The Ibibio are divided into six subcultural groups: Eastern Ibibio, or Ibibio Proper; Western Ibibio, or Annang; Northern Ibibio, or Enyong; Southern Ibibio, or Eket; Delta Ibibio, or Andomi-Ibeno; and Riverine Ibibio, or Efik. Demographics [ edit ] Akwa Ibom State of Nigeria Cross River State of Nigeria Nigeria Equatorial Guinea (Formerly Fernando Po) Cuba West Indies Cameroon Ghana Benue (Efik-Ibibio people were fourth largest ethnic group of original settlers of Benue of Nigeria) Ndi Ibibio [ edit ] Nnyin Ido Ibibio [ edit ] We are Ibibio people. "Ndi" is an Efik word that means "I am". While Ndo is Ibibio, just like Nde is Annang. it is mostly used by the Efik and Ibibio See also [ edit ] Ibibio language Annang Efik people Oron people Eket Ikom Akamkpa Bakassi Ekoi people Ejagham Ekpe Garifuna people Medefidrin Nsibidi Southeastern Nigeria Niger Delta Aro Confederacy Ikot Udo Abia Abakua Mami Wata mbakara see also buckra Bight of Biafra References [ edit ] Monday Efiong Noah, Proceedings of the Ibibio Union 1928-1937 . Modern Business Press Ltd, Uyo. Council of Traditional Rulers, Mbiabong Etim, briefing to Mbiabong Etim Graduates Forum on origin and migration of Mbiabong Etim people of Ini LGA, Akwa Ibom State, 2009. Ikpe, Emmanuel Dominic, “Ibibio Nation" 2018. University of Uyo student's Union Government. External links [ edit ] NIGERIAN ARTS AND CULTURE DIRECTORY Ibibio people [ permanent dead link ] Mboho Mkparawa Ibibio (USA), Inc. Mboho Mkparawa Ibibio International Online Ibibio Dictionary Further reading [ edit ] Woman's Mysteries of a Primitive People (published 1915) by D. Amaury Talbot, focuses on the life of women in that culture. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ibibio people .

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what are some major achievements of ancient egypt

The many achievements of the ancient Egyptians include the quarrying, surveying and construction techniques that supported the building of monumental pyramids, temples, and obelisks ; a system of mathematics, a practical and effective system of medicine, irrigation systems and agricultural production techniques, the first known planked boats, Egyptian faience and glass technology, new forms of literature, and the earliest known peace treaty, made with the Hittites. Egypt left a lasting legacy. Its art and architecture were widely copied, and its antiquities carried off to far corners of the world. Its monumental ruins have inspired the imaginations of travelers and writers for centuries. A new - found respect for antiquities and excavations in the early modern period by Europeans and Egyptians led to the scientific investigation of Egyptian civilization and a greater appreciation of its cultural legacy.

["morocco', 'egypt', 'south africa", 'the historical local appellation for the indus river', 'south africa']

àwọn nǹkan pàtàkì wo làwọn ará íjíbítì ìgbàanì ṣe

Yes

['Ninu awon opo oriire awon ara Egipti ayeijoun ni okuta fifo, ile wiwon ati awon ona ikole to fa kiko awon piramidi gbangba, tempili, ati obeliski; sistemu mathimatiki, sistemu iwosan to sise ati to se e mulo, awon sistemu ibomirin ati ona ida iseagbe, awon oko-ojuomi akoko, amo fiyansi Egypti ati iseoroiseona digi (gilasi), iru isemookomooka tuntun, ati adehun alafia atetejulo ti a mo. Egypt left a lasting legacy.']

['Ninu awon opo oriire awon ara Egipti ayeijoun ni okuta fifo, ile wiwon ati awon ona ikole to fa kiko awon piramidi gbangba, tempili, ati obeliski; sistemu mathimatiki, sistemu iwosan to sise ati to se e mulo, awon sistemu ibomirin ati ona ida iseagbe, awon oko-ojuomi akoko, amo fiyansi Egypti ati iseoroiseona digi (gilasi), iru isemookomooka tuntun, ati adehun alafia atetejulo ti a mo. Egypt left a lasting legacy.']

['P3']

??gíptì Ayéij??un ??gíptì Ayéij??un ni asailaju ayeijoun ti apailaorun Ariwa Afrika, to wo jo si isale Odo Nile nibi ti orile-ede ayeodeoni ??gíptì wa. Asailaju ti ara ??gíptì gbajo ni bi odun 3150 SK (gegebi Iseoroasiko apejose ti ara ??gíptì)[1] pelu isodokan oselu Apa Oke ati Apa Isale ??gíptì labe farao akoko.[2] Itan ??gíptì ayeijoun sele bi eseese awon Ileoba, ti won je pinpinniya pelu awon igba aitoro ti won unje Igba Apinniya. Ileoba Atijo ti Igba Ibere Amobaba, Ileoba Arin ti Igba Arin Amobaba ati Ileoba Tuntun ti Igba Opin Amobaba. ??gíptì de ogo agbara re nigba Ileoba Tuntun, ni igba Ramesi, leyin eyi ni obere si ni bo si igba irele diedie. ??gíptì je sisegun latowo awon alagbara okere ni titelentele. Leyin iku Aleksanda Eninla, ikan ninu awon ogagun re to unje Ptolemy Soter, so ara re di ajoba tuntun ??gíptì. Iran-oba Ptolemi yi joba lori ??gíptì titi de odun 30 SK, nigba to bo sowo Ile Romu to si di igberiko Romu.[3] Ijasirere asailaju ??gíptì ayeijoun je be nitori agbara re lati le gbe pelu awon isele Ifonofoji Odo Nilo. Agbara asotele ati ikojanu ibomirin ile olora inu afonifoji fa opo eso ogbin wa, eyi lo si mu idagbasoke awujo ati asa wa. Pelu opo ohun amulo o se ese fun ijoba lati segbowo imulo awon alumoni to wa ni afonifoji Nilo ati awon agbegbe ashale to yika, atetebere idagbasoke sistemu ikoole fun ra ara won, igbajo ikole akojopo ati awon iseowo iseagbe, idunadura pelu awon agbegbe ayika, ati ise ologun to fe segun awon ota okere to si le fi agbara ??gíptì han. Lati sakoso awon agbese wonyi ni awon akowe, olori esin, ati awo aseamojuto labe ijanu Farao, eni to ridaju pe awon eniyan ara ??gíptì wa lokan labe sistemu awon igbagbo esin.[4][5] Ninu awon opo oriire awon ara ??gíptì ayeijoun ni okuta fifo, ile wiwon ati awon ona ikole to fa kiko awon piramidi gbangba, tempili, ati obeliski; sistemu mathimatiki, sistemu iwosan to sise ati to se e mulo, awon sistemu ibomirin ati ona ida iseagbe, awon oko-ojuomi akoko, amo fiyansi Egypti ati iseoroiseona digi (gilasi), iru isemookomooka tuntun, ati adehun alafia atetejulo ti a mo.[6] Orílè?-èdè Íjíbítì fi ohun tó ?e pàtàkì gan-an sílè?. Ò?pò? èèyàn ló fara wé i?é? ?nà àti i?é? ìkó?lé tó wà níbè?, àw?n ohun ì?è??báyé tó wà níbè? sì l? sáw?n ibi tó jìnnà réré láyé. ?gó?rò?ò?rún ?dún ni àw?n àwókù ìlú náà ti ? mú káw?n arìnrìn-àjò àtàw?n ò?kò?wé máa ronú nípa rè?. ?lá tuntun ti a rii fun aw?n ohun atij? ati aw?n iwakusa ni akoko igbalode tete mu ki iwadii im?-jinl? ti ?laju ara Egipti ati riri nla ti ogún a?a r?. [ 7] Ìtàn Ìgbà a?íwájú ìran-?ba ?aaju ki Oba (?dun 3150–2686) Ij?ba atij? (2686–2181) Akoko (2181–2055) Laarin (2134–1690) Keji (1674–1549) Ij?ba Tuntun (1549–1069) K?ta (1069–653) Nigbamii (653–332) Il???balúayé Rómù Apáìw??orùn (30 – 641)

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when did egypt began to develop into a kingdom

The Early Dynastic Period was approximately contemporary to the early Sumerian - Akkadian civilisation of Mesopotamia and of ancient Elam. The third - century BC Egyptian priest Manetho grouped the long line of pharaohs from Menes to his own time into 30 dynasties, a system still used today. He chose to begin his official history with the king named `` Meni '' (or Menes in Greek) who was believed to have united the two kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt (around 3100 BC).

['the city of tarsus', 'acts of the apostles']

ìgbà wo ni éjíbítì bẹ̀rẹ̀ sí di ìjọba

Yes

['Asailaju ti ara Egypti gbajo ni bi odun 3150\xa0SK (gegebi Iseoroasiko apejose ti ara Egypti ) pelu isodokan oselu Apa Oke ati Apa Isale Egypti labe farao akoko. Itan Egypti ayeijoun sele bi eseese awon Ileoba, ti won je pinpinniya pelu awon igba aitoro ti won unje Igba Apinniya.']

[]

['P1']

??gíptì Ayéij??un ??gíptì Ayéij??un ni asailaju ayeijoun ti apailaorun Ariwa Afrika, to wo jo si isale Odo Nile nibi ti orile-ede ayeodeoni ??gíptì wa. Asailaju ti ara ??gíptì gbajo ni bi odun 3150 SK (gegebi Iseoroasiko apejose ti ara ??gíptì)[1] pelu isodokan oselu Apa Oke ati Apa Isale ??gíptì labe farao akoko.[2] Itan ??gíptì ayeijoun sele bi eseese awon Ileoba, ti won je pinpinniya pelu awon igba aitoro ti won unje Igba Apinniya. Ileoba Atijo ti Igba Ibere Amobaba, Ileoba Arin ti Igba Arin Amobaba ati Ileoba Tuntun ti Igba Opin Amobaba. ??gíptì de ogo agbara re nigba Ileoba Tuntun, ni igba Ramesi, leyin eyi ni obere si ni bo si igba irele diedie. ??gíptì je sisegun latowo awon alagbara okere ni titelentele. Leyin iku Aleksanda Eninla, ikan ninu awon ogagun re to unje Ptolemy Soter, so ara re di ajoba tuntun ??gíptì. Iran-oba Ptolemi yi joba lori ??gíptì titi de odun 30 SK, nigba to bo sowo Ile Romu to si di igberiko Romu.[3] Ijasirere asailaju ??gíptì ayeijoun je be nitori agbara re lati le gbe pelu awon isele Ifonofoji Odo Nilo. Agbara asotele ati ikojanu ibomirin ile olora inu afonifoji fa opo eso ogbin wa, eyi lo si mu idagbasoke awujo ati asa wa. Pelu opo ohun amulo o se ese fun ijoba lati segbowo imulo awon alumoni to wa ni afonifoji Nilo ati awon agbegbe ashale to yika, atetebere idagbasoke sistemu ikoole fun ra ara won, igbajo ikole akojopo ati awon iseowo iseagbe, idunadura pelu awon agbegbe ayika, ati ise ologun to fe segun awon ota okere to si le fi agbara ??gíptì han. Lati sakoso awon agbese wonyi ni awon akowe, olori esin, ati awo aseamojuto labe ijanu Farao, eni to ridaju pe awon eniyan ara ??gíptì wa lokan labe sistemu awon igbagbo esin.[4][5] Ninu awon opo oriire awon ara ??gíptì ayeijoun ni okuta fifo, ile wiwon ati awon ona ikole to fa kiko awon piramidi gbangba, tempili, ati obeliski; sistemu mathimatiki, sistemu iwosan to sise ati to se e mulo, awon sistemu ibomirin ati ona ida iseagbe, awon oko-ojuomi akoko, amo fiyansi Egypti ati iseoroiseona digi (gilasi), iru isemookomooka tuntun, ati adehun alafia atetejulo ti a mo.[6] Orílè?-èdè Íjíbítì fi ohun tó ?e pàtàkì gan-an sílè?. Ò?pò? èèyàn ló fara wé i?é? ?nà àti i?é? ìkó?lé tó wà níbè?, àw?n ohun ì?è??báyé tó wà níbè? sì l? sáw?n ibi tó jìnnà réré láyé. ?gó?rò?ò?rún ?dún ni àw?n àwókù ìlú náà ti ? mú káw?n arìnrìn-àjò àtàw?n ò?kò?wé máa ronú nípa rè?. ?lá tuntun ti a rii fun aw?n ohun atij? ati aw?n iwakusa ni akoko igbalode tete mu ki iwadii im?-jinl? ti ?laju ara Egipti ati riri nla ti ogún a?a r?. [ 7] Ìtàn Ìgbà a?íwájú ìran-?ba ?aaju ki Oba (?dun 3150–2686) Ij?ba atij? (2686–2181) Akoko (2181–2055) Laarin (2134–1690) Keji (1674–1549) Ij?ba Tuntun (1549–1069) K?ta (1069–653) Nigbamii (653–332) Il???balúayé Rómù Apáìw??orùn (30 – 641)

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when did the civilization of ancient egypt begin

Ancient Egypt was a civilization of ancient Northeastern Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in the place that is now the country Egypt. Egyptian civilization followed prehistoric Egypt and coalesced around 3100 BC (according to conventional Egyptian chronology) with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under Menes (often identified with Narmer). The history of ancient Egypt occurred as a series of stable kingdoms, separated by periods of relative instability known as Intermediate Periods : the Old Kingdom of the Early Bronze Age, the Middle Kingdom of the Middle Bronze Age and the New Kingdom of the Late Bronze Age.

[]

ìgbà wo ni àṣà ìbílẹ̀ íjíbítì ìgbàanì bẹ̀rẹ̀

Yes

['Asailaju ti ara Egypti gbajo ni bi odun 3150\xa0SK (gegebi Iseoroasiko apejose ti ara Egypti ) pelu isodokan oselu Apa Oke ati Apa Isale Egypti labe farao akoko. Itan Egypti ayeijoun sele bi eseese awon Ileoba, ti won je pinpinniya pelu awon igba aitoro ti won unje Igba Apinniya.']

[]

['P1']

??gíptì Ayéij??un ??gíptì Ayéij??un ni asailaju ayeijoun ti apailaorun Ariwa Afrika, to wo jo si isale Odo Nile nibi ti orile-ede ayeodeoni ??gíptì wa. Asailaju ti ara ??gíptì gbajo ni bi odun 3150 SK (gegebi Iseoroasiko apejose ti ara ??gíptì)[1] pelu isodokan oselu Apa Oke ati Apa Isale ??gíptì labe farao akoko.[2] Itan ??gíptì ayeijoun sele bi eseese awon Ileoba, ti won je pinpinniya pelu awon igba aitoro ti won unje Igba Apinniya. Ileoba Atijo ti Igba Ibere Amobaba, Ileoba Arin ti Igba Arin Amobaba ati Ileoba Tuntun ti Igba Opin Amobaba. ??gíptì de ogo agbara re nigba Ileoba Tuntun, ni igba Ramesi, leyin eyi ni obere si ni bo si igba irele diedie. ??gíptì je sisegun latowo awon alagbara okere ni titelentele. Leyin iku Aleksanda Eninla, ikan ninu awon ogagun re to unje Ptolemy Soter, so ara re di ajoba tuntun ??gíptì. Iran-oba Ptolemi yi joba lori ??gíptì titi de odun 30 SK, nigba to bo sowo Ile Romu to si di igberiko Romu.[3] Ijasirere asailaju ??gíptì ayeijoun je be nitori agbara re lati le gbe pelu awon isele Ifonofoji Odo Nilo. Agbara asotele ati ikojanu ibomirin ile olora inu afonifoji fa opo eso ogbin wa, eyi lo si mu idagbasoke awujo ati asa wa. Pelu opo ohun amulo o se ese fun ijoba lati segbowo imulo awon alumoni to wa ni afonifoji Nilo ati awon agbegbe ashale to yika, atetebere idagbasoke sistemu ikoole fun ra ara won, igbajo ikole akojopo ati awon iseowo iseagbe, idunadura pelu awon agbegbe ayika, ati ise ologun to fe segun awon ota okere to si le fi agbara ??gíptì han. Lati sakoso awon agbese wonyi ni awon akowe, olori esin, ati awo aseamojuto labe ijanu Farao, eni to ridaju pe awon eniyan ara ??gíptì wa lokan labe sistemu awon igbagbo esin.[4][5] Ninu awon opo oriire awon ara ??gíptì ayeijoun ni okuta fifo, ile wiwon ati awon ona ikole to fa kiko awon piramidi gbangba, tempili, ati obeliski; sistemu mathimatiki, sistemu iwosan to sise ati to se e mulo, awon sistemu ibomirin ati ona ida iseagbe, awon oko-ojuomi akoko, amo fiyansi Egypti ati iseoroiseona digi (gilasi), iru isemookomooka tuntun, ati adehun alafia atetejulo ti a mo.[6] Orílè?-èdè Íjíbítì fi ohun tó ?e pàtàkì gan-an sílè?. Ò?pò? èèyàn ló fara wé i?é? ?nà àti i?é? ìkó?lé tó wà níbè?, àw?n ohun ì?è??báyé tó wà níbè? sì l? sáw?n ibi tó jìnnà réré láyé. ?gó?rò?ò?rún ?dún ni àw?n àwókù ìlú náà ti ? mú káw?n arìnrìn-àjò àtàw?n ò?kò?wé máa ronú nípa rè?. ?lá tuntun ti a rii fun aw?n ohun atij? ati aw?n iwakusa ni akoko igbalode tete mu ki iwadii im?-jinl? ti ?laju ara Egipti ati riri nla ti ogún a?a r?. [ 7] Ìtàn Ìgbà a?íwájú ìran-?ba ?aaju ki Oba (?dun 3150–2686) Ij?ba atij? (2686–2181) Akoko (2181–2055) Laarin (2134–1690) Keji (1674–1549) Ij?ba Tuntun (1549–1069) K?ta (1069–653) Nigbamii (653–332) Il???balúayé Rómù Apáìw??orùn (30 – 641)

train

where was ancient egypt located on a map

Ancient Egypt was a civilization of ancient Northeastern Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in the place that is now the country Egypt. It is one of six historic civilizations to arise independently. Egyptian civilization followed prehistoric Egypt and coalesced around 3150 BC (according to conventional Egyptian chronology) with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under Menes (often identified with Narmer). The history of ancient Egypt occurred as a series of stable kingdoms, separated by periods of relative instability known as Intermediate Periods : the Old Kingdom of the Early Bronze Age, the Middle Kingdom of the Middle Bronze Age and the New Kingdom of the Late Bronze Age.

['barney & friends']

níbo ni ilẹ̀ íjíbítì ìgbàanì wà lórí àwòrán ilẹ̀

Yes

['Ẹ́gíptì Ayéijọ́un ni asailaju ayeijoun ti apailaorun Ariwa Afrika, to wo jo si isale Odo Nile nibi ti orile-ede ayeodeoni Egypt wa.']

['O wa ni apailaorun Ariwa Afrika, to wo jo si isale Odo Nile nibi ti orile-ede ayeodeoni Egypt wa.', 'O waye ni Guusu Afrika lati ojo 11 Osu Kefa de ojo 11 Osu Keje 2010.']

['P1']

??gíptì Ayéij??un ??gíptì Ayéij??un ni asailaju ayeijoun ti apailaorun Ariwa Afrika, to wo jo si isale Odo Nile nibi ti orile-ede ayeodeoni ??gíptì wa. Asailaju ti ara ??gíptì gbajo ni bi odun 3150 SK (gegebi Iseoroasiko apejose ti ara ??gíptì)[1] pelu isodokan oselu Apa Oke ati Apa Isale ??gíptì labe farao akoko.[2] Itan ??gíptì ayeijoun sele bi eseese awon Ileoba, ti won je pinpinniya pelu awon igba aitoro ti won unje Igba Apinniya. Ileoba Atijo ti Igba Ibere Amobaba, Ileoba Arin ti Igba Arin Amobaba ati Ileoba Tuntun ti Igba Opin Amobaba. ??gíptì de ogo agbara re nigba Ileoba Tuntun, ni igba Ramesi, leyin eyi ni obere si ni bo si igba irele diedie. ??gíptì je sisegun latowo awon alagbara okere ni titelentele. Leyin iku Aleksanda Eninla, ikan ninu awon ogagun re to unje Ptolemy Soter, so ara re di ajoba tuntun ??gíptì. Iran-oba Ptolemi yi joba lori ??gíptì titi de odun 30 SK, nigba to bo sowo Ile Romu to si di igberiko Romu.[3] Ijasirere asailaju ??gíptì ayeijoun je be nitori agbara re lati le gbe pelu awon isele Ifonofoji Odo Nilo. Agbara asotele ati ikojanu ibomirin ile olora inu afonifoji fa opo eso ogbin wa, eyi lo si mu idagbasoke awujo ati asa wa. Pelu opo ohun amulo o se ese fun ijoba lati segbowo imulo awon alumoni to wa ni afonifoji Nilo ati awon agbegbe ashale to yika, atetebere idagbasoke sistemu ikoole fun ra ara won, igbajo ikole akojopo ati awon iseowo iseagbe, idunadura pelu awon agbegbe ayika, ati ise ologun to fe segun awon ota okere to si le fi agbara ??gíptì han. Lati sakoso awon agbese wonyi ni awon akowe, olori esin, ati awo aseamojuto labe ijanu Farao, eni to ridaju pe awon eniyan ara ??gíptì wa lokan labe sistemu awon igbagbo esin.[4][5] Ninu awon opo oriire awon ara ??gíptì ayeijoun ni okuta fifo, ile wiwon ati awon ona ikole to fa kiko awon piramidi gbangba, tempili, ati obeliski; sistemu mathimatiki, sistemu iwosan to sise ati to se e mulo, awon sistemu ibomirin ati ona ida iseagbe, awon oko-ojuomi akoko, amo fiyansi Egypti ati iseoroiseona digi (gilasi), iru isemookomooka tuntun, ati adehun alafia atetejulo ti a mo.[6] Orílè?-èdè Íjíbítì fi ohun tó ?e pàtàkì gan-an sílè?. Ò?pò? èèyàn ló fara wé i?é? ?nà àti i?é? ìkó?lé tó wà níbè?, àw?n ohun ì?è??báyé tó wà níbè? sì l? sáw?n ibi tó jìnnà réré láyé. ?gó?rò?ò?rún ?dún ni àw?n àwókù ìlú náà ti ? mú káw?n arìnrìn-àjò àtàw?n ò?kò?wé máa ronú nípa rè?. ?lá tuntun ti a rii fun aw?n ohun atij? ati aw?n iwakusa ni akoko igbalode tete mu ki iwadii im?-jinl? ti ?laju ara Egipti ati riri nla ti ogún a?a r?. [ 7] Ìtàn Ìgbà a?íwájú ìran-?ba ?aaju ki Oba (?dun 3150–2686) Ij?ba atij? (2686–2181) Akoko (2181–2055) Laarin (2134–1690) Keji (1674–1549) Ij?ba Tuntun (1549–1069) K?ta (1069–653) Nigbamii (653–332) Il???balúayé Rómù Apáìw??orùn (30 – 641)

train

is a bannana a fruit or a herb

The banana is an edible fruit -- botanically a berry -- produced by several kinds of large herbaceous flowering plants in the genus Musa. In some countries, bananas used for cooking may be called plantains, in contrast to dessert bananas. The fruit is variable in size, color, and firmness, but is usually elongated and curved, with soft flesh rich in starch covered with a rind, which may be green, yellow, red, purple, or brown when ripe. The fruits grow in clusters hanging from the top of the plant. Almost all modern edible parthenocarpic (seedless) bananas come from two wild species -- Musa acuminata and Musa balbisiana. The scientific names of most cultivated bananas are Musa acuminata, Musa balbisiana, and Musa × paradisiaca for the hybrid Musa acuminata × M. balbisiana, depending on their genomic constitution. The old scientific name Musa sapientum is no longer used.

['egypt', '1982']

ṣé ọ̀gẹ̀dẹ̀ jé̩ èso tàbí ewéko

Yes

['Ọ̀gẹ̀dẹ̀ jẹ́ èso gígùn tó ṣe é jẹ, èyí tí àwọn igi eléso mìíràn ní genus Musa máa ń jẹ jáde. Ní àwọn orílẹ̀-èdè mìíràn, wọ́n máa ń dín ọ̀gẹ̀dẹ̀, wọ́n sì máa ń yà wọ́n sọ́tọ̀ sí èyí tó wà fún jíjẹ.']

['Ọ̀gẹ̀dẹ̀ jẹ́ èso gígùn tó ṣe é jẹ']

['P1']

??g??d?? ??g??d?? j?? èso gígùn tó ?e é j?,[1][2] èyí tí àw?n igi eléso mìíràn ní genus Musa máa ? j? jáde.[3] Ní àw?n oríl??-èdè mìíràn, w??n máa ? dín ??g??d??, w??n sì máa ? yà w??n s??t?? sí èyí tó wà fún jíj?. Èso náà máa ? wà ní orí?irí?i ìw??n, àw?? àti ìrísí, àm??, ó máa ? gùn tó sì máa ? rí ??n??, p??lú ara tó r??. Àpèjúwe Igi ??g??d?? j?? igi eléwé tó tóbi jù l?.[4] Ìsàl?? igi ??g??d?? j?? èyí tí w??n máa ? pè ní "corm".[5] Igi náà máa ? ga, tó sì máa ? dúró níl?? dáadáa. Kò sí orí il?? tí ??g??d?? ò ti lè hù, ní bí i 60 centimetres (2.0 ft) sínú il??, ó sì f?? dáadáa.[6] Igi ??g??d?? j?? èyí tó máa ? tètè hù nínú gbogbo àw?n igi eléso yòókù. Ìw??n ìdàgbàsókè ojoojúm?? r?? j??1.4 ilopomeji mita (15 sq ft) to 1.6 ilopomeji mita (17 sq ft).[7][8]

train

where do bananas come from in the world

Musa species are native to tropical Indomalaya and Australia, and are likely to have been first domesticated in Papua New Guinea. They are grown in 135 countries, primarily for their fruit, and to a lesser extent to make fiber, banana wine and banana beer and as ornamental plants.

["the tiv language', 'idoma"]

ibo ni ọ̀gẹ̀dẹ̀ ti ń wá láyé

Yes

['Ọ̀gẹ̀dẹ̀ jẹ́ èso gígùn tó ṣe é jẹ, èyí tí àwọn igi eléso mìíràn ní genus Musa máa ń jẹ jáde. Ní àwọn orílẹ̀-èdè mìíràn, wọ́n máa ń dín ọ̀gẹ̀dẹ̀, wọ́n sì máa ń yà wọ́n sọ́tọ̀ sí èyí tó wà fún jíjẹ.']

['Ọ̀gẹ̀dẹ̀ jẹ́ èso gígùn tó ṣe é jẹ, èyí tí àwọn igi eléso mìíràn ní genus Musa máa ń jẹ jáde. ', 'Ọ̀gẹ̀dẹ̀ jẹ́ èso gígùn tó ṣe é jẹ, èyí tí àwọn igi eléso mìíràn ní genus Musa máa ń jẹ jáde.']

['P1']

??g??d?? ??g??d?? j?? èso gígùn tó ?e é j?,[1][2] èyí tí àw?n igi eléso mìíràn ní genus Musa máa ? j? jáde.[3] Ní àw?n oríl??-èdè mìíràn, w??n máa ? dín ??g??d??, w??n sì máa ? yà w??n s??t?? sí èyí tó wà fún jíj?. Èso náà máa ? wà ní orí?irí?i ìw??n, àw?? àti ìrísí, àm??, ó máa ? gùn tó sì máa ? rí ??n??, p??lú ara tó r??. Àpèjúwe Igi ??g??d?? j?? igi eléwé tó tóbi jù l?.[4] Ìsàl?? igi ??g??d?? j?? èyí tí w??n máa ? pè ní "corm".[5] Igi náà máa ? ga, tó sì máa ? dúró níl?? dáadáa. Kò sí orí il?? tí ??g??d?? ò ti lè hù, ní bí i 60 centimetres (2.0 ft) sínú il??, ó sì f?? dáadáa.[6] Igi ??g??d?? j?? èyí tó máa ? tètè hù nínú gbogbo àw?n igi eléso yòókù. Ìw??n ìdàgbàsókè ojoojúm?? r?? j??1.4 ilopomeji mita (15 sq ft) to 1.6 ilopomeji mita (17 sq ft).[7][8]

train

where do bananas come from trees or plants

The banana plant is the largest herbaceous flowering plant. All the above - ground parts of a banana plant grow from a structure usually called a `` corm ''. Plants are normally tall and fairly sturdy, and are often mistaken for trees, but what appears to be a trunk is actually a `` false stem '' or pseudostem. Bananas grow in a wide variety of soils, as long as the soil is at least 60 cm deep, has good drainage and is not compacted. The leaves of banana plants are composed of a `` stalk '' (petiole) and a blade (lamina). The base of the petiole widens to form a sheath ; the tightly packed sheaths make up the pseudostem, which is all that supports the plant. The edges of the sheath meet when it is first produced, making it tubular. As new growth occurs in the centre of the pseudostem the edges are forced apart. Cultivated banana plants vary in height depending on the variety and growing conditions. Most are around 5 m (16 ft) tall, with a range from ' Dwarf Cavendish ' plants at around 3 m (10 ft) to ' Gros Michel ' at 7 m (23 ft) or more. Leaves are spirally arranged and may grow 2.7 metres (8.9 ft) long and 60 cm (2.0 ft) wide. They are easily torn by the wind, resulting in the familiar frond look.

['31', 'muhammadu buhari', 'nnamdi azikiwe', "the tiv language', 'idoma"]

ibo ni ọ̀gẹ̀dẹ̀ ti ń wá láti inú igi tàbí ewéko

Yes

['Igi ọ̀gẹ̀dẹ̀ jẹ́ igi eléwé tó tóbi jù lọ. Ìsàlẹ̀ igi ọ̀gẹ̀dẹ̀ jẹ́ èyí tí wọ́n máa ń pè ní "corm". Igi náà máa ń ga, tó sì máa ń dúró nílẹ̀ dáadáa.']

['Igi ọ̀gẹ̀dẹ̀ jẹ́ igi eléwé tó tóbi jù lọ.']

['P1']

??g??d?? ??g??d?? j?? èso gígùn tó ?e é j?,[1][2] èyí tí àw?n igi eléso mìíràn ní genus Musa máa ? j? jáde.[3] Ní àw?n oríl??-èdè mìíràn, w??n máa ? dín ??g??d??, w??n sì máa ? yà w??n s??t?? sí èyí tó wà fún jíj?. Èso náà máa ? wà ní orí?irí?i ìw??n, àw?? àti ìrísí, àm??, ó máa ? gùn tó sì máa ? rí ??n??, p??lú ara tó r??. Àpèjúwe Igi ??g??d?? j?? igi eléwé tó tóbi jù l?.[4] Ìsàl?? igi ??g??d?? j?? èyí tí w??n máa ? pè ní "corm".[5] Igi náà máa ? ga, tó sì máa ? dúró níl?? dáadáa. Kò sí orí il?? tí ??g??d?? ò ti lè hù, ní bí i 60 centimetres (2.0 ft) sínú il??, ó sì f?? dáadáa.[6] Igi ??g??d?? j?? èyí tó máa ? tètè hù nínú gbogbo àw?n igi eléso yòókù. Ìw??n ìdàgbàsókè ojoojúm?? r?? j??1.4 ilopomeji mita (15 sq ft) to 1.6 ilopomeji mita (17 sq ft).[7][8]

train

how many years is equal to 1 century

A century (from the Latin centum, meaning one hundred ; abbreviated c.) is a period of 100 years. Centuries are numbered ordinally in English and many other languages. For example, `` the 17th century '' strictly refers to the years from 1601 to 1700, but popularly refers to be the years 1600 to 1699.

['the pelvic region', 'within the pelvic region immediately behind and almost overlying the bladder, and in front of the sigmoid colon']

ọdún mélòó ló dọ́gba pẹ̀lú ọ̀rúndún kan

No

['Ọ̀rúndún kan je ogorun odun.']

['Ọ̀rúndún kan je ogorun odun.']

['P1']

Ọ̀rúndún kan je ogorun odun. Ọ̀rúndún 1k • Ọ̀rúndún 2k • Ọ̀rúndún 3k • Ọ̀rúndún 4k • Ọ̀rúndún 5k • Ọ̀rúndún 6k • Ọ̀rúndún 7k • Ọ̀rúndún 8k • Ọ̀rúndún 9k • Ọ̀rúndún 10k • Ọ̀rúndún 11k • Ọ̀rúndún 12k • Ọ̀rúndún 13k • Ọ̀rúndún 14k • Ọ̀rúndún 15k • Ọ̀rúndún 16k • Ọ̀rúndún 17k • Ọ̀rúndún 18k • Ọ̀rúndún 19k • Ọ̀rúndún 20k • Ọ̀rúndún 21k • Ọ̀rúndún 22k • Ọ̀rúndún 23k • Ọ̀rúndún 24k • Ọ̀rúndún 25k • Ọ̀rúndún 26k • Ọ̀rúndún 27k • Ọ̀rúndún 28k • Ọ̀rúndún 29k • Ọ̀rúndún 30k • Itokasi [ àtúnṣe | àtúnṣe àmìọ̀rọ̀ ]

"Centuries" and "Centenary" redirect here. For other uses, see Century (disambiguation) , Centuries (disambiguation) , and Centenary (disambiguation) . A century (from the Latin centum , meaning one hundred ; abbreviated c. ) is a period of 100 years . Centuries are numbered ordinally in English and many other languages. For example, "the 17th century" strictly refers to the years from 1601 to 1700, but popularly refers to be the years 1600 to 1699. A centenary is a hundredth anniversary or a celebration of this, typically the remembrance of an event which took place a hundred years earlier. Contents [ hide ] 1 Start and end in the Gregorian calendar 2 Debate over century celebration 2.1 Viewpoint 1: Strict Usage 2.2 Viewpoint 2: Common Usage and popular culture 3 1st century BC and AD 4 Dating units in other calendar systems 5 Centuries in astronomical year numbering 6 Alternative naming systems 7 See also 8 References 9 Bibliography Start and end in the Gregorian calendar [ edit ] According to the Gregorian calendar , the 1st century AD/CE started on January 1, 1, and ended on December 31, 100. The 2nd century started at year 101, the 3rd at 201, etc. The n -th century started/will start on the year (100 × n) − 99 and ends in 100 × n . A century will only include one year, the centennial year, that starts with the century's number (e.g. 19 00 is the final year of the 19th century). Debate over century celebration [ edit ] Dionysius Exiguus of Scythia Minor introduced the anno Domini system in AD 525, counting the years since the birth of Christ. This calendar era is based on the traditionally reckoned year of the conception of Jesus of Nazareth , with AD counting years from the start of this epoch , and BC denoting years before the start of the era. There is no year zero in this scheme, so the year AD 1 immediately follows the year 1 BC. This dating system was devised in 525, but was not widely used until after 800. Strictly speaking, centuries begin with years ending with "01" as its last two digits and end with "00". In common usage and popular culture, however, a new century begins with years ending in "00" and end with years ending in "99". For example, strictly speaking, the 20th century runs from 1901-2000, but in common usage the 20th century runs from years 1900-1999. Neither terms however, are incorrect. There is, however, a year 0 in the astronomical year numbering and in the ISO 8601:2004 . In this model the 20th century would span 1900-1999. Viewpoint 1: Strict Usage [ edit ] 2 BC 1 BC 1 2 3 4 5 ... 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 ... 198 199 200 ... 1901 1902 ... 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 ... 2098 2099 2100 2101 2102 2103 ... 2198 2199 2200 1st century 2nd century ... 20th century 21st century 22nd century Viewpoint 2: Common Usage and popular culture [ edit ] 2 BC 1 BC 1 2 3 4 5 ... 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 ... 198 199 ... 1900 1901 1902 ... 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 ... 2098 2099 2100 2101 2102 2103 ... 2198 2199 1st century (99 years only) 2nd century ... 20th century 21st century 22nd century 1st century BC and AD [ edit ] There is no "zeroth century" in between the 1st century BC and the 1st century AD. Also, there is no year 0 AD . The Julian calendar "jumps" from 1 BC to 1 AD. The first century BC includes the years 100 BC to 1 BC. Other centuries BC follow the same pattern. Dating units in other calendar systems [ edit ] Besides the Gregorian calendar , the Julian calendar , the Aztec calendar , and the Hindu calendar have cycles of years that are used to delineate whole time periods; the Hindu calendar, in particular, summarizes its years into groups of 60, while the Aztec calendar considers groups of 52. Centuries in astronomical year numbering [ edit ] Astronomical year numbering , used by astronomers , includes a year zero (0). Consequently, the 1st century in these calendars may designate the years 0 to 99 as the 1st century, years 100 to 199 as the second, etc. Therefore, in order to regard 2000 as the first year of the 21st century according to the astronomical year numbering, the astronomical year 0 has to correspond to the Gregorian year 1 BC. Alternative naming systems [ edit ] In Swedish , Danish , Norwegian , Icelandic and Finnish , besides the ordinal naming of centuries another system is often used based on the hundreds part of the year, and consequently centuries start at even multiples of 100. For example, Swedish nittonhundratalet (or 1900-talet ), Danish nittenhundredetallet (or 1900-tallet ), Norwegian nittenhundretallet (or 1900-tallet ) and Finnish tuhatyhdeksänsataaluku (or 1900-luku ) refer unambiguously to the years 1900–1999. The same system is used informally in English. For example, the years 1900–1999 are sometimes referred to as the nineteen hundreds ( 1900s ). This is similar to the English decade names ( 1980s , meaning the years 1980–1989). See also [ edit ] Look up century in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Centuries and Centennials . Age of Discovery Ancient history Before Christ Common Era Decade List of centuries Lustrum Middle Ages Millennium Modern era Saeculum Year References [ edit ] Bibliography [ edit ] The Battle of the Centuries , Ruth Freitag, U.S. Government Printing Office . Available from the Superintendent of Documents, P.O. Box 371954, Pittsburgh, PA 15250- 7954. Cite stock no. 030-001-00153-9.

train

where does most of the oxygen come from on earth

Dioxygen is used in cellular respiration and many major classes of organic molecules in living organisms contain oxygen, such as proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and fats, as do the major constituent inorganic compounds of animal shells, teeth, and bone. Most of the mass of living organisms is oxygen as a component of water, the major constituent of lifeforms. Oxygen is continuously replenished in Earth 's atmosphere by photosynthesis, which uses the energy of sunlight to produce oxygen from water and carbon dioxide. Oxygen is too chemically reactive to remain a free element in air without being continuously replenished by the photosynthetic action of living organisms. Another form (allotrope) of oxygen, ozone (O), strongly absorbs ultraviolet UVB radiation and the high - altitude ozone layer helps protect the biosphere from ultraviolet radiation. However, ozone present at the surface is a byproduct of smog and thus a pollutant.

[]

ibo ni èyí tó pọ̀ jù lọ nínú afẹ́fẹ́ ọ́síjìn tó wà láyé ti wá?

Yes

["Gegebi isupo re, oksijin ni apilese jantirerejulo keta ni agbalaye leyin haidrojin ati heliom ati apilese tojantirere julo gegebi isupo ninu Earth's crust, o je bi idaji isupo crust. Oksijin adawa je adarapo ni kemika julo lati han ni Aye laisi igbese afimoledapo awon iseelemin alaaye, ti won unlo okun imole orun lati se oksijin alapilese lati inu omi.", 'Nitori pe ohun ni opo isupo omi, oksijin na tun ni opo isupo awon iseelemin alaaye (fun apere, bi meji ninu idameta isupo ara omo eniyan).']

['Oksijin adawa je adarapo ni kemika julo lati han ni Aye laisi igbese afimoledapo awon iseelemin alaaye, ti won unlo okun imole orun lati se oksijin alapilese lati inu omi.', 'Nitori pe ohun ni opo isupo omi, oksijin na tun ni opo isupo awon iseelemin alaaye (fun apere, bi meji ninu idameta isupo ara omo eniyan).']

['P4', 'P3']

??ksíjìn ??ksíjìn ( /??ks?d??n/ OK-si-jin) je elimenti kemika to ni nomba atomu 8 ati ti ami-idamo re je O. Oruko re wa lati gbongbo oro ede Griiki ???? (oksis) (ikan, to je "shamu shamu", tountoka si ikan lenu awon ikan) ati -????? (-jenis) (olupese, olumuwa), nitoripe nigba isoloruko re won ro pe gbogbo ikan gbodo ni oksijin ninu. Ni igbonasi ati itemo opagun, atomu meji apilese na undipo lati da oksijinmeji kan (dioxygen), efuufu oniatomumeji alailawo, alailoorun, alainitowo to ni afida O2. Oksijin je ikan ninu adipo kalkojin lori tabili alakoko, be sini o je apilese alaiseonide highly adarapo gidigidi to unda that readily forms adapo kiakia (agaga awon oloksijin) pelu gbogbo awon apilese yioku. Gegebi isupo re, oksijin ni apilese jantirerejulo keta ni agbalaye leyin haidrojin ati heliom[1] ati apilese tojantirere julo gegebi isupo ninu Earth's crust, o je bi idaji isupo.[2] Oksijin adawa je adarapo ni kemika julo lati han ni Aye laisi igbese afimoledapo awon iseelemin alaaye, ti won unlo okun imole orun lati se oksijin alapilese lati inu omi. O2 alapilese sese bere si pejo ninu afefeojuorun leyin ihanjade iyiarada awon iseelemin wonyi, ni bi odun 2.5 bilionu seyin.[3] Efuufu oksijin oniatomumeji lo je 20.8% itobiaye afefe.[4] Nitori pe ohun ni opo isupo omi, oksijin na tun ni opo isupo awon iseelemin alaaye (fun apere, bi meji ninu idameta isupo ara omo eniyan). Gbogbo akosoto ninla awon igbonwo onilepo ninu awon iseelemin alaaye, bi proteins, karboniolomi, ati ora, ni oksijin ninu, bo se je bakanna fun awon adapo alailemin ninla ti won je ike, eyin ati egun awon eranko. Oksijin alapilese unje sise latowo cyanobacteria, algae ati awon ogbin, o si unje lilo ninu imin alahamo fun gbogbo emin tosoro. Oksijin se ipalara si awon iseelemin alailoafefe dandanundandan, ti won je iruida emin atetekose to gbale ni Aye ko to o dipe O2 bere sini pejo ninu afefeojuorun. Iruida miran (allotrope) oksijin, osoni (O3), seranlowo lati da abo bo igbeojuorun lowo (biosphere) iranka onipupagan pelu ipele osoni ojuibiloke giga, sugbon o je idoti nitosi ojuode nibi ti o ti je eso abe smog[5] Ìhùwà Ìdìmú Ní ìgb??násí àti ìfúnpá ??págún, ??ksíjìn j?? ??fúùfù aláìláw??, aláìlóòórùn p??lú àfidá oníhóró O2, níbi tí àw?n át??mù ??ksíjìn méjéjì j?? dídìp?? lólóògùn m?? ara w?n p??lú ìtòp?? ?l??ktrónì oníb?ta ayípo. Ìdìp?? yìí ní ìtòrò ìdìp?? méjì, b??sìni ìjúwe r?? ?e é pè bíi ìdìp?? ??mejì[6] tàbí bíi ìsop?? ìdìp?? ?l??ktrónì ìkan-méjì àti two ìdìp?? ?l??ktrónì méjì-m??ta.[7] ??ksíjìn ìb?ta (ó yàt?? sí òsónì, O3) ni ipò oríil?? hóró O2.[8] Ìtòp?? ?l??ktrónì hóró r?? ní ?l??ktrónì méjì alánìníkejì tí w??n jókòó ona-àyípo oníhóró adíbàj?? méjì.[9]

train

where does oxygen in earth atmosphere come from

Dioxygen is used in cellular respiration and many major classes of organic molecules in living organisms contain oxygen, such as proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and fats, as do the major constituent inorganic compounds of animal shells, teeth, and bone. Most of the mass of living organisms is oxygen as a component of water, the major constituent of lifeforms. Conversely, oxygen is continuously replenished by photosynthesis, which uses the energy of sunlight to produce oxygen from water and carbon dioxide. Oxygen is too chemically reactive to remain a free element in air without being continuously replenished by the photosynthetic action of living organisms. Another form (allotrope) of oxygen, ozone (O 3), strongly absorbs ultraviolet UVB radiation and the high - altitude ozone layer helps protect the biosphere from ultraviolet radiation. But ozone is a pollutant near the surface where it is a by - product of smog.

['ekiti']

ibo ni afẹ́fẹ́ ọ́síjìn tó wà nínú afẹ́fẹ́ ayé ti wá

Yes

['Iruida miran (allotrope) oksijin, osoni (O3), seranlowo lati da abo bo igbeojuorun lowo (biosphere) iranka onipupagan pelu ipele osoni ojuibiloke giga, sugbon o je idoti nitosi ojuode nibi ti o ti je eso abe smog.']

['Iruida miran oksijin, osoni, seranlowo lati da abo bo igbeojuorun lowo iranka onipupagan pelu ipele osoni ojuibiloke giga.']

['P3']

??ksíjìn ??ksíjìn ( /??ks?d??n/ OK-si-jin) je elimenti kemika to ni nomba atomu 8 ati ti ami-idamo re je O. Oruko re wa lati gbongbo oro ede Griiki ???? (oksis) (ikan, to je "shamu shamu", tountoka si ikan lenu awon ikan) ati -????? (-jenis) (olupese, olumuwa), nitoripe nigba isoloruko re won ro pe gbogbo ikan gbodo ni oksijin ninu. Ni igbonasi ati itemo opagun, atomu meji apilese na undipo lati da oksijinmeji kan (dioxygen), efuufu oniatomumeji alailawo, alailoorun, alainitowo to ni afida O2. Oksijin je ikan ninu adipo kalkojin lori tabili alakoko, be sini o je apilese alaiseonide highly adarapo gidigidi to unda that readily forms adapo kiakia (agaga awon oloksijin) pelu gbogbo awon apilese yioku. Gegebi isupo re, oksijin ni apilese jantirerejulo keta ni agbalaye leyin haidrojin ati heliom[1] ati apilese tojantirere julo gegebi isupo ninu Earth's crust, o je bi idaji isupo.[2] Oksijin adawa je adarapo ni kemika julo lati han ni Aye laisi igbese afimoledapo awon iseelemin alaaye, ti won unlo okun imole orun lati se oksijin alapilese lati inu omi. O2 alapilese sese bere si pejo ninu afefeojuorun leyin ihanjade iyiarada awon iseelemin wonyi, ni bi odun 2.5 bilionu seyin.[3] Efuufu oksijin oniatomumeji lo je 20.8% itobiaye afefe.[4] Nitori pe ohun ni opo isupo omi, oksijin na tun ni opo isupo awon iseelemin alaaye (fun apere, bi meji ninu idameta isupo ara omo eniyan). Gbogbo akosoto ninla awon igbonwo onilepo ninu awon iseelemin alaaye, bi proteins, karboniolomi, ati ora, ni oksijin ninu, bo se je bakanna fun awon adapo alailemin ninla ti won je ike, eyin ati egun awon eranko. Oksijin alapilese unje sise latowo cyanobacteria, algae ati awon ogbin, o si unje lilo ninu imin alahamo fun gbogbo emin tosoro. Oksijin se ipalara si awon iseelemin alailoafefe dandanundandan, ti won je iruida emin atetekose to gbale ni Aye ko to o dipe O2 bere sini pejo ninu afefeojuorun. Iruida miran (allotrope) oksijin, osoni (O3), seranlowo lati da abo bo igbeojuorun lowo (biosphere) iranka onipupagan pelu ipele osoni ojuibiloke giga, sugbon o je idoti nitosi ojuode nibi ti o ti je eso abe smog[5] Ìhùwà Ìdìmú Ní ìgb??násí àti ìfúnpá ??págún, ??ksíjìn j?? ??fúùfù aláìláw??, aláìlóòórùn p??lú àfidá oníhóró O2, níbi tí àw?n át??mù ??ksíjìn méjéjì j?? dídìp?? lólóògùn m?? ara w?n p??lú ìtòp?? ?l??ktrónì oníb?ta ayípo. Ìdìp?? yìí ní ìtòrò ìdìp?? méjì, b??sìni ìjúwe r?? ?e é pè bíi ìdìp?? ??mejì[6] tàbí bíi ìsop?? ìdìp?? ?l??ktrónì ìkan-méjì àti two ìdìp?? ?l??ktrónì méjì-m??ta.[7] ??ksíjìn ìb?ta (ó yàt?? sí òsónì, O3) ni ipò oríil?? hóró O2.[8] Ìtòp?? ?l??ktrónì hóró r?? ní ?l??ktrónì méjì alánìníkejì tí w??n jókòó ona-àyípo oníhóró adíbàj?? méjì.[9]

train

where was the element oxygen formed and by what process

In nature, free oxygen is produced by the light - driven splitting of water during oxygenic photosynthesis. According to some estimates, green algae and cyanobacteria in marine environments provide about 70 % of the free oxygen produced on Earth, and the rest is produced by terrestrial plants. Other estimates of the oceanic contribution to atmospheric oxygen are higher, while some estimates are lower, suggesting oceans produce ~ 45 % of Earth 's atmospheric oxygen each year.

['one hundred years of solitude']

ibo ni èròjà oxygen ti wá, báwo ló sì ṣe wáyé?

Yes

['O2 alapilese sese bere si pejo ninu afefeojuorun leyin ihanjade iyiarada awon iseelemin wonyi, ni bi odun 2.5\xa0billion seyin. Efuufu oksijin oniatomumeji lo je 20.8% itobiaye afefe.', "Gegebi isupo re, oksijin ni apilese jantirerejulo keta ni agbalaye leyin haidrojin ati heliom ati apilese tojantirere julo gegebi isupo ninu Earth's crust, o je bi idaji isupo crust. Oksijin adawa je adarapo ni kemika julo lati han ni Aye laisi igbese afimoledapo awon iseelemin alaaye, ti won unlo okun imole orun lati se oksijin alapilese lati inu omi.", 'Ní ìgbọ́násí àti ìfúnpá ọ̀págún, ọ́ksíjìn jẹ́ ẹ̀fúùfù aláìláwọ̀, aláìlóòórùn pẹ̀lú àfidá oníhóró O2, níbi tí àwọn átọ́mù ọ́ksíjìn méjéjì jẹ́ dídìpọ̀ lólóògùn mọ́ ara wọn pẹ̀lú ìtòpọ̀ ẹlẹ́ktrónì oníbẹta ayípo.']

["Gegebi isupo re, oksijin ni apilese jantirerejulo keta ni agbalaye leyin haidrojin ati heliom ati apilese tojantirere julo gegebi isupo ninu Earth's crust, o je bi idaji isupo crust. ", 'O2 alapilese sese bere si pejo ninu afefeojuorun leyin ihanjade iyiarada awon iseelemin wonyi, ni bi odun 2.5\xa0billion seyin.', 'Ní ìgbọ́násí àti ìfúnpá ọ̀págún, ọ́ksíjìn jẹ́ ẹ̀fúùfù aláìláwọ̀, aláìlóòórùn pẹ̀lú àfidá oníhóró O2, níbi tí àwọn átọ́mù ọ́ksíjìn méjéjì jẹ́ dídìpọ̀ lólóògùn mọ́ ara wọn pẹ̀lú ìtòpọ̀ ẹlẹ́ktrónì oníbẹta ayípo.']

['P5', 'P3']

??ksíjìn ??ksíjìn ( /??ks?d??n/ OK-si-jin) je elimenti kemika to ni nomba atomu 8 ati ti ami-idamo re je O. Oruko re wa lati gbongbo oro ede Griiki ???? (oksis) (ikan, to je "shamu shamu", tountoka si ikan lenu awon ikan) ati -????? (-jenis) (olupese, olumuwa), nitoripe nigba isoloruko re won ro pe gbogbo ikan gbodo ni oksijin ninu. Ni igbonasi ati itemo opagun, atomu meji apilese na undipo lati da oksijinmeji kan (dioxygen), efuufu oniatomumeji alailawo, alailoorun, alainitowo to ni afida O2. Oksijin je ikan ninu adipo kalkojin lori tabili alakoko, be sini o je apilese alaiseonide highly adarapo gidigidi to unda that readily forms adapo kiakia (agaga awon oloksijin) pelu gbogbo awon apilese yioku. Gegebi isupo re, oksijin ni apilese jantirerejulo keta ni agbalaye leyin haidrojin ati heliom[1] ati apilese tojantirere julo gegebi isupo ninu Earth's crust, o je bi idaji isupo.[2] Oksijin adawa je adarapo ni kemika julo lati han ni Aye laisi igbese afimoledapo awon iseelemin alaaye, ti won unlo okun imole orun lati se oksijin alapilese lati inu omi. O2 alapilese sese bere si pejo ninu afefeojuorun leyin ihanjade iyiarada awon iseelemin wonyi, ni bi odun 2.5 bilionu seyin.[3] Efuufu oksijin oniatomumeji lo je 20.8% itobiaye afefe.[4] Nitori pe ohun ni opo isupo omi, oksijin na tun ni opo isupo awon iseelemin alaaye (fun apere, bi meji ninu idameta isupo ara omo eniyan). Gbogbo akosoto ninla awon igbonwo onilepo ninu awon iseelemin alaaye, bi proteins, karboniolomi, ati ora, ni oksijin ninu, bo se je bakanna fun awon adapo alailemin ninla ti won je ike, eyin ati egun awon eranko. Oksijin alapilese unje sise latowo cyanobacteria, algae ati awon ogbin, o si unje lilo ninu imin alahamo fun gbogbo emin tosoro. Oksijin se ipalara si awon iseelemin alailoafefe dandanundandan, ti won je iruida emin atetekose to gbale ni Aye ko to o dipe O2 bere sini pejo ninu afefeojuorun. Iruida miran (allotrope) oksijin, osoni (O3), seranlowo lati da abo bo igbeojuorun lowo (biosphere) iranka onipupagan pelu ipele osoni ojuibiloke giga, sugbon o je idoti nitosi ojuode nibi ti o ti je eso abe smog[5] Ìhùwà Ìdìmú Ní ìgb??násí àti ìfúnpá ??págún, ??ksíjìn j?? ??fúùfù aláìláw??, aláìlóòórùn p??lú àfidá oníhóró O2, níbi tí àw?n át??mù ??ksíjìn méjéjì j?? dídìp?? lólóògùn m?? ara w?n p??lú ìtòp?? ?l??ktrónì oníb?ta ayípo. Ìdìp?? yìí ní ìtòrò ìdìp?? méjì, b??sìni ìjúwe r?? ?e é pè bíi ìdìp?? ??mejì[6] tàbí bíi ìsop?? ìdìp?? ?l??ktrónì ìkan-méjì àti two ìdìp?? ?l??ktrónì méjì-m??ta.[7] ??ksíjìn ìb?ta (ó yàt?? sí òsónì, O3) ni ipò oríil?? hóró O2.[8] Ìtòp?? ?l??ktrónì hóró r?? ní ?l??ktrónì méjì alánìníkejì tí w??n jókòó ona-àyípo oníhóró adíbàj?? méjì.[9]

validation

where can oxygen be found in the world

Oxygen is a chemical element with symbol O and atomic number 8. It is a member of the chalcogen group on the periodic table, a highly reactive nonmetal, and an oxidizing agent that readily forms oxides with most elements as well as with other compounds. By mass, oxygen is the third-most abundant element in the universe, after hydrogen and helium. At standard temperature and pressure, two atoms of the element bind to form dioxygen, a colorless and odorless diatomic gas with the formula O 2. Diatomic oxygen gas constitutes 20.8 % of the Earth 's atmosphere. As compounds including oxides, the element makes up almost half of the Earth 's crust.

[]

níbo ni a ti lè rí ẹ̀mí físíìsì nínú ayé

Yes

['O2 alapilese sese bere si pejo ninu afefeojuorun leyin ihanjade iyiarada awon iseelemin wonyi, ni bi odun 2.5 billion seyin.']

['ninu afefeojuorun']

['P3']

??ksíjìn ??ksíjìn ( /??ks?d??n/ OK-si-jin) je elimenti kemika to ni nomba atomu 8 ati ti ami-idamo re je O. Oruko re wa lati gbongbo oro ede Griiki ???? (oksis) (ikan, to je "shamu shamu", tountoka si ikan lenu awon ikan) ati -????? (-jenis) (olupese, olumuwa), nitoripe nigba isoloruko re won ro pe gbogbo ikan gbodo ni oksijin ninu. Ni igbonasi ati itemo opagun, atomu meji apilese na undipo lati da oksijinmeji kan (dioxygen), efuufu oniatomumeji alailawo, alailoorun, alainitowo to ni afida O2. Oksijin je ikan ninu adipo kalkojin lori tabili alakoko, be sini o je apilese alaiseonide highly adarapo gidigidi to unda that readily forms adapo kiakia (agaga awon oloksijin) pelu gbogbo awon apilese yioku. Gegebi isupo re, oksijin ni apilese jantirerejulo keta ni agbalaye leyin haidrojin ati heliom[1] ati apilese tojantirere julo gegebi isupo ninu Earth's crust, o je bi idaji isupo.[2] Oksijin adawa je adarapo ni kemika julo lati han ni Aye laisi igbese afimoledapo awon iseelemin alaaye, ti won unlo okun imole orun lati se oksijin alapilese lati inu omi. O2 alapilese sese bere si pejo ninu afefeojuorun leyin ihanjade iyiarada awon iseelemin wonyi, ni bi odun 2.5 bilionu seyin.[3] Efuufu oksijin oniatomumeji lo je 20.8% itobiaye afefe.[4] Nitori pe ohun ni opo isupo omi, oksijin na tun ni opo isupo awon iseelemin alaaye (fun apere, bi meji ninu idameta isupo ara omo eniyan). Gbogbo akosoto ninla awon igbonwo onilepo ninu awon iseelemin alaaye, bi proteins, karboniolomi, ati ora, ni oksijin ninu, bo se je bakanna fun awon adapo alailemin ninla ti won je ike, eyin ati egun awon eranko. Oksijin alapilese unje sise latowo cyanobacteria, algae ati awon ogbin, o si unje lilo ninu imin alahamo fun gbogbo emin tosoro. Oksijin se ipalara si awon iseelemin alailoafefe dandanundandan, ti won je iruida emin atetekose to gbale ni Aye ko to o dipe O2 bere sini pejo ninu afefeojuorun. Iruida miran (allotrope) oksijin, osoni (O3), seranlowo lati da abo bo igbeojuorun lowo (biosphere) iranka onipupagan pelu ipele osoni ojuibiloke giga, sugbon o je idoti nitosi ojuode nibi ti o ti je eso abe smog[5] Ìhùwà Ìdìmú Ní ìgb??násí àti ìfúnpá ??págún, ??ksíjìn j?? ??fúùfù aláìláw??, aláìlóòórùn p??lú àfidá oníhóró O2, níbi tí àw?n át??mù ??ksíjìn méjéjì j?? dídìp?? lólóògùn m?? ara w?n p??lú ìtòp?? ?l??ktrónì oníb?ta ayípo. Ìdìp?? yìí ní ìtòrò ìdìp?? méjì, b??sìni ìjúwe r?? ?e é pè bíi ìdìp?? ??mejì[6] tàbí bíi ìsop?? ìdìp?? ?l??ktrónì ìkan-méjì àti two ìdìp?? ?l??ktrónì méjì-m??ta.[7] ??ksíjìn ìb?ta (ó yàt?? sí òsónì, O3) ni ipò oríil?? hóró O2.[8] Ìtòp?? ?l??ktrónì hóró r?? ní ?l??ktrónì méjì alánìníkejì tí w??n jókòó ona-àyípo oníhóró adíbàj?? méjì.[9]

train

what is the meaning of eid in arabic

Eid al - Adha (Arabic : عيد الأضحى ‎, translit. ʿīd al - aḍḥā, lit. ' Feast of the Sacrifice ' ‎, (ʕiːd ælˈʔɑdʕħæː)), also called the `` Sacrifice Feast '', is the second of two Muslim holidays celebrated worldwide each year, and considered the holier of the two. It honors the willingness of Ibrahim (Abraham) to sacrifice his son, as an act of obedience to God 's command. Before Abraham sacrificed his son, God provided a male goat to sacrifice instead. In commemoration of this, an animal is sacrificed and divided into three parts : one third of the share is given to the poor and needy ; another third is given to relatives, friends and neighbors ; and the remaining third is retained by the family.

['frenulum', 'apex']

kí ni ìtumọ̀ eid ní èdè àrábíìkì

Yes

['Ọdún Iléyá (Lárúbáwá: عيد الأضحى\u200e ‘Īdu l-’Aḍḥā tabi Aïd el-Kabir) "Ọdún Ìdúpẹ́-Ọòrẹ" jẹ́ ọjọ́ ìsinmi pàtàkì nínú ẹsìn Ìsìlàámù ti àwọn Mùsùlùmí ṣe àjọyọ̀ káàkiri àgbáyé láti ṣerántí àmì kàn tí wọ́n ní ìfẹ sí tí ó ń jẹ́ Ànọ́bì Ìbùrọ̀hìmù (Abraham) (Ibrahim).']

['Ọdún Iléyá jẹ́ ọjọ́ ìsinmi pàtàkì nínú ẹsìn Ìsìlàámù ti àwọn Mùsùlùmí ṣe àjọyọ̀ káàkiri àgbáyé láti ṣerántí àmì kàn tí wọ́n ní ìfẹ sí tí ó ń jẹ́ Ànọ́bì Ìbùrọ̀hìmù.']

['P1']

?dún Iléyá ?dún Iléyá (Lárúbáwá: ‘?du l-’A??? tabi Aïd el-Kabir) "?dún Ìdúp??-?òr?" j?? ?j?? ìsinmi pàtàkì nínú ?sìn Ìsìlàámù ti àw?n Mùsùlùmí ?e àj?y?? káàkiri àgbáyé láti ?erántí àmì kàn tí w??n ní ìf? sí tí ó ? j?? Àn??bì Ìbùr??hìmù (Abrahamu) (Ibrahim).[1] Orí?irí?i àlàyé ló wà fún ?dún yìi, lára àw?n àlàyé náà ni: Ní ?dún 1991, Sheikh Dr. Abu-Abdullah Adélabú ?e àlàyé nípa ?dún Iléyá ní orí ??r?-s??r??s??r?? R??díò Abùjá wí pé ?dún Iléyá j?? àj??dún ìfi-??mí-ìm?orè-hàn, ?l??hun ní kí Ibrahim ó ?e láti fi ??mí-ìm??orè hàn èyí tí ó sí fí ?m? r?? Ishmael sílè fún ìfi ??mí-ìm??orè hàn sí ?l??run tí ó ?e àdéhùn fún pé bí oun Ibrahim bá bím? nínú ogbó pé òun yóò fí ?m? náà j??sín fún ?l??run. Nínú wàásí Sheikh náà tí í ?e ?m?-bibi oríl??-èdè Nàìjíríà gbo lórí ètò àj??dún ?dún tí ò?ì??? àgbà Mùsùlùmí Àlàájíaji Gúrúrángà ?e olóòtú àti olú-gbàl?j?? lórí ??r?-s??r??s??r?? náà wípé, fífi ?m? bíbí Ibrahim sílè kì ì ?e rírú ?b?. Sheikh Adélabú tí àw?n ?m? l??hìn r?? ? ?e ìgbéjáde ???ín isilaamu.Com láti pà?? ilé-èkó Ìsìlàámù Awqaf Africa ní Ìlú London ?é àlàyé ní èdè Yorùbá lórí ??r? Rédíò Abùjá wípé ìdánwò ní ?l??hun ?e fún Àn??bì ibrahim láti ?e Ìfi- rinl?? jíj? olúsìn-rere, olótìit??, olódodo àti olum??- oore. Onímím?? Yorùbá yíì ?e ìtumò àw?n ?s?- ??r?? nínú kúránì báyìí wípé [2]: "Òun (Ibrahim) sí s? wípé: "?l??hun mí ó! Fún mí ní ?m? rere" B???? náà síní Àwa (?l??hun ?ba-Áaso) sí fún ní ìròyìn ay?? wípé òun (Ibrahim) yì ó rí ?m?kùnrin (Ishmael) bí. Nítorí ìdí èyí, nígbà tí òun (?m? ?kunrin kékeré náà, Ishmael) dàgbà dé bí tí ó lè rìn káàkiri (fún ìjíhìn-rere) p??lú Ibrahim, òun (Ibrahim) sí wí fún wípé: Ìw? ?m? mí (Ishmael) ó! A ti fi hàn mí l'ójú rán wípé mo fí ? ?e ìdúp?? oore (ní ti fíf?ni síl?? fún ìdúp?? l'??w? ?l??hun), àbí ìw? kò rí bí nkán ti rí bí - kíni èrò tìre?! Òun (Ishmael) sí da (bàba r?? Ibrahim) lóhùn wípé: "Ìw? bàba mi ó! ?e g??g?? bí A ti ?e pa ìw? l'ás? láti ?e, Inshâ' Allâh (Ní ti Ògo-?l??hun) ìw? yì ó sí mo bí mo ti j?? nínú àw?n As-Sabirin (Àw?n Olufàradà nínú sùúrù àti òun tí ó j?m?? b???? gbogbo). L??hìn èyí, tí àw?n méjèèjì sí ti gbà fún ?l??hun w?n Allah tí w??n sì ?e ijúw??-jus?? sílè fún Ìf? ?l??hun), tí òun (Ibrahim) sí tí t?? orí ??e (Ishamel) l? síl?? (ní ààyè itébà sí iwájú); "Báyìí náà ní Àwa sí pé òun: "Ìw? Ibrahim o!" "Ìw?? (Ibrahin) tí ?e g??g?? bí A ti fi hàn ó (ní ojúran) ní òtít? àti ní òdodo! Báyìí náà sì ní Àwa ?e má ? san ??san fún (gbogbo àw?n) Múhsínùn (olù?e rere lótit? àti l'ódodo) - Sheikh Adélabú ?e ìt?ka sí ?s? ?r? ?l??hun nínú kúránì Orí 2:112)." Láì k?? ?e àníàní, ìdánwò nlá tí ó fi ojú hàn gbángba ní eléyìí j??. Nítorí ìdí èyí ní À wa fi ?e ìrópò (g??g?? bí ìràpadà) ?m? (Ishamael) tí òun (Ibrahim) náà p??lú àgùntàn kàn b??l??j?? (láti fi dípò ní ?í?e ìdúp?? òòrè láti ??d?? ?l??hun) "Báyìí náà sì ní À wa j?? kí ó wá nílé fún un (Ibrahin) ìrántí rere tí ó sì di mánìgbàgbé fun àti láàrín àw?n àr??m?d??m? tí òun b?? l??hìn Títí Láíláí. "Sàlámùn 'alaa Ibrâhim (Abrahamu) i.e. Ìk?? àti ìg?? (?l??hun) ní fún Ibrahim (Abrahamu)}[3].

عيد الأضحى Eid al-Adha "Feast of the Sacrifice" Blessings for Eid al-Adha Observed by Muslims and Druze Type Muslim holidays Significance Commemoration of Ibrahim (Abraham) 's willingness to sacrifice his son in obedience of a command from God Marks the end of the annual Hajj to Mecca Observances Eid prayers Dhabihah , sacrifice of a sheep,cow, goat, buffalo or camel Donating one-third or more of the sacrifice meat to friends and neighbors Donating one-third or more of the sacrifice meat to the poor and needy Gatherings of family and friends Meals, especially lunches and late breakfasts (brunches) Wearing best clean clothes Gift-giving Giving money/gifts to kids and homeless as a token of love Helping the poor by giving foods, money, meat and clothes in the name of zakath Begins 10 Dhu al-Hijjah Ends 10 Dhu al-Hijjah Date 10 Dhu al-Hijjah 2017 date 1 September,2 September ( Umm al-Qura ) 2018 date 21 August 2019 date 11 August Related to Hajj Eid al-Fitr Part of a series on Islamic culture Architecture Azerbaijani Indo-Islamic Moorish Moroccan Mughal Ottoman Pakistani Tatar Persian Somali Sudano-Sahelian Art Calligraphy Miniature Oriental rug Persian carpet Turkish carpet Dress Abaya Agal Boubou Burqa Chador Jellabiya Niqāb Salwar kameez Songkok (Peci) Taqiya Keffiyeh (Kufiya) Thawb Jilbab Hijab Holidays Ashura Arba'een al-Ghadeer Chaand Raat al-Fitr al-Adha Imamat Day New Year Isra and Mi'raj al-Qadr Mawlid Ramadan Mid-Sha'ban Literature Arabic Azerbaijani Bengali Indonesian Javanese Kashmiri Kurdish Malay Pashto Persian Punjabi Sindhi Somali South Asian Turkish Urdu Music Dastgah Ghazal Madih nabawi Maqam Mugam Nasheed Qawwali Theatre Bangsawan Jem Karagöz and Hacivat Sama Ta'zieh Islam portal v t e Eid al-Adha ( Arabic : عيد الأضحى ‎, translit. ʿīd al-aḍḥā , lit. 'Feast of the Sacrifice'‎, [ʕiːd ælˈʔɑdˤħæː] ), also called the " Sacrifice Feast ", is the second of two Muslim holidays celebrated worldwide each year, and considered the holier of the two. It honors the willingness of Ibrahim (Abraham) to sacrifice his son, as an act of obedience to God 's command. Before Abraham sacrificed his son, God provided a male goat to sacrifice instead. In commemoration of this, an animal is sacrificed and divided into three parts: one third of the share is given to the poor and needy; another third is given to relatives, friends and neighbors; and the remaining third is retained by the family. In the Islamic lunar calendar , Eid al-Adha falls on the 10th day of Dhu al-Hijjah . In the international (Gregorian) calendar , the dates vary from year to year drifting approximately 11 days earlier each year. Eid al-Adha is the latter of the two Eid holidays, the former being Eid al-Fitr . The word "Eid" appears once in Al-Ma'ida , the fifth sura of the Quran, with the meaning "solemn festival". Like Eid al-Fitr, Eid al-Adha begins with a prayer of two rakats followed by a sermon ( khutbah ). Eid al-Adha celebrations start after the descent of the Hujjaj , the pilgrims performing the Hajj , from Mount Arafat , a hill east of Mecca . Eid sacrifice may take place until sunset on the 13th day of Dhu al-Hijjah. The days of Eid have been singled out in the Hadith as "days of remembrance" and considered the holiest days in the Islamic Calendar . The takbir (days) of Tashriq are from the Maghrib prayer of the 29th of Dhul-Qadah up to the Maghrib prayer of the 13th of Dhu al-Hijjah (thirteen days and nights). Contents [ hide ] 1 Other names 2 Origin 3 Eid prayers 3.1 Who must attend 3.2 When is it performed 3.3 The Sunnah of preparation 3.4 Rites of the Eid prayers 3.5 The l-hamdu (praise with lip) and other rites 4 Traditions and practices 5 Eid al-Adha in the Gregorian calendar 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 External links Other names [ edit ] Eid al-Adha celebrations start at the same time as the annual Hajj in Mecca . The Arabic term "sacrifice feast ", ʿīd al-aḍḥā / ʿīd ul-aḍḥā is borrowed into Indo-Aryan languages such as Urdu , Hindi , Assamese, Bengali , Gujarati , and Austronesian languages such as Malay and Indonesian (the last often spelling it as Aidil Adha or Idul Adha ). Another Arabic word for "sacrifice" is Qurbani ( Arabic : قربان ‎‎.) The Semitic root Q-R-B (Hebrew: ק-ר-ב ‎) means "to be close to someone/something"; other words from the root include qarov, "close", and qerovim, "relatives." The senses of root meaning "to offer" suggest that the act of offering brings one closer to the receiver of the offering (here, God). The same stem is found in Hebrew and for example in the Akkadian language noun aqribtu "act of offering." Eid al-Kabir , an Arabic term meaning "the Greater Eid" (the "Lesser Eid" being Eid al-Fitr), is used in Yemen, Syria, and North Africa (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Egypt). The term was borrowed directly into French as Aïd el-Kebir . Translations of "Big Eid" or "Greater Eid" are used in Pashto (لوی اختر Loy Axtar ), Kashmiri ( Baed Eid ), Urdu and Hindi ( Baṛī Īd ), Bengali ( বড় ঈদ Boro Id ), Tamil ( Peru Nāl , "Great Day") and Malayalam ( Bali Perunnal , "Great Day of Sacrifice"). Albanian , however, uses Bajram(i) i vogël or "the Lesser Eid" (as opposed to Bajram i Madh , the "Greater Eid", for Eid al-Fitr) as an alternative reference to Eid al-Adha. [ citation needed ] The festival is also called "Bakr-Eid" in Urdu and Hindi language ( بقر عید ‎ , baqr `īd ), stemming from the Arabic word al-Baqara meaning "The Cow", although some have attributed it to the Urdu and Hindi word bakrī , meaning "goat", because of the tradition of sacrificing a goat in South Asia on this festival. This term is also borrowed into other Indian languages, such as Tamil Bakr `Īd Peru Nāl . [ citation needed ] In Uzbekistan it is called Qurbon Hayiti (Kurban Eid). In Bangladesh this Eid is called ঈদুল আজহা(idul azha) & কুরবানির ঈদ(kurbanir id) in Bengali . Literary meaning of Kurbanir Id is the festival of Sacrifice . Idul Azha is loan word from Arabic . বকরিদ(bokrid) is sometimes called in Old Dhaka which means the festival of Goat . This word is come from Hindustani . It is called ꠛꠇꠞꠣ ꠁꠖ(boxra id) in Sylheti , which means the festival of goat too. Some names refer to the fact that the holiday occurs after the culmination of the annual Hajj . Such names are used in Malaysian and Indonesian ( Hari Raya Haji "Hajj celebration day", Lebaran Haji , Lebaran Kaji . When this was not yet an official feast in the Philippines , this was how it was called in Mindanao and other predominantly Muslim areas. When it became a legal holiday in 2009, it became officially known as Eid al-Adha. Some also reference it with local language names like Kapistahan ng Pagsasakripisyo in Tagalog . In Tamil it is called ( Hajji Peru Nāl ). [ citation needed ] It is also known as Id ul Baqarah in Egypt, Saudi Arabia and in the Middle East, as Eid è Qurbon in Iran, Kurban Bayramı ("the Holiday of Sacrifice") in Turkey, Baqarah Eid in Pakistan, Bangladesh and Trinidad, Eid el-Kebir in Morocco, Tfaska Tamoqqart in the Berber language of Jerba , Iduladha or Qurban in Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines, Qurbani Eid in Bangladesh, Bakri Idh ("Goat Eid") in parts of Pakistan and India and Tabaski or Tobaski in Senegal and West Africa (most probably borrowed from the Serer language — an ancient Serer religious festival ), Babbar Sallah in Hausa language and ciida gawraca in Somali . [ citation needed ] Eid al-Adha has had other names outside the Muslim world. The name is often simply translated into the local language, such as English Feast of the Sacrifice , German Opferfest , Dutch Offerfeest , Romanian Sărbătoarea Sacrificiului , and Hungarian Áldozati ünnep . In Spanish it is known as Fiesta del Cordero or Fiesta del Borrego (both meaning "festival of the lamb"). Origin [ edit ] Abraham, about to sacrifice his son According to Islamic tradition , the valley of Mecca (in present-day Saudi Arabia ) was a dry, rocky, and uninhabited place. God instructed Abraham to bring Hagar ( Hājar ), his Arabian (Adnan) wife, and Ishmael to Arabia from the land of Canaan . As Abraham was preparing for his return journey back to Canaan, Hagar asked him, "Did God order you to leave us here? Or are you leaving us here to die?" Abraham did not even look back. He just nodded, afraid that he would be too sad and that he would disobey God. Hagar said, "Then God will not waste us; you can go". Though Abraham had left a large quantity of food and water with Hagar and Ishmael, the supplies quickly ran out, and within a few days the two began to feel the pangs of hunger and dehydration. Hagar ran up and down between two hills, Safa and Marwa , seven times, in her desperate quest for water. Exhausted, she finally collapsed beside her baby Ishmael and prayed to God for deliverance. Miraculously, a spring of water gushed forth from the earth at the feet of baby Ishmael. Other accounts have the angel Jibra'il, striking the earth and causing the spring to flow in abundance. With this secure water supply, known as the Zamzam Well , they were not only able to provide for their own needs, but were also able to trade water with passing nomads for food and supplies. Years later, Abraham was instructed by God to return from Canaan to build a place of worship adjacent to Hagar's well (the Zamzam Well). Abraham and Ishmael constructed a stone and mortar structure – known as the Kaaba – which was to be the gathering place for all who wished to strengthen their faith in God. As the years passed, Ishmael was blessed with nubuwwah (prophethood) and gave the nomads of the desert his message of submission to God. After many centuries, Mecca became a thriving desert city and a major center for trade, thanks to its reliable water source, the Zamzam Well. One of the main trials of Abraham's life was to face the command of God to sacrifice his dearest possession, his son. The son is not named in the Quran, but Muslims believe it to be Ishmael , though it is mentioned as Isaac in the Bible . Upon hearing this command, Abraham prepared to submit to will of God . During this preparation, Shaitan (the Devil) tempted Abraham and his family by trying to dissuade them from carrying out God's commandment, and Abraham drove Satan away by throwing pebbles at him. In commemoration of their rejection of Satan, stones are thrown at symbolic pillars during the Stoning of the Devil during Hajj rites. When Abraham attempted to cut his throat, he was astonished to see that his son was unharmed and instead, he found a ram which was slaughtered. Abraham had passed the test by his willingness to carry out God's command. This story is known as the Akedah in Judaism (Binding of Isaac) and originates in the Tora , the first book of Moses ( Genesis , Ch. 22). The Quran refers to the Akedah as follows: 100 "O my Lord! Grant me a righteous (son)!" 101 So We gave him the good news of a boy ready to suffer and forbear. 102 Then, when (the son) reached (the age of) (serious) work with him, he said: "O my son! I see in vision that I offer thee in sacrifice: Now see what is thy view!" (The son) said: "O my father! Do as thou art commanded: thou will find me, if Allah so wills one practising Patience and Constancy!" 103 So when they had both submitted their wills (to Allah), and he had laid him prostrate on his forehead (for sacrifice), 104 We called out to him "O Abraham! 105 "Thou hast already fulfilled the vision!" – thus indeed do We reward those who do right. 106 For this was obviously a trial– 107 And We ransomed him with a momentous sacrifice: 108 And We left (this blessing) for him among generations (to come) in later times: 109 "Peace and salutation to Abraham!" 110 Thus indeed do We reward those who do right. 111 For he was one of our believing Servants. 112 And We gave him the good news of Isaac – a prophet – one of the Righteous. — Quran, sura 37 ( As-Saaffat ), ayat 100–112 Abraham had shown that his love for God superseded all others: that he would lay down his own life or the lives of those dearest to him in submission to God 's command. Muslims commemorate this ultimate act of sacrifice every year during Eid al-Adha. While Abraham was prepared to make an ultimate sacrifice, God ultimately prevents the sacrifice, additionally signifying that one should never sacrifice a human life, especially not in the name of God. Eid prayers [ edit ] Main article: Eid prayers Eid prayer in Badshahi Mosque Devotees offer the Eid al-Adha prayers at the mosque. Who must attend [ edit ] According to some fiqh (traditional Islamic law) (although there is some disagreement). Men should go to mosque—or an Eidgah (a field where eid prayer held)—to perform eid prayer; Salat al-Eid is Wajib according to Hanafi . Sunnah al-Mu'kkadah according to Maliki and Shafi'i jurisprudence. Women are also highly encouraged to attend, although it is not compulsory. Menstruating women do not participate in the formal prayer, but should be present to witness the goodness and the gathering of the Muslims. Residents, which excludes travellers. Those in good health. Shiite version: Eid prayers are Mustahab (recommended) according to Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani . However, they are wajib (obligatory) only in the time when the Mahdi and Jesus return. When is it performed [ edit ] The Eid al-Adha prayer is performed any time after the sun completely rises up to just before the entering of Zuhr time, on the 10th of Dhu al-Hijjah. In the event of a force majeure (e.g. natural disaster), the prayer may be delayed to the 11th of Dhu al-Hijjah and then to the 12th of Dhu al-Hijjah. The Sunnah of preparation [ edit ] In keeping with the sunnah of Muhammad , Muslims are encouraged to prepare themselves for the occasion of Eid. Below is a list of things Muslims are recommended to do in preparation for the Eid al-Adha festival: Make wudu (ablution) and offer Salat al-Fajr (the pre-sunrise prayer). Prepare for personal cleanliness—take care of details of clothing, etc. Dress up, putting on new or best clothes available. Rites of the Eid prayers [ edit ] The scholars differed concerning the ruling on Eid prayers . There are three scholarly points of view: That Eid prayer is Fard Kifaya (communal obligation). This is the view of Abu Hanifa . That it is Sunna Mu’akkada (recommended). This is the view of Malik ibn Anas and Al-Shafi‘i . That it is Wajib on all Muslim men (a duty for each Muslim and is obligatory for men); those who do not do it without an excuse are considered sinners. This is the view of Ahmad ibn Hanbal , and was also narrated from Abu Hanifa. Eid prayers must be offered in congregation. Participation of women in the prayer congregation varies from community to community. It consists of two rakats (units) with seven takbirs in the first Raka'ah and five Takbirs in the second Raka'ah. For Sunni Muslims , Salat al-Eid differs from the five daily canonical prayers in that no adhan (call to prayer) or iqama (call) is pronounced for the two Eid prayers. The salat (prayer) is then followed by the khutbah, or sermon, by the Imam . At the conclusion of the prayers and sermon, Muslims embrace and exchange greetings with one other ( Eid Mubarak ), give gifts and visit one another. Many Muslims also take this opportunity to invite their non-Muslim friends, neighbours, co-workers and classmates to their Eid festivities to better acquaint them about Islam and Muslim culture. The l-hamdu (praise with lip) and other rites [ edit ] The l-hamdu is recited from the dawn of the ninth of Dhu al-Hijjah to the thirteenth, and consists of: Allāhu akbar, Allāhu akbar الله أكبر الله أكبر lā ilāha illā-Allāh لا إله إلا الله Wallāhu akbar, Allāhu akbar والله أكبر الله أكبر walillāhi l-ḥamdu ولله الحمد Allah is the greatest, Allah is the greatest, There is no god but Allah Allah is greatest, Allah is greatest and to Allah goes all praise. Multiple variations of this recitation exist across the Muslim world. Traditions and practices [ edit ] See also: Eid cuisine and Eidi (gift) Cookies of Eid Men, women, and children are expected to dress in their finest clothing to perform Eid prayer in a large congregation in an open waqf ("stopping") field called Eidgah or mosque. Affluent Muslims who can afford it sacrifice their best halal domestic animals (usually a cow, but can also be a camel, goat, sheep, or ram depending on the region) as a symbol of Abraham's willingness to sacrifice his only son. The sacrificed animals, called aḍḥiya ( Arabic : أضحية ‎‎), known also by the Perso-Arabic term qurbāni , have to meet certain age and quality standards or else the animal is considered an unacceptable sacrifice. In Pakistan alone nearly ten million animals are slaughtered on Eid days costing over US$2.0 billion. The meat from the sacrificed animal is preferred to be divided into three parts. The family retains one third of the share; another third is given to relatives, friends, and neighbors; and the remaining third is given to the poor and needy. Though the division is purely optional wherein either all the meat may be kept with oneself or may be given away to poor or needy, the preferred method as per sunnah of Muhammad is dividing it in three parts. The regular charitable practices of the Muslim community are demonstrated during Eid al-Adha by concerted efforts to see that no impoverished person is left without an opportunity to partake in the sacrificial meal during these days. Hajj is also performed in Saudi Arabia before Eid ul Adha and millions of Muslims perform Hajj. On the event of Hajj lots of Muslims slaughter animals and divide a major part of the meat for poor people. During Eid al-Adha, distributing meat amongst the people, chanting the takbir out loud before the Eid prayers on the first day and after prayers throughout the four days of Eid, are considered essential parts of this important Islamic festival. In some countries, families that do not own livestock can make a contribution to a charity that will provide meat to those who are in need. Eid al-Adha in the Gregorian calendar [ edit ] See also: Islamic calendar While Eid al-Adha is always on the same day of the Islamic calendar, the date on the Gregorian calendar varies from year to year since the Islamic calendar is a lunar calendar and the Gregorian calendar is a solar calendar . The lunar calendar is approximately eleven days shorter than the solar calendar. Each year, Eid al-Adha (like other Islamic holidays) falls on one of about two to four different Gregorian dates in different parts of the world, because the boundary of crescent visibility is different from the International Date Line . The following list shows the official dates of Eid al-Adha for Saudi Arabia as announced by the Supreme Judicial Council . Future dates are estimated according to the Umm al-Qura calendar of Saudi Arabia. However, it should be noted that the Umm al-Qura is just a guide for planning purposes and not the absolute determinant or fixer of dates. Confirmations of actual dates by moon sighting are applied on the 29th day of the lunar month prior to Dhu al-Hijjah to announce the specific dates for both Hajj rituals and the subsequent Eid festival. The three days after the listed date are also part of the festival. The time before the listed date the pilgrims visit the Mount Arafat and descend from it after sunrise of the listed day. In many countries, the start of any lunar Hijri month varies based on the observation of new moon by local religious authorities, so the exact day of celebration varies by locality. Islamic year Gregorian date 1436 24 September 2015 1437 12 September 2016 1438 1 September 2017 1439 23 August 2018 (calculated) 1440 12 August 2019 (calculated) See also [ edit ] Islam portal Holidays portal Binding of Isaac Phrixus Korban Notes [ edit ] ^a The son is not named in the Quran, but most modern Muslims adhere to the view that it was Ismail (Ishmael). Sayings attributed to Muhammad and Islamic commentaries differ on whether Abraham's older son Ishmael , or his younger son, Ishaq , was asked to be sacrificed in the vision. A chain of narration from Yunnus b. Abd al-Ala attributed to Abdallah b. Abbas: "The Prophet in a conversation in which he said, 'Then we ransomed him with a tremendous victim.' And he also said, 'He is Isaac.'" The Sunni commentary Tafsir Ibn Kathir: "Ibn Jarir narrated that Ibn 'Abbas said, 'The one who was ransomed was Ismail, peace be upon him. The Jews claimed that it was Ishaq.'" References [ edit ] External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Eid ul-adha . Muttaqi, Shahid ‘Ali. "The Sacrifice of "Eid al-Adha " " . Animals in Islam .

train

what's the meaning of eid al adha

Eid al - Adha (Arabic : عيد الأضحى ‎, translit. ʿīd al - aḍḥā, lit. ' Feast of the Sacrifice ', (ʕiːd ælˈʔɑdʕħæː)), also called the `` Sacrifice Feast '', is the second of two Muslim holidays celebrated worldwide each year, and considered the holier of the two. It honors the willingness of Ibrahim (Abraham) to sacrifice his son, as an act of obedience to God 's command. Before Abraham sacrificed his son, God provided a male goat to sacrifice instead. In commemoration of this, an animal is sacrificed and divided into three parts : one third of the share is given to the poor and needy ; another third is given to relatives, friends and neighbors ; and the remaining third is retained by the family.

['sodium']

kí ni ìtumọ̀ àjọ̀dún eid al adha

Yes

['Ọdún Iléyá (Lárúbáwá: عيد الأضحى\u200e ‘Īdu l-’Aḍḥā tabi Aïd el-Kabir) "Ọdún Ìdúpẹ́-Ọòrẹ" jẹ́ ọjọ́ ìsinmi pàtàkì nínú ẹsìn Ìsìlàámù ti àwọn Mùsùlùmí ṣe àjọyọ̀ káàkiri àgbáyé láti ṣerántí àmì kàn tí wọ́n ní ìfẹ sí tí ó ń jẹ́ Ànọ́bì Ìbùrọ̀hìmù (Abraham) (Ibrahim).']

['Ọdún Iléyá jẹ́ ọjọ́ ìsinmi pàtàkì nínú ẹsìn Ìsìlàámù ti àwọn Mùsùlùmí ṣe àjọyọ̀ káàkiri àgbáyé láti ṣerántí àmì kàn tí wọ́n ní ìfẹ sí tí ó ń jẹ́ Ànọ́bì Ìbùrọ̀hìmù.']

['P1']

?dún Iléyá ?dún Iléyá (Lárúbáwá: ‘?du l-’A??? tabi Aïd el-Kabir) "?dún Ìdúp??-?òr?" j?? ?j?? ìsinmi pàtàkì nínú ?sìn Ìsìlàámù ti àw?n Mùsùlùmí ?e àj?y?? káàkiri àgbáyé láti ?erántí àmì kàn tí w??n ní ìf? sí tí ó ? j?? Àn??bì Ìbùr??hìmù (Abrahamu) (Ibrahim).[1] Orí?irí?i àlàyé ló wà fún ?dún yìi, lára àw?n àlàyé náà ni: Ní ?dún 1991, Sheikh Dr. Abu-Abdullah Adélabú ?e àlàyé nípa ?dún Iléyá ní orí ??r?-s??r??s??r?? R??díò Abùjá wí pé ?dún Iléyá j?? àj??dún ìfi-??mí-ìm?orè-hàn, ?l??hun ní kí Ibrahim ó ?e láti fi ??mí-ìm??orè hàn èyí tí ó sí fí ?m? r?? Ishmael sílè fún ìfi ??mí-ìm??orè hàn sí ?l??run tí ó ?e àdéhùn fún pé bí oun Ibrahim bá bím? nínú ogbó pé òun yóò fí ?m? náà j??sín fún ?l??run. Nínú wàásí Sheikh náà tí í ?e ?m?-bibi oríl??-èdè Nàìjíríà gbo lórí ètò àj??dún ?dún tí ò?ì??? àgbà Mùsùlùmí Àlàájíaji Gúrúrángà ?e olóòtú àti olú-gbàl?j?? lórí ??r?-s??r??s??r?? náà wípé, fífi ?m? bíbí Ibrahim sílè kì ì ?e rírú ?b?. Sheikh Adélabú tí àw?n ?m? l??hìn r?? ? ?e ìgbéjáde ???ín isilaamu.Com láti pà?? ilé-èkó Ìsìlàámù Awqaf Africa ní Ìlú London ?é àlàyé ní èdè Yorùbá lórí ??r? Rédíò Abùjá wípé ìdánwò ní ?l??hun ?e fún Àn??bì ibrahim láti ?e Ìfi- rinl?? jíj? olúsìn-rere, olótìit??, olódodo àti olum??- oore. Onímím?? Yorùbá yíì ?e ìtumò àw?n ?s?- ??r?? nínú kúránì báyìí wípé [2]: "Òun (Ibrahim) sí s? wípé: "?l??hun mí ó! Fún mí ní ?m? rere" B???? náà síní Àwa (?l??hun ?ba-Áaso) sí fún ní ìròyìn ay?? wípé òun (Ibrahim) yì ó rí ?m?kùnrin (Ishmael) bí. Nítorí ìdí èyí, nígbà tí òun (?m? ?kunrin kékeré náà, Ishmael) dàgbà dé bí tí ó lè rìn káàkiri (fún ìjíhìn-rere) p??lú Ibrahim, òun (Ibrahim) sí wí fún wípé: Ìw? ?m? mí (Ishmael) ó! A ti fi hàn mí l'ójú rán wípé mo fí ? ?e ìdúp?? oore (ní ti fíf?ni síl?? fún ìdúp?? l'??w? ?l??hun), àbí ìw? kò rí bí nkán ti rí bí - kíni èrò tìre?! Òun (Ishmael) sí da (bàba r?? Ibrahim) lóhùn wípé: "Ìw? bàba mi ó! ?e g??g?? bí A ti ?e pa ìw? l'ás? láti ?e, Inshâ' Allâh (Ní ti Ògo-?l??hun) ìw? yì ó sí mo bí mo ti j?? nínú àw?n As-Sabirin (Àw?n Olufàradà nínú sùúrù àti òun tí ó j?m?? b???? gbogbo). L??hìn èyí, tí àw?n méjèèjì sí ti gbà fún ?l??hun w?n Allah tí w??n sì ?e ijúw??-jus?? sílè fún Ìf? ?l??hun), tí òun (Ibrahim) sí tí t?? orí ??e (Ishamel) l? síl?? (ní ààyè itébà sí iwájú); "Báyìí náà ní Àwa sí pé òun: "Ìw? Ibrahim o!" "Ìw?? (Ibrahin) tí ?e g??g?? bí A ti fi hàn ó (ní ojúran) ní òtít? àti ní òdodo! Báyìí náà sì ní Àwa ?e má ? san ??san fún (gbogbo àw?n) Múhsínùn (olù?e rere lótit? àti l'ódodo) - Sheikh Adélabú ?e ìt?ka sí ?s? ?r? ?l??hun nínú kúránì Orí 2:112)." Láì k?? ?e àníàní, ìdánwò nlá tí ó fi ojú hàn gbángba ní eléyìí j??. Nítorí ìdí èyí ní À wa fi ?e ìrópò (g??g?? bí ìràpadà) ?m? (Ishamael) tí òun (Ibrahim) náà p??lú àgùntàn kàn b??l??j?? (láti fi dípò ní ?í?e ìdúp?? òòrè láti ??d?? ?l??hun) "Báyìí náà sì ní À wa j?? kí ó wá nílé fún un (Ibrahin) ìrántí rere tí ó sì di mánìgbàgbé fun àti láàrín àw?n àr??m?d??m? tí òun b?? l??hìn Títí Láíláí. "Sàlámùn 'alaa Ibrâhim (Abrahamu) i.e. Ìk?? àti ìg?? (?l??hun) ní fún Ibrahim (Abrahamu)}[3].

عيد الأضحى Eid al-Adha "Feast of the Sacrifice" Blessings for Eid al-Adha Observed by Muslims and Druze Type Muslim holidays Significance Commemoration of Ibrahim (Abraham) 's willingness to sacrifice his son in obedience of a command from God Marks the end of the annual Hajj to Mecca Observances Eid prayers Dhabihah , sacrifice of a sheep,cow, goat, buffalo or camel Donating one-third or more of the sacrifice meat to friends and neighbors Donating one-third or more of the sacrifice meat to the poor and needy Gatherings of family and friends Meals, especially lunches and late breakfasts (brunches) Wearing best clean clothes Gift-giving Giving money/gifts to kids and homeless as a token of love Helping the poor by giving foods, money, meat and clothes in the name of zakath Begins 10 Dhu al-Hijjah Ends 12 Dhu al-Hijjah Date 10 Dhu al-Hijjah 2017 date 1 September,2 September ( Umm al-Qura ) 2018 date 21 August 2019 date 11 August Related to Hajj Eid al-Fitr Part of a series on Islamic culture Architecture Azerbaijani Indo-Islamic Moorish Moroccan Mughal Ottoman Pakistani Tatar Persian Somali Sudano-Sahelian Art Calligraphy Miniature Oriental rug Arab carpet Persian carpet Turkish carpet Dress Abaya Agal Boubou Burqa Chador Jellabiya Niqāb Salwar kameez Songkok (Peci) Taqiya Keffiyeh (Kufiya) Thawb Jilbab Hijab Holidays Ashura Arba'een al-Ghadeer Chaand Raat al-Fitr al-Adha Imamat Day New Year Isra and Mi'raj al-Qadr Mawlid Ramadan Mid-Sha'ban Literature Arabic Azerbaijani Bengali Indonesian Javanese Kashmiri Kurdish Malay Pashto Persian Punjabi Sindhi Somali South Asian Turkish Urdu Music Dastgah Ghazal Madih nabawi Maqam Mugam Nasheed Qawwali Theatre Bangsawan Jem Karagöz and Hacivat Sama Ta'zieh Islam portal v t e Eid al-Adha ( Arabic : عيد الأضحى ‎, translit. ʿīd al-aḍḥā , lit. 'Feast of the Sacrifice', [ʕiːd ælˈʔɑdˤħæː] ), also called the " Sacrifice Feast ", is the second of two Muslim holidays celebrated worldwide each year, and considered the holier of the two. It honors the willingness of Ibrahim (Abraham) to sacrifice his son, as an act of obedience to God 's command. Before Abraham sacrificed his son, God provided a male goat to sacrifice instead. In commemoration of this, an animal is sacrificed and divided into three parts: one third of the share is given to the poor and needy; another third is given to relatives, friends and neighbors; and the remaining third is retained by the family. In the Islamic lunar calendar , Eid al-Adha falls on the 10th day of Dhu al-Hijjah . In the international (Gregorian) calendar , the dates vary from year to year drifting approximately 11 days earlier each year. Eid al-Adha is the latter of the two Eid holidays, the former being Eid al-Fitr . The word "Eid" appears once in Al-Ma'ida , the fifth sura of the Quran, with the meaning "solemn festival". Like Eid al-Fitr, Eid al-Adha begins with a prayer of two rakats followed by a sermon ( khutbah ). Eid al-Adha celebrations start after the descent of the Hujjaj , the pilgrims performing the Hajj , from Mount Arafat , a hill east of Mecca . Eid sacrifice may take place until sunset on the 13th day of Dhu al-Hijjah. The days of Eid have been singled out in the Hadith as "days of remembrance" and considered the holiest days in the Islamic Calendar . The takbir (days) of Tashriq are from the Maghrib prayer of the 29th of Dhul-Qadah up to the Maghrib prayer of the 13th of Dhu al-Hijjah (thirteen days and nights). Contents [ hide ] 1 Other names 2 Origin 3 Eid prayers 3.1 Who must attend 3.2 When is it performed 3.3 The Sunnah of preparation 3.4 Rites of the Eid prayers 3.5 The l-hamdu (praise with lip) and other rites 4 Traditions and practices 5 Eid al-Adha in the Gregorian calendar 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 External links Other names [ edit ] Eid al-Adha celebrations start at the same time as the annual Hajj in Mecca . The Arabic term "sacrifice feast ", ʿīd al-aḍḥā / ʿīd ul-aḍḥā is borrowed into Indo-Aryan languages such as Urdu , Hindi , Assamese, Bengali , Gujarati , and Austronesian languages such as Malay and Indonesian (the last often spelling it as Aidil Adha or Idul Adha ). Another Arabic word for "sacrifice" is Qurbani ( Arabic : قربان ‎.) The Semitic root Q-R-B (Hebrew: ק-ר-ב ‬) means "to be close to someone/something"; other words from the root include qarov, "close", and qerovim, "relatives." The senses of root meaning "to offer" suggest that the act of offering brings one closer to the receiver of the offering (here, God). The same stem is found in Hebrew and for example in the Akkadian language noun aqribtu "act of offering." Eid al-Kabir , an Arabic term meaning "the Greater Eid" (the "Lesser Eid" being Eid al-Fitr), is used in Yemen, Syria, and North Africa (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Egypt). The term was borrowed directly into French as Aïd el-Kebir . Translations of "Big Eid" or "Greater Eid" are used in Pashto (لوی اختر Loy Axtar ), Kashmiri ( Baed Eid ), Urdu and Hindi ( Baṛī Īd ), Bengali ( বড় ঈদ Boro Id ), Tamil ( Peru Nāl , "Great Day") and Malayalam ( Bali Perunnal , "Great Day of Sacrifice"). Albanian , however, uses Bajram(i) i vogël or "the Lesser Eid" (as opposed to Bajram i Madh , the "Greater Eid", for Eid al-Fitr) as an alternative reference to Eid al-Adha. [ citation needed ] The festival is also called "Bakr-Eid" in Urdu and Hindi language ( بقر عید ‬ , baqr `īd ), stemming from the Arabic word al-Baqara meaning "The Cow", although some have attributed it to the Urdu and Hindi word bakrī , meaning "goat", because of the tradition of sacrificing a goat in South Asia on this festival. This term is also borrowed into other Indian languages, such as Tamil Bakr `Īd Peru Nāl . [ citation needed ] In Uzbekistan it is called Qurbon Hayiti (Kurban Eid). In Bangladesh this Eid is called ঈদুল আজহা(idul azha) & কুরবানির ঈদ(kurbanir id) in Bengali . Literary meaning of Kurbanir Id is the festival of Sacrifice . Idul Azha is loan word from Arabic . বকরিদ(bokrid) is sometimes called in Old Dhaka which means the festival of Goat . This word is come from Hindustani . It is called ꠛꠇꠞꠣ ꠁꠖ(boxra id) in Sylheti , which means the festival of goat too. Some names refer to the fact that the holiday occurs after the culmination of the annual Hajj . Such names are used in Malaysian and Indonesian ( Hari Raya Haji "Hajj celebration day", Lebaran Haji , Lebaran Kaji . When this was not yet an official feast in the Philippines , this was how it was called in Mindanao and other predominantly Muslim areas. When it became a legal holiday in 2009, it became officially known as Eid al-Adha. Some also reference it with local language names like Kapistahan ng Pagsasakripisyo in Tagalog . In Tamil it is called ( Hajji Peru Nāl ). [ citation needed ] It is also known as Id ul Baqarah in Egypt, Saudi Arabia and in the Middle East, as Eid è Qurbon in Iran, Kurban Bayramı ("the Holiday of Sacrifice") in Turkey, Baqarah Eid in Pakistan, Bangladesh and Trinidad, Eid el-Kebir in Morocco, Tfaska Tamoqqart in the Berber language of Jerba , Iduladha or Qurban in Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines, Qurbani Eid in Bangladesh, Bakri Idh ("Goat Eid") in parts of Pakistan and India and Tabaski or Tobaski in Senegal and West Africa (most probably borrowed from the Serer language — an ancient Serer religious festival ), Babbar Sallah in Hausa language and ciida gawraca in Somali . [ citation needed ] Eid al-Adha has had other names outside the Muslim world. The name is often simply translated into the local language, such as English Feast of the Sacrifice , German Opferfest , Dutch Offerfeest , Romanian Sărbătoarea Sacrificiului , and Hungarian Áldozati ünnep . In Spanish it is known as Fiesta del Cordero or Fiesta del Borrego (both meaning "festival of the lamb"). Origin [ edit ] Abraham, about to sacrifice his son According to Islamic tradition , the valley of Mecca (in present-day Saudi Arabia ) was a dry, rocky, and uninhabited place. God instructed Abraham to bring Hagar ( Hājar ), his Arabian (Adnan) wife, and Ishmael to Arabia from the land of Canaan . As Abraham was preparing for his return journey back to Canaan, Hagar asked him, "Did God order you to leave us here? Or are you leaving us here to die?" Abraham did not even look back. He just nodded, afraid that he would be too sad and that he would disobey God. Hagar said, "Then God will not waste us; you can go". Though Abraham had left a large quantity of food and water with Hagar and Ishmael, the supplies quickly ran out, and within a few days the two began to feel the pangs of hunger and dehydration. Hagar ran up and down between two hills, Safa and Marwa , seven times, in her desperate quest for water. Exhausted, she finally collapsed beside her baby Ishmael and prayed to God for deliverance. Miraculously, a spring of water gushed forth from the earth at the feet of baby Ishmael. Other accounts have the angel Jibra'il, striking the earth and causing the spring to flow in abundance. With this secure water supply, known as the Zamzam Well , they were not only able to provide for their own needs, but were also able to trade water with passing nomads for food and supplies. Years later, Abraham was instructed by God to return from Canaan to build a place of worship adjacent to Hagar's well (the Zamzam Well). Abraham and Ishmael constructed a stone and mortar structure – known as the Kaaba – which was to be the gathering place for all who wished to strengthen their faith in God. As the years passed, Ishmael was blessed with nubuwwah (prophethood) and gave the nomads of the desert his message of submission to God. After many centuries, Mecca became a thriving desert city and a major center for trade, thanks to its reliable water source, the Zamzam Well. One of the main trials of Abraham's life was to face the command of God to sacrifice his dearest possession, his son. The son is not named in the Quran, but Muslims believe it to be Ishmael , though it is mentioned as Isaac in the Bible . Upon hearing this command, Abraham prepared to submit to will of God . During this preparation, Shaitan (the Devil) tempted Abraham and his family by trying to dissuade them from carrying out God's commandment, and Abraham drove Satan away by throwing pebbles at him. In commemoration of their rejection of Satan, stones are thrown at symbolic pillars during the Stoning of the Devil during Hajj rites. When Abraham attempted to cut his throat, he was astonished to see that his son was unharmed and instead, he found a ram which was slaughtered. Abraham had passed the test by his willingness to carry out God's command. This story is known as the Akedah in Judaism (Binding of Isaac) and originates in the Tora , the first book of Moses ( Genesis , Ch. 22). The Quran refers to the Akedah as follows: 100 "O my Lord! Grant me a righteous (son)!" 101 So We gave him the good news of a boy ready to suffer and forbear. 102 Then, when (the son) reached (the age of) (serious) work with him, he said: "O my son! I see in vision that I offer thee in sacrifice: Now see what is thy view!" (The son) said: "O my father! Do as thou art commanded: thou will find me, if Allah so wills one practising Patience and Constancy!" 103 So when they had both submitted their wills (to Allah), and he had laid him prostrate on his forehead (for sacrifice), 104 We called out to him "O Abraham! 105 "Thou hast already fulfilled the vision!" – thus indeed do We reward those who do right. 106 For this was obviously a trial– 107 And We ransomed him with a momentous sacrifice: 108 And We left (this blessing) for him among generations (to come) in later times: 109 "Peace and salutation to Abraham!" 110 Thus indeed do We reward those who do right. 111 For he was one of our believing Servants. 112 And We gave him the good news of Isaac – a prophet – one of the Righteous. — Quran, sura 37 ( As-Saaffat ), ayat 100–112 Abraham had shown that his love for God superseded all others: that he would lay down his own life or the lives of those dearest to him in submission to God 's command. Muslims commemorate this ultimate act of sacrifice every year during Eid al-Adha. While Abraham was prepared to make an ultimate sacrifice, God ultimately prevents the sacrifice, additionally signifying that one should never sacrifice a human life, especially not in the name of God. Eid prayers [ edit ] Main article: Eid prayers Eid prayer in Badshahi Mosque Devotees offer the Eid al-Adha prayers at the mosque. Who must attend [ edit ] According to some fiqh (traditional Islamic law) (although there is some disagreement). Men should go to mosque—or an Eidgah (a field where eid prayer held)—to perform eid prayer; Salat al-Eid is Wajib according to Hanafi . Sunnah al-Mu'kkadah according to Maliki and Shafi'i jurisprudence. Women are also highly encouraged to attend, although it is not compulsory. Menstruating women do not participate in the formal prayer, but should be present to witness the goodness and the gathering of the Muslims. Residents, which excludes travellers. Those in good health. Shiite version: Eid prayers are Mustahab (recommended) according to Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani . However, they are wajib (obligatory) only in the time when the Mahdi and Jesus return. When is it performed [ edit ] The Eid al-Adha prayer is performed any time after the sun completely rises up to just before the entering of Zuhr time, on the 10th of Dhu al-Hijjah. In the event of a force majeure (e.g. natural disaster), the prayer may be delayed to the 11th of Dhu al-Hijjah and then to the 12th of Dhu al-Hijjah. The Sunnah of preparation [ edit ] In keeping with the sunnah of Muhammad , Muslims are encouraged to prepare themselves for the occasion of Eid. Below is a list of things Muslims are recommended to do in preparation for the Eid al-Adha festival: Make wudu (ablution) and offer Salat al-Fajr (the pre-sunrise prayer). Prepare for personal cleanliness—take care of details of clothing, etc. Dress up, putting on new or best clothes available. Rites of the Eid prayers [ edit ] The scholars differed concerning the ruling on Eid prayers . There are three scholarly points of view: That Eid prayer is Fard Kifaya (communal obligation). This is the view of Abu Hanifa . That it is Sunna Mu’akkada (recommended). This is the view of Malik ibn Anas and Al-Shafi‘i . That it is Wajib on all Muslim men (a duty for each Muslim and is obligatory for men); those who do not do it without an excuse are considered sinners. This is the view of Ahmad ibn Hanbal , and was also narrated from Abu Hanifa. Eid prayers must be offered in congregation. Participation of women in the prayer congregation varies from community to community. It consists of two rakats (units) with seven takbirs in the first Raka'ah and five Takbirs in the second Raka'ah. For Sunni Muslims , Salat al-Eid differs from the five daily canonical prayers in that no adhan (call to prayer) or iqama (call) is pronounced for the two Eid prayers. The salat (prayer) is then followed by the khutbah, or sermon, by the Imam . At the conclusion of the prayers and sermon, Muslims embrace and exchange greetings with one other ( Eid Mubarak ), give gifts and visit one another. Many Muslims also take this opportunity to invite their non-Muslim friends, neighbours, co-workers and classmates to their Eid festivities to better acquaint them about Islam and Muslim culture. The l-hamdu (praise with lip) and other rites [ edit ] The l-hamdu is recited from the dawn of the ninth of Dhu al-Hijjah to the thirteenth, and consists of: Allāhu akbar, Allāhu akbar الله أكبر الله أكبر lā ilāha illā-Allāh لا إله إلا الله Wallāhu akbar, Allāhu akbar والله أكبر الله أكبر walillāhi l-ḥamdu ولله الحمد Allah is the greatest, Allah is the greatest, There is no god but Allah Allah is greatest, Allah is greatest and to Allah goes all praise. Multiple variations of this recitation exist across the Muslim world. Traditions and practices [ edit ] See also: Eid cuisine and Eidi (gift) Cookies of Eid Men, women, and children are expected to dress in their finest clothing to perform Eid prayer in a large congregation in an open waqf ("stopping") field called Eidgah or mosque. Affluent Muslims who can afford it sacrifice their best halal domestic animals (usually a cow, but can also be a camel, goat, sheep, or ram depending on the region) as a symbol of Abraham's willingness to sacrifice his only son. The sacrificed animals, called aḍḥiya ( Arabic : أضحية ‎), known also by the Perso-Arabic term qurbāni , have to meet certain age and quality standards or else the animal is considered an unacceptable sacrifice. In Pakistan alone nearly ten million animals are slaughtered on Eid days costing over US$2.0 billion. The meat from the sacrificed animal is preferred to be divided into three parts. The family retains one third of the share; another third is given to relatives, friends, and neighbors; and the remaining third is given to the poor and needy. Though the division is purely optional wherein either all the meat may be kept with oneself or may be given away to poor or needy, the preferred method as per sunnah of Muhammad is dividing it in three parts. The regular charitable practices of the Muslim community are demonstrated during Eid al-Adha by concerted efforts to see that no impoverished person is left without an opportunity to partake in the sacrificial meal during these days. Hajj is also performed in Saudi Arabia before Eid ul Adha and millions of Muslims perform Hajj. On the event of Hajj lots of Muslims slaughter animals and divide a major part of the meat for poor people. During Eid al-Adha, distributing meat amongst the people, chanting the takbir out loud before the Eid prayers on the first day and after prayers throughout the four days of Eid, are considered essential parts of this important Islamic festival. In some countries, families that do not own livestock can make a contribution to a charity that will provide meat to those who are in need. Eid al-Adha in the Gregorian calendar [ edit ] See also: Islamic calendar While Eid al-Adha is always on the same day of the Islamic calendar, the date on the Gregorian calendar varies from year to year since the Islamic calendar is a lunar calendar and the Gregorian calendar is a solar calendar . The lunar calendar is approximately eleven days shorter than the solar calendar. Each year, Eid al-Adha (like other Islamic holidays) falls on one of about two to four different Gregorian dates in different parts of the world, because the boundary of crescent visibility is different from the International Date Line . The following list shows the official dates of Eid al-Adha for Saudi Arabia as announced by the Supreme Judicial Council . Future dates are estimated according to the Umm al-Qura calendar of Saudi Arabia. However, it should be noted that the Umm al-Qura is just a guide for planning purposes and not the absolute determinant or fixer of dates. Confirmations of actual dates by moon sighting are applied on the 29th day of the lunar month prior to Dhu al-Hijjah to announce the specific dates for both Hajj rituals and the subsequent Eid festival. The three days after the listed date are also part of the festival. The time before the listed date the pilgrims visit the Mount Arafat and descend from it after sunrise of the listed day. In many countries, the start of any lunar Hijri month varies based on the observation of new moon by local religious authorities, so the exact day of celebration varies by locality. Islamic year Gregorian date 1436 24 September 2015 1437 12 September 2016 1438 1 September 2017 1439 23 August 2018 (calculated) 1440 12 August 2019 (calculated) See also [ edit ] Islam portal Holidays portal Binding of Isaac Phrixus Korban Notes [ edit ] ^a The son is not named in the Quran, but most modern Muslims adhere to the view that it was Ismail (Ishmael). Sayings attributed to Muhammad and Islamic commentaries differ on whether Abraham's older son Ishmael , or his younger son, Ishaq , was asked to be sacrificed in the vision. A chain of narration from Yunnus b. Abd al-Ala attributed to Abdallah b. Abbas: "The Prophet in a conversation in which he said, 'Then we ransomed him with a tremendous victim.' And he also said, 'He is Isaac.'" The Sunni commentary Tafsir Ibn Kathir: "Ibn Jarir narrated that Ibn 'Abbas said, 'The one who was ransomed was Ismail, peace be upon him. The Jews claimed that it was Ishaq.'" References [ edit ] External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Eid ul-adha . Muttaqi, Shahid ‘Ali. "The Sacrifice of "Eid al-Adha " " . Animals in Islam .

train

map of where afghanistan is in the world

Afghanistan (/ æfˈɡænɪstæn, - ɡɑːnɪstɑːn / (listen) ; Pashto / Dari : افغانستان ‬, Pashto : Afġānistān (avɣɒnisˈtɒn, ab -), Dari : Afġānestān (avɣɒnesˈtɒn)), officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located within South Asia and Central Asia. Afghanistan is bordered by Pakistan in the south and east ; Iran in the west ; Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan in the north ; and in the far northeast, China. Its territory covers 652,000 square kilometers (252,000 sq mi) and much of it is covered by the Hindu Kush mountain range, which experience very cold winters. The north consists of fertile plains, whilst the south - west consists of deserts where temperatures can get very hot in summers. Kabul serves as the capital and its largest city.

["spain', 'portugal"]

àwòrán ayé ibi ti Afganisitani wà ní àgbáyé

Yes

['Gbogbo ilẹ̀ ibẹ̀ fẹ̀ tó 652,000 square kilometers (252,000\xa0sq\xa0mi), orílẹ̀-èdè olókè ní tó ní ilẹ̀ pẹpẹ ní apá àríwá àti gúúsù-ilàòrùn.']

['Gbogbo ilẹ̀ ibẹ̀ fẹ̀ tó 652,000 ìlópoméjì kìlómítà, orílẹ̀-èdè olókè ní tó ní ilẹ̀ pẹpẹ ní apá àríwá àti gúúsù-ilàòrùn.']

['P1']

Afghanístàn Afghanístàn ( /æf??æn?stæn,_æf????n?st??n/), àlò?i??? bíi Oríl??-èdè Olómìnira Onímàle il?? Afghanístàn, ni oríl??-èdè oníl??bodè ní Gúúsù àti Àrin Ásíà. Afghanístàn ní bodè m?? Pakistan ní ìlà-òrùn àti ní gúúsù; m?? Iran ní ìw??-òrùn; m?? Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, àti Tajikistan ní àríwá; àti m?? ?áínà ní àríwá-ìlàòrùn. Gbogbo il?? ib?? f?? tó 652,000 square kilometers (252,000 sq mi), oríl??-èdè olókè ní tó ní il?? p?p? ní apá àríwá àti gúúsù-ilàòrùn. Kabul ni olúìlú àti ilú tótóbijùl? níb??. Iye aráàlú ib?? f?? ?? p?? tó 32 mílí??nù, tí w??n j?? ??yà àw?n Pashtun, Tajik, Hazara àti Uzbek. Nínú ètò ìkànìyàn 1995, àw?n ènìyàn tí w??n s? pé ó wà ní ìlú yìí lé dí?? ní mílíònù m??kànlélógún (21,017.000). Èdè tí w??n ? s? ní ìlú yìí tó àád??ta ?ùgb??n ìlàjì nínú àw?n tí ó wà ní ìlú náà ni ó ? s? pá?ít?? tí òun àti Dárì j? j? èdè ìj?ba. Dárì yìí nì orúk? tí w??n ? pe Persian (Pásíà) ní Afuganísítàànù. Dárí yìí ?e pàtàkì gan-an ni g??g?? bí èdè tí ìj?ba ? lò. Fún ti òwò tí ó j? m? gbogbo àgbáyé, èdè G????sì ti ? gbil?? sí i. Àw?n èdè mìíràn tí w??n ? s? ní ìlú yìí ni Tadzhik, Uzbek, Turkmen, baluchi, Brachic àti pashayi

train

where is afghanistan located on the world map

Afghanistan (/ æfˈɡænɪstæn / (listen) ; Pashto / Dari : افغانستان ‎, Pashto : Afġānistān (avɣɒnisˈtɒn, abɣɒnisˈtɒn), Dari : Afġānestān (avɣɒnesˈtɒn)), officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located within South Asia and Central Asia. The country has a population of 35 million, making it the 42nd most populous country in the world. Afghanistan is bordered by Pakistan in the south and east ; Iran in the west ; Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan in the north ; and China in the far northeast - it also borders Gilgit - Baltistan in this region which is claimed by India. Its territory covers 652,000 square kilometers (252,000 sq mi), making it the 41st largest country in the world.

['the atlantic ocean', 'ekiti']

ibo ni afghanistan wà lórí àwòrán ayé

Yes

['Afghanístàn ( /æfˈɡænᵻstæn,_æfˈɡɑːnᵻstɑːn/; Pashto/Dari: افغانستان, Pashto: Afġānistān [avɣɒnisˈtɒn, ab-],[lower-alpha 1] Dari: Afġānestān Àdàkọ:IPA-fa), àlòṣiṣẹ́ bíi Orílẹ̀-èdè Olómìnira Onímàle ilẹ̀ Afghanístàn, ni is a orílẹ̀-èdè onílẹ̀bodè ní Gúúsù àti Àrin Ásíà.']

['Afghanístàn wa ni orílẹ̀-èdè onílẹ̀bodè ní Gúúsù àti Àrin Ásíà.']

['P1']

Afghanístàn Afghanístàn ( /æf??æn?stæn,_æf????n?st??n/), àlò?i??? bíi Oríl??-èdè Olómìnira Onímàle il?? Afghanístàn, ni oríl??-èdè oníl??bodè ní Gúúsù àti Àrin Ásíà. Afghanístàn ní bodè m?? Pakistan ní ìlà-òrùn àti ní gúúsù; m?? Iran ní ìw??-òrùn; m?? Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, àti Tajikistan ní àríwá; àti m?? ?áínà ní àríwá-ìlàòrùn. Gbogbo il?? ib?? f?? tó 652,000 square kilometers (252,000 sq mi), oríl??-èdè olókè ní tó ní il?? p?p? ní apá àríwá àti gúúsù-ilàòrùn. Kabul ni olúìlú àti ilú tótóbijùl? níb??. Iye aráàlú ib?? f?? ?? p?? tó 32 mílí??nù, tí w??n j?? ??yà àw?n Pashtun, Tajik, Hazara àti Uzbek. Nínú ètò ìkànìyàn 1995, àw?n ènìyàn tí w??n s? pé ó wà ní ìlú yìí lé dí?? ní mílíònù m??kànlélógún (21,017.000). Èdè tí w??n ? s? ní ìlú yìí tó àád??ta ?ùgb??n ìlàjì nínú àw?n tí ó wà ní ìlú náà ni ó ? s? pá?ít?? tí òun àti Dárì j? j? èdè ìj?ba. Dárì yìí nì orúk? tí w??n ? pe Persian (Pásíà) ní Afuganísítàànù. Dárí yìí ?e pàtàkì gan-an ni g??g?? bí èdè tí ìj?ba ? lò. Fún ti òwò tí ó j? m? gbogbo àgbáyé, èdè G????sì ti ? gbil?? sí i. Àw?n èdè mìíràn tí w??n ? s? ní ìlú yìí ni Tadzhik, Uzbek, Turkmen, baluchi, Brachic àti pashayi

train

where is malaria found in the human body

The disease is most commonly transmitted by an infected female Anopheles mosquito. The mosquito bite introduces the parasites from the mosquito 's saliva into a person 's blood. The parasites travel to the liver where they mature and reproduce. Five species of Plasmodium can infect and be spread by humans. Most deaths are caused by P. falciparum because P. vivax, P. ovale, and P. malariae generally cause a milder form of malaria. The species P. knowlesi rarely causes disease in humans. Malaria is typically diagnosed by the microscopic examination of blood using blood films, or with antigen - based rapid diagnostic tests. Methods that use the polymerase chain reaction to detect the parasite 's DNA have been developed, but are not widely used in areas where malaria is common due to their cost and complexity.

["24 october 1945', 'to promote international cooperation', 'to create and maintain international order", "24 october 1945', 'maintaining international peace and security', 'promoting human rights', 'fostering social and economic development', 'protecting the environment', 'providing humanitarian aid in cases of famine, natural disaster, and armed conflict", '24 october 1945', 'assessed and voluntary contributions from its member states', 'the united nations (un)']

ibo ni àrùn ibà wà nínú ara ènìyàn

Yes

['Ìgéjẹ yii maa ń mú àwọn kòkòrò àkóràn láti itọ́ ẹ̀fọn sínu ẹ̀jẹ̀ènìyàn. Kòkòrò àkóràn yíì yóò rìn kiri lọ inú ẹ̀dọ̀ níbi tí wọn a ti dàgbà láti pọ̀si.']

['Kòkòrò àkóràn yíì yóò rìn kiri lọ inú ẹ̀dọ̀ níbi tí wọn a ti dàgbà láti pọ̀si.']

['P2']

Ak? ibà Ak? ibà j? aarun àkoràn lati ara ??f?n tí àw?n ènìyàn àti àw?n ?ranko míìràn tí kòkòrò ?fà protozoans (irúf?? oní s????lì kan kòkòrò kékèèké) ti irúf?? kòkòrò à?òkunfà.[1] Ak? ibà maa ? fa àw?n ààmì èyí tí ó wà lára ak? ibà, ìgara, bíbì àti ??f??rí. Ní àw?n ìpò líle ó lè fa ara píp??n, ìmú lójìjì, dákú tàbí ikú.[2] Àw?n ààmì w??nyíi maa ? sábà b??r?? ní ?j?? m??wà tàbí m???dógún l??hìn ìgéj?. Ní àw?n tí a kò t??jú dáradára ààrùn tún lè j?y? ní àw?n o?ù mélòó bóyá.[1] Lára àw?n tí ó ?????? b?? l??w?? àkóràn, àtún-kóràn maa ? mú àw?n ààmì tí kò le jáde. Ti dí?? ìk??jùjàsí pòorá ní àw?n o?ù sí ?dún bí kò básí pé ibà k?luni.[2] Níw??p??, ààrùn yii maa ? múni nípa ìgéj? l??w?? aabo ??f?n tí ó ní àkóràn An?f??lísì. Ìgéj? yii maa ? mú àw?n kòkòrò àkóràn láti it?? ??f?n sínu ??j??ènìyàn.[1] Kòkòrò àkóràn yíì yóò rìn kiri l? inú ??d?? níbi tí w?n a ti dàgbà láti p??si. ??yà máàrùn Kòkòrò à?òkunfà lè ranni kí ènìyàn tán kiri.[2] ??p?? ikú ni o ? wáyé nípa P. falciparum p??lú P. vivax, P. ovale, àti P. malariae maa ? sábà fa ibà tí kò lera.[1][2] Àw?n ??yà P. knowlesi kìí sábà fa ààrùn lára àw?n ènìyàn.[1] A sábà maa ? ?àwarí ibà nípa ày??wò ??j?? nípa lílo ohun elò awo kòkòrò fíìmù ??j??, tàbí p??lú ìdálórí ántígínì- ày??wò ì?awarí kíákíá.[2] Àw?n ìlànà lílo polymerase ìtàgìjí à?okunfà láti ?àwarí kòkòrò náà DNA ti di àgbékal??, ?ùgb??n a kí sábà lò ní àw?n agbègbè tí ibà ti w??p?? nítorí ??w??n àti ipá gbòòrò líle w?n.[3] Ìjàmbá tí ààrùn ni a lè dínkù nípa díd??kun ìgéj? ??f?n nípa lílo àw??n ap??f?n àti òògùn alé kòkòrò, tàbí ìlànà ì?àkóso ??f?n bíi ìfúnka òògùn kòkòrò àti ìlànà fún adágún omi.[2] ??p?? àw?n oogùn ni ó wà ìd??kun ibà lára àw?n arinrin-àjò sí ibi tí ààrùn w??p??. Lílo oogùn l??k????kan sulfadoxine/pyrimethamine ni a gbà ním??ràn ?m?w?? ati ?aaju ìb??r?? o?ù m??ta oyún ti oyún ní àw?n àgbègbè tí ìbà w??p?? sí. Bí ìlò bá tìl?? wà, kòsí ojúlówó òògùn, bí-o-tìl??-j??pé èròngbà wà àti ?e ??kan ?l? l??w??.[1] ìgbàníyànjú ìt?jú ibà ni apàp?? òògùn a?òdì sí ibà tí ó ní artemisinin.[1][2] òògùn ìkejì léj?? bóyá mefloquine, lumefantrine, tàbí sulfadoxine/pyrimethamine.[4] Quinine p??lú doxycycline alèló bí kòbásí artemisinin.[4] A gbàníyànjú pé ní agbègbè tí ààrùn náà ti w??p??, a gb??d?? ?àwarí ibà kí a tó b??r?? ìt?jú nítorí ìp?si ìlòdìsí òògùn. Ìlòdìsi ti gboorò sí ??p?? oogùn a?òdìsí ibà; fún àp??r?, -a?odisi chloroquineP. falciparum titàn káákìri agbègbè ibà, àti a?òdìsí artemisinin ti di ì?òro ní àw?n apá ibìkan ní Gúúsù-ilà-oorùn A?ia.[1] Ààrùn náà titàn kiri ní agbègbè orùn àti agbègbè orùn dí?? àw?n ?kùn tí ó wà ní àyiká ti arín ilà aayé.[2] Èyí p??lú ??p?? ti Gúúsù Áfíríkà, ásíà , àti Latin Am??ríkà. Àj? Ìlera Àgbayé lápap?? pé ní 2012, àw?n ì??l?? 207 mílíónù ibà ni ó wáyé. Ní ?dún yì, ààrùn yí ti pa ó kééré láàrin 473,000 àti 789,000 ènìyàn, ??p?? tí ó j?? àw?n ?m?dé ní Áfíríkà.[1] Ìbà ? wáyé níbití o?ì wà ó sì ní ipa odì lórí ìdàgbà ??r?? ajé.[5][6] Ní Áfíríkà a ti wò lápap?? pé ó fa ìpàdánù $12 bílí??nù owó Am??ríkà ní ?dún kan èyí tí ó wáyé lára ìgbówó lórí ìt?jú-ìlera, àíníf?? sí i??? ?í?e àti ìpalára arìn-ajò.[7]